Group-based Differences in Perceptions of Racism: What Counts, to Whom, and Why?

Association of Exposure to Interpersonal Racism and Racial Disparities in Inadequate Sleep Risk

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between caregiver-report of their child's inadequate sleep and exposure to interpersonal racism within racially minoritized subpopulations.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted cross-sectional analysis among racially minoritized 21 924 school-aged children and 27 142 adolescents using a National Survey of Children's Health sample from 2016 through 2021. Multivariable logistic regression models were fit to estimate predicted probabilities for the adjusted associations between caregiver-report of their child's inadequate sleep and prior exposure to interpersonal racism.

RESULTS

In bivariate models, caregiver report of child exposure to interpersonal racism was significantly associated with a higher probability of inadequate sleep within non-Hispanic Asian American/Pacific Islander school-aged children, Hispanic adolescents, and non-Hispanic multiracial adolescents. After adjusting for covariates, only the association within Hispanic youth remained significant though attenuated. Unexpectedly, non-Hispanic Black school-age children exposed to racism had a lower probability of inadequate sleep than non-Hispanic Black children without exposure to racism after adjusting for covariates.

CONCLUSIONS

Nationally representative pooled data that showed caregiver-report of Hispanic adolescents' inadequate sleep was associated with their exposure to interpersonal racism, although an association with inadequate sleep was not found in other racially minoritized subpopulations. Examining within-race associations helps to assess more accurately risk and target efforts that seek to address racism-related stress among racially minoritized subpopulations.

Michael is better than Mehmet: exploring the perils of algorithmic biases and selective adherence to advice from automated decision support systems in hiring

Introduction

Artificial intelligence algorithms are increasingly adopted as decisional aides in many contexts such as human resources, often with the promise of being fast, efficient, and even capable of overcoming biases of human decision-makers. Simultaneously, this promise of objectivity and the increasing supervisory role of humans may make it more likely for existing biases in algorithms to be overlooked, as humans are prone to over-rely on such automated systems. This study therefore aims to investigate such reliance on biased algorithmic advice in a hiring context.

Method

Simulating the algorithmic pre-selection of applicants we confronted participants with biased or non-biased recommendations in a 1 × 2 between-subjects online experiment (n = 260).

Results

The findings suggest that the algorithmic bias went unnoticed for about 60% of the participants in the bias condition when explicitly asking for this. However, overall individuals relied less on biased algorithms making more changes to the algorithmic scores. Reduced reliance on the algorithms led to the increased noticing of the bias. The biased recommendations did not lower general attitudes toward algorithms but only evaluations for this specific hiring algorithm, while explicitly noticing the bias affected both. Individuals with a more negative attitude toward decision subjects were more likely to not notice the bias.

Discussion

This study extends the literature by examining the interplay of (biased) human operators and biased algorithmic decision support systems to highlight the potential negative impacts of such automation for vulnerable and disadvantaged individuals.

Does he see what she sees? The gender gap in perceptions of institutional sexism

Women are more likely than men to perceive institutional sexism. In the present study, we examined the gender gap in perceptions of a legal case in which a female plaintiff claims she was a victim of institutional gender discrimination by an employer. Participants were randomly assigned to receive information about institutional forms of sexism (or not) prior to learning the facts of the case. In addition, participants were randomly assigned to take the female plaintiff's perspective (or remain objective) while reviewing the case. In isolation, sexism awareness and perspective-taking both independently eliminated the gender gap in perceptions of discrimination. However, contrary to expectations, the gender gap reemerged among participants who were made aware of sexism prior to perspective-taking such that women perceived more discrimination than men. Implications for interventions to increase perceptions of institutional sexism are discussed.

Older adults' perceptions of ageism, discrimination, and racism

Older adults often experience different forms of discrimination, whether it be on the basis of their age, gender, race, or ethnicity (Rochon et al. 2021). Many older adults have stated they have experienced the health care system differently because of their race or ethnicity . Understanding older adults' experiences and their perceptions of ageism and racism can guide future work. This observational cross-sectional study captured community-dwelling older adults' perceptions about their experiences with ageism and racism. A few opened-ended questions were included in the cross-sectional survey. While results did not yield differences with respect to perceptions of ageism by race; there were statistically significant results in regard to perceived racism, with higher scores on the racism scales for individuals who self-identified as Black. Discussion and implications for practice, policy and research are explored.

How does the UK public think and feel about people with visual impairment: a review of existing evidence

Despite legislation to protect people with visual impairment (V.I.) from discrimination in the United Kingdom (UK), the latter continue to experience overt and covert negative behaviours. Perceived discrimination has been associated with an adverse impact on identity, health and well-being, while negative attitudes have been identified as the biggest barrier to participation in everyday life. This article provides a narrative review of existing evidence of how the UK public treats (behaviours), thinks (perceptions) and feels (attitudes) about people with V.I. Despite limitations, the findings suggest that there is a gap between the behaviours reported by people with V.I. and the attitudes expressed by members of the UK public. Social psychological theories are used to explore possible reasons for this gap, and ways in which it may be addressed. As such, the article provides an example of how social psychological theories can be used to address problems in an applied context.

Racial Differences in Discrimination, Coping Strategies, and Mental Health Among US Latinx Adolescents During COVID-19

OBJECTIVES

We explored racial differences in discrimination, perceived inequality, coping strategies, and mental health among 869 Latinx adolescents (Mage = 15.08) in the US. We then examined the moderating effects of race and perceived inequality in the associations between discrimination and coping strategies, and between discrimination and mental health.

METHOD

ANOVAs assessed group differences in the study variables based on race. Moderated regression analyses examined whether there was a 2 or 3-way interaction between race, perceived inequality, and discrimination on coping strategies and mental health as separate outcomes.

RESULTS

Black Latinx adolescents reported significantly higher rates of discrimination and perceived inequality than White and Other Race Latinx adolescents. Biracial Latinx adolescents reported higher rates of discrimination and poorer mental health than White Latinx adolescents. There was a significant 2-way interaction between discrimination and perceived inequality for engaged and disengaged coping. Discrimination was positively associated with engaged coping for low levels but not medium and high levels of perceived inequality. Discrimination was positively related to disengaged coping at medium and high levels of perceived inequality but not at low levels of perceived inequality. There was a significant 2-way interaction between discrimination and race for engaged and disengaged coping. Discrimination was negatively related to engaged coping for Black Latinx but not White Latinx adolescents. Discrimination was positively correlated to disengaged coping for Black Latinx but not Other Race Latinx adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

This research provides preliminary evidence of racial group differences among Latinx adolescents regarding various indicators of mental health, which may help inform mental health interventions and federal policy.

Conversational Silencing of Racism in Psychological Science: Toward Decolonization in Practice

This article addresses a paradox between self-perceptions of psychology as a liberal, progressive, antiracist discipline and profession and the persistent criticisms of racism and calls for decolonization. It builds on the criticisms of epistemic exclusion and White centering, arguing that White supremacy is maintained by "conversational silencing" in which the focus on doing good psychology systematically draws attention away from the realities of racism and the operation of power. The process is illustrated by investigations of disciplinary discourse around non-Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic psychology and on stereotyping, racism, and prejudice reduction, which constitute the vanguard of liberal scholarship in the discipline. This progressive scholarship nurtures "White ignorance," an absence of belief about systemic racism that psychology plays a part in upholding.

Association between subjective social status and physical frailty in older adults in India: perceived discrimination and III-treatment as mediators and moderators

BACKGROUND

While extensive research exists on physical frailty, including in low- and middle-income countries like India, studies have yet to appraise whether perceived social standing is associated with physical frailty. As such, this study examines (1) the association between subjective social status (SSS) and physical frailty among older adults in India; and (2) whether this association is mediated and moderated by perceived discrimination and experiences of III-treatment.

METHODS

Data came from the Longitudinal Aging Study in India with a sample of 31,464 older adults aged 60 and above. Physical frailty was assessed using an adapted version of the frailty phenotype developed by Fried and colleagues. SSS was assessed using the Macarthur scale. Multivariable logistic regression models along with Karlson-Holm-Breen (KHB) methodology were employed to examine the direct association, mediational pathways, and the interactions.

RESULTS

The prevalence of frailty was 30.65% and those with lowest SSS reported higher prevalence of frailty (42.06%). After adjusting for several confounders, odds of frailty were lower among persons with high SSS relative to those with low SSS, and the variance explained by the SSS was higher than that explained by household consumption quintiles. Moreover, the association between SSS and frailty was mediated and moderated by perceived discrimination and III-treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings underscore that when examining the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and physical frailty, it is important to consider SSS given that perceived social status likely reflects the less apparent psychosocial components associated with SES, and that perceived discrimination and III-treatment both mediate and moderate the association between SSS and physical frailty is critical to identifying those older Indians most susceptible to the functional health implications of lower SSS.

Enhancing or reducing interethnic hierarchies? Teacher diversity approaches and ethnic majority and minority students' ethnic attitudes and discrimination experiences

Diversity approaches in school may affect students' interethnic relations but are often only assessed through students' perceptions. We related teacher-reported diversity approaches (i.e., assimilationism, multiculturalism, color-evasion, and intervening with discrimination) to ethnic majority and minority students' ethnic attitudes as well as to their experiences or perceptions of ethnic discrimination. We also explored students' perceptions of teacher approaches as hypothetical mediators of teacher effects on interethnic relations. We coupled survey data from 547 teachers (M_age = 39.02 years, 70% female) in 64 schools in Belgium with large-scale longitudinal survey data from their students, including 1287 Belgian majority students (M_age = 15.52, 51% female) and 696 Turkish- or Moroccan-origin minority students (M_age = 15.92, 58% female) enrolled in the same schools (Phalet et al., 2018). Longitudinal multilevel models revealed that over time, teacher-reported assimilationism predicted (even) more positive attitudes towards Belgian majority members, and multiculturalism predicted less highly positive attitudes towards Belgian majority members among Belgian majority students. Teacher-reported intervening with discrimination predicted more perceived discrimination of ethnic minority students over time among Belgian majority students. We did not find significant longitudinal effects of teachers' diversity approaches with Turkish- or Moroccan-origin minority students' ethnic attitudes, nor with their discrimination experiences or perceptions. We conclude that teachers' multiculturalism and anti-discrimination approaches reduced interethnic bias and raised awareness of discrimination among ethnic majority students. However, different perceptions by teachers and students suggest the need for schools to better communicate inclusive diversity approaches.

Examination of ethnic racial identity exploration and commitment in emerging adults: Group comparisons and specific features of multiracial identity

Objective: Building on existing literature on ethnic/racial identity in emerging adulthood, we compared between-group differences for Multiracial and Monoracial participants and relevant within-group relationships for Multiracial participants. Participants: Participants were college students (n = 888; 67% women; Mage = 21.7; SD = 5.58) categorized into three groups: Monoracial White (61%), Multiracial (17%), and Monoracial Minoritized (22%). Methods: Measures included ethnic racial identity (ERI) exploration and commitment, discrimination, and features of Multiracial identity. The survey was sent through campus email and completed electronically. Results: Monoracial Minoritized participants reported higher discrimination and ERI commitment and exploration than Multiracial and Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants reported higher ERI exploration and discrimination than Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants' ERI exploration and racial conflict explained ERI commitment in regression models. Conclusions: Multiracial individuals should be researched and intervened with differentially from other racial groups, with variables specific to their unique experiences.

Sense of Purpose and Experiences of Discrimination During Older Adulthood

Abstract. Experiencing discrimination may hinder purposeful pursuits, but it remains unclear whether experiences continue to hinder sense of purpose into older adulthood. Using the Health and Retirement Study dataset from the United States ( MAge = 65.06; 17% Black, 83% White), the current study examined how everyday and major discrimination relates to sense of purpose and explored whether race and the perceived reason for discrimination moderates these relationships. Results indicate that, while both everyday and major discrimination are negatively associated with sense of purpose, only everyday discrimination remains significant when included in the same model. Additionally, race moderates these associations, whereby Black adults show less negative relationships than White adults. However, there is little evidence that perceiving discrimination as stemming from racism moderates purpose-discrimination associations.

Midwives' and Other Perinatal Health Workers' Perceptions of the Black Maternal Mortality Crisis in the United States

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to identify how perinatal health workers, especially midwives, explained US Black maternal mortality and morbidity and what ameliorative measures they suggested across categories of primary social determinants, health care access, and provider practices.

METHODS

Using a mixed closed-ended and open-ended researcher-designed exploratory survey, 227 perinatal health workers responded to a series of questions probing views of causation and strategies for improvement. The closed-ended responses were summarized. Open-ended responses were analyzed using basic categorical and thematic coding.

RESULTS

Perinatal health workers' responses prominently identified racism as a cause of Black maternal morbidity and mortality, and their recommendations ranged across levels of social determination of health.

DISCUSSION

Results suggest that the views of perinatal health workers, the majority of whom were midwives, are complex and correspond to the problems and solutions identified in the research literature. Midwives and other perinatal health workers are well positioned to help center health equity in perinatal care, through both clinical practice and policy advocacy.

Exploring the lived experience of student nurses perspective of racism within education and clinical practice: Utilising the flipped classroom

BACKGROUND

The experiential learning gained by student nurses and educators using flipped classroom principles, in conjunction with data from a subsequent study, are explored in this paper. It facilitated a deeper understanding of the 'lived experiences' of racism for Black African-Caribbean student nurses at university and within the clinical practice environment.

METHOD

The qualitative approach of 'Conversations with a purpose', using recorded focus group discussions was utilised as a pragmatic research methodology to explore perspectives of nursing students.

RESULTS

Direct and indirect racism was experienced by student nurses in both, practice, and educational environments. Common issues that arose centred on patient's refusal of care, poor support of students, discomfort or denial of staff in addressing sensitive issues, questioning of students' clinical competencies, and educators using 'otherness' (ethnicity, and related stereotypes) to emphasise limitations of certain groups of students.

DISCUSSION

The flipped classroom can be one way of creating inclusive safe spaces for discussing sensitive topics pertaining to racism, inequity, and social injustice. Nurse educators need to engage in providing awareness around these subjects, that are perceived as uncomfortable and unspoken. Without this, no significant paradigmatic shifts can be made around supporting our students in their lived experience of racism and discrimination.

Dominance motivated delusions: Whites with high social dominance orientation perceive equal amounts of institutional racism between Blacks and Whites

Whites display an asymmetry when detecting discrimination—disparate treatment from high-status groups directed toward low-status groups constitutes discrimination but not the opposite. Whites also believe they experience just as much racial discrimination as Blacks. This latter pattern could be especially true for Whites with higher social dominance orientation (SDO)—preference for intergroup dominance and inequality. Three studies (including one pilot study) investigated whether Whites with higher (vs. lower) SDO perceived examples of institutional and individual instances of racial discrimination as evidence of racism when happening to White (vs. Black) victims. Results revealed partial support for our prediction that the asymmetry in discrimination detection for Whites with higher (vs. lower) SDO would be opposite to the previously identified asymmetry, especially for examples of institutional (vs. individual) discrimination. Implications are discussed in the context of the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests and 2021 Capitol siege.

Missing perspective: Marginalized groups in the social psychological study of social disparities

Drawing on interdisciplinary, feminist insights, we encourage social psychologists to embrace the active participation of marginalized groups in social disparities research. We explain (1) how the absence of marginalized groups' perspectives in research presents a serious challenge to understanding intergroup dynamics and concomitant disparities, and (2) how their inclusion could assuage some of social psychology's "fatal flaws."

Women's Lived Experiences with Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF): How TANF Can Better Support Women's Wellbeing and Reduce Intimate Partner Violence

Women experiencing poverty are more likely to face intimate partner violence (IPV), poor health, and stigma. IPV survivors are overrepresented among those who receive Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), a conditional cash program serving families experiencing poverty. More generous TANF policies may be protective against IPV, but a greater insight into TANF's effect could be gleaned through a contemporaneous study that examines intersecting determinants of wellbeing and engages community interpretation of findings. Using an adapted Family Stress Model framework and analyzing data through an intersectional and community-based lens, we explore the impact of TANF on women's wellbeing through in-depth, semi-structured interviews during the COVID-19 pandemic with 13 women who had TANF experience in three U.S. states. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis in MAXQDA and researchers facilitated three member-checking events to enhance validity of result interpretation. Four themes emerged: (1) Low cash and conditional benefits provided limited short-term "relief" but contributed to poverty and hard choices; (2) TANF benefit levels and conditions increased women's dependence on others, straining relationships; (3) Women undertook extraordinary measures to access TANF, largely to fulfill their roles as mothers; and (4) TANF stigma creates psychological stress, differentially experienced by African Americans. Increasing TANF cash benefits and other cash transfers for those experiencing poverty, adopting solely state funded TANF programs, increasing funding for TANF administration, addressing TANF stigma and racialized narratives, and allowing optional child support participation or a larger "pass-through" of child support are important steps toward making TANF more protective against IPV.

Ignorance of History and Political Differences in Perception of Racism in the United States

According to the Marley hypothesis, White Americans are more ignorant of historical racism than Black Americans, which explains their greater tendency to deny racism in the present. We extended the Marley hypothesis by testing whether it explains political differences in perception of racism among White Americans in the United States. Two preregistered studies measured participants’ knowledge of historical racism as well as their perception of present racism in individual cases and in society ( N = 463). White Republicans had less knowledge of historical racism and perceived less individual and systemic racism than White Democrats. Consistent with the Marley hypothesis, political differences in perception of individual racism were significantly mediated by knowledge of historical racism. These findings suggest that ignorance of historical racism may partly explain why White Republicans perceive less racism than White Democrats, and therefore extend the Marley hypothesis to the political realm.

Twitter Fingers and Echo Chambers: Exploring Expressions and Experiences of Online Racism Using Twitter

Social media sites, such as Twitter, represent a growing setting in which racism and related stress may manifest. The aims of this exploratory qualitative study were to (1) understand the essence of Twitter users' lived experience with and response to content about race and racism on the platform, and (2) explore their perceptions of how discussions about race and racism on Twitter may impact health and well-being. We conducted six focus groups and four interviews with adult Twitter users (n = 27) from Berkeley, California, and Greenville, South Carolina. We managed the data with NVivo and conducted an interpretative phenomenological analysis to identify themes. Participants described Twitter content as displaying both overt and subtle expressions of racism, particularly for Black and Latinx people, and serving as an echo chamber where similar viewpoints are amplified. Participants described how Twitter users may feel emboldened to type offensive tweets based on the perception of anonymity, and that these tweets were sometimes met with community disapproval used to provide a collective calibration to restore the social norms of the online space. Participants perceived harmful mental, emotional, and physical health impacts of exposure to racist content on Twitter. Our participants responded to harmful race-related content through blocking users and following others in order to curate their Twitter feeds, actively engaging in addressing content, and reducing Twitter use. Twitter users reported witnessing racism on the platform and have found ways to protect their mental health and cope with discussions of race and racism in this social media environment.

Attributions to Discrimination Against Black Victims in a Multiracial Society: Isolating the Effect of Perpetrator Group Membership

As the United States becomes more racially and ethnically diverse, interactions between Black people and other minority groups have become increasingly common. The present research examined how a perpetrator's group membership affects judgments of employment discrimination against a Black victim. Four experiments (combined N = 1,016) tested predictions derived from the prototype model of discrimination. Participants reviewed a case file where a Black, Latino, Asian, or White manager rejected a Black job applicant. Attributions to discrimination were much stronger for a Latino, Asian, or White manager compared with a Black manager. Attributions to discrimination were slightly stronger for a White manager compared with an Asian or Latino manager; however, effect sizes for these differences were small. Attributions to discrimination were similar for the Asian and Latino managers. Whether the perpetrator had outgroup standing relative to the victim was the strongest factor influencing attributions to discrimination for a Black victim of employment discrimination.

Racial Discrimination Predicts Mental Health Outcomes Beyond the Role of Personality Traits in a Community Sample of African Americans

Despite a consistent body of work documenting associations between racial discrimination and negative mental health outcomes, the utility and validity of these findings have recently been questioned because some authors have posited that personality traits may account for these associations. To test this hypothesis in a community sample of African Americans ( n = 419, age: M = 43.96 years), we used bivariate relations and hierarchical regression analyses to determine whether racial discrimination accounted for additional variance in depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress symptoms beyond the role of personality. Bivariate relations between personality traits and racial discrimination were small and positive (i.e., rs ≈ .10). Regression results demonstrated that racial discrimination accounted for variance in depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress independent of personality traits ( ps < .01). These results suggest that personality traits do not fully explain associations between racial discrimination and negative mental health outcomes, further supporting the detrimental impact of racial discrimination on the mental health of African Americans.

The Effect of Acute Interpersonal Racial Discrimination on Smoking Motivation and Behavior Among Black Smokers: an Experimental Study

In comparison to White smokers, Black smokers are likely to report both more discrimination and less success in smoking cessation. No previous study has tested the causal relationship between an experience of racial discrimination and smoking variables associated with cessation. The goal of this study was to test the causal influence of interpersonal racial discrimination on smoking motivation (i.e., the urge to smoke cigarettes, cessation self-efficacy, and smoking behavior) using a controlled experimental design. We used a virtual ball-playing game to create a laboratory model of racial discrimination. A 2 × 2 between-subjects factorial design (inclusion/exclusion vs. ingroup/outgroup) was used to randomly assign participants to one of four groups: (1) included/ingroup, (2) included/outgroup, (3) excluded/ingroup (ostracism), and (4) excluded/outgroup (racial discrimination). Sixty-nine Black smokers were recruited from the community. Participants in the excluded conditions reported lower cessation self-efficacy than those in the included conditions. Participants in the outgroup conditions had reduced latency to smoke compared to those in the ingroup conditions. There were no main effects of social inclusion on cravings or latency to smoke and no statistically significant interactions for social inclusion × group membership. This laboratory simulation of racial discrimination shows a causal relationship between exclusion and low cessation self-efficacy, which contributes to a better understanding of influences upon smoking cessation attempts among Black smokers.

Veterans' perceptions of racial bias in VA mental healthcare and their impacts on patient engagement and patient-provider communication

OBJECTIVES

Drawing from social identity threat theory, which posits that stigmatized groups are attuned to situational cues that signal racial bias, we examined how African-American veterans evaluate verbal and non-verbal cues in their mental health encounters. We also explored how their evaluations of perceived racial bias might influence their healthcare engagement behaviors and communication.

METHODS

We interviewed 85 African-American veterans who were receiving mental health services from the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), examining their views and experiences of race in healthcare. We analyzed the data using a constructivist grounded theory approach.

RESULTS

Participants identified several identity threatening cues that include lack of racial diversity representation in healthcare settings, and perceptions of providers' fears of Black patients. We describe how participants evaluated situational cues as identity threats, and how these cues affected their engagement behaviors and healthcare communication.

CONCLUSION

Our findings revealed situational cues within clinical encounters that create for Black veterans, fear of being negatively judged based on stereotypes that have characterized African-Americans.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

We discuss the implications of these findings and provide suggestions on how to create identity safe environments for minority patients that include delivery of person-centered care, and organizational structures that reduce providers' burnout.

Identifying Moderators in the Link Between Workplace Discrimination and Health/Well-Being

The stress that arises from workplace discrimination can have a large impact on an employee's work attitude, their work and life satisfaction, and oftentimes whether or not they stay in a job. Workplace discrimination can also have a considerable influence on employees' short- and long-term health. However, less is known about the factors that might mitigate or exacerbate the effects of discrimination on health. The current study focused not only on the links between workplace discrimination and health, and but also on the effects of potential moderators of the discrimination-health link (i.e., perceived control, Big Five personality traits, optimism, and coworker/supervisor support). People with high neuroticism, high extraversion and high agreeableness were more negatively affected by workplace discrimination than those low on neuroticism, extraversion, and agreeableness. Perceived control was found to be a protective factor, such that those high in perceived control had fewer chronic illnesses in the context of high levels of workplace discrimination.

Empathy versus evidence: Does perspective-taking for a discrimination claimant bias judgments of institutional sexism?

We examined whether perspective-taking increased people’s recognition of institutional sexism in cases where evidence was in favor or against a woman’s claim. In Experiment 1, participants who took the perspective of a woman claiming institutional sexism made greater attributions to discrimination than participants who remained objective, but only if legitimate evidence of discrimination was presented. Experiment 2 replicates and extends Experiment 1 with a nonstudent, jury-eligible sample. The present research suggests perspective-taking does not bias people’s perceptions and may be an effective strategy for increasing recognition of legitimate claims of institutional sexism.

Racial Inclusion in Education: An Australian Context

Racism in various forms exists worldwide. In Australia, racism is inextricably linked to the history of Australian immigrants and early setters. Although the Australian education system has adopted inclusive education, evidence shows several incidents of racial exclusion. With the public education system experiencing an increased cultural diversity in student population, schools are required to develop inclusive education policies. While policies related to disability inclusion have been in practice for many years, only recently has there been an increasing awareness of racial inclusion. This research paper explores the importance of racial inclusion in education by examining the causes and effects of racial exclusion in the Australian education context. This paper considers existing practices at the national level and in schools to explore racial discrimination. It identifies the factors contributing towards racism and proposes a framework employing key strategies at the macro, meso and micro levels to achieve racial inclusion in education. It also suggests opportunities based on research to strengthen the response against racism.

Ignorance of History and Perceptions of Racism: Another Look at the Marley Hypothesis

Why do White Americans perceive less racism than Black Americans? Two provocative studies on the Marley hypothesis suggest that White Americans are more ignorant of historical instances of racism than Black Americans and that ignorance of history mediates racial differences in perceptions of racism. We conducted two replications of the Marley hypothesis in a different institutional and regional context than prior studies. In contrast with prior findings, the difference between White and Black Americans knowledge of historical racism was not significant in either of our replications and was dramatically smaller than that obtained in prior studies. Thus, the present research failed to replicate the mediation effect found in prior studies. We discuss potential explanations for these discrepant findings (e.g., differences in institution and region) and call for additional research examining whether the Marley hypothesis is moderated by cultural contexts.

The Psychology of Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Creative Maladjustment" at Societal Injustice and Oppression

Many theoretical frameworks in psychology are premised on the notion that people are hedonistic in nature-drawn to pleasure and avoidant of discomfort. In this essay, we argue that psychology's hedonism contrasts with Martin Luther King Jr's conception of creative maladjustment, wherein a feeling of "cosmic discontent" is focused on the ugly truth of societal injustice. After reviewing hedonistic assumptions in the psychology of coping, well-being, and views of societal inequality, we discuss MLK's conception of creative maladjustment and tie it to critical consciousness and the present-day idea of being "woke." We then use MLK's ideas as a lens on contemporary psychological research of views of societal injustice "from above" and "from below." We suggest that MLK's analysis continues to challenge psychology to develop an approach to cognition, emotion, and motivation at societal injustice that identifies the ethical value of a sustained discontent that illuminates truth and animates opposition.

Pick your perspective: Racial group membership and judgments of intent, harm, and discrimination

How do people judge the intentions of a perpetrator and the harm experienced by a victim in cases of racial discrimination? How do these judgments influence attributions to discrimination? We examined these questions in 4 studies, predicting that Whites’ and Blacks’ judgments would reflect different group-based perspectives. Supporting our hypotheses, White authors describing an arrest denied intent and ignored harm relative to Black authors (Study 1). When judging whether an event was discrimination, Whites were influenced by intent, but Blacks were influenced by intent and harm (Study 2). Finally, instructing people to take the victim’s perspective increased Whites’ judgments of intent, harm, and discrimination (Studies 3 and 4), while Blacks’ judgments generally remained the same (Study 4). Our results demonstrate one reason why Whites and Blacks judge discrimination differently—they adopt different perspectives when evaluating intent and harm—and offer a way to increase Whites’ recognition of discrimination: perspective-taking.