Polymorphism of the HLA system and weak antibody response to BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine

HLA-DQB1*05:03 is associated with an increased risk of COVID-19 progression in the Bulgarian population

The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak represents a global health problem. The different infection rates are heavily influenced by host genetic factors, such as variability in the HLA region. The aim of our study was to investigate whether certain HLA alleles in the Bulgarian population contribute to COVID-19 progression and their role in anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunity. We evaluated 76 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 and classified them according to severity as mild, moderate, and severe. Data from a population cohort (n = 539), representative of the Bulgarian population, was used for comparisons. We found that the HLA-DQB1*05:03 (OR = 3.13, pc = 0.0008) allele was significantly associated with COVID-19 severity. Several other class I and class II alleles showed a promising association with a predisposition to disease severity or a protective role in its progression. This is the first study to assess the association between HLA and COVID-19 progression in the Bulgarian population. Despite some limitations, our results suggest that certain HLA alleles play a role in the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection and it would be interesting to further trace their effect in the context of long COVID.

Association of human leucocyte antigen loci with vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia: Potential role of the interaction between platelet factor 4-derived peptides and MHC-II

No risk factors have been identified for vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) so far. The aim of this study was to identify human leucocyte antigen (HLA) alleles potentially associated with VITT susceptibility. Specific HLA class II alleles were detected with significantly higher frequency in VITT patients compared with Italian controls: DPB1*17:01, DQA1*05:01, and DRB1*11:04. In silico analysis revealed increased affinity of DRB1*11:04 for a platelet factor 4 (PF4)-derived peptide, ITSLEVIKA, that contains two amino acids present in the specific binding site of anti-PF4 antibodies from VITT patients. Our findings show for the first time a genetic predisposition to developing anti-PF4 antibodies in response to Ad-vector vaccines.

How could our genetics impact COVID-19 vaccine response?

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has posed unprecedented global health challenges since its emergence in December 2019. The rapid availability of vaccines has been estimated to save millions of lives, but there is variation in how individuals respond to vaccines, influencing their effectiveness at an individual, and population level.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on human genetic factors influencing the immune response and effectiveness of vaccines, highlighting the importance of associations across the HLA locus. Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) and other genetic association analyses have identified statistically significant associations between specific HLA alleles including HLA-DRB1*13, DBQ1*06, and A*03 impacting antibody responses and the risk of breakthrough infections post-vaccination. Relationships between these associations and potential mechanisms and links with risks of natural infection or disease are explored, and this review concludes by emphasizing how understanding the mechanisms of these genetic determinants may inform the development of tailored vaccination strategies.

EXPERT OPINION

Although complex, we believe these findings from the SARS-CoV2 pandemic offer a unique opportunity to understand the relationships between HLA and infection and vaccine response, with a goal of optimizing individual protection against COVID-19 in the ongoing pandemic, and possibly influencing wider vaccine development in the future.

Immune response stability to the SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine booster is influenced by differential splicing of HLA genes

Many molecular mechanisms that lead to the host antibody response to COVID-19 vaccines remain largely unknown. In this study, we used serum antibody detection combined with whole blood RNA-based transcriptome analysis to investigate variability in vaccine response in healthy recipients of a booster (third) dose schedule of the mRNA BNT162b2 vaccine against COVID-19. The cohort was divided into two groups: (1) low-stable individuals, with antibody concentration anti-SARS-CoV IgG S1 below 0.4 percentile at 180 days after boosting vaccination; and (2) high-stable individuals, with antibody values greater than 0.6 percentile of the range in the same period (median 9525 [185-80,000] AU/mL). Differential gene expression, expressed single nucleotide variants and insertions/deletions, differential splicing events, and allelic imbalance were explored to broaden our understanding of the immune response sustenance. Our analysis revealed a differential expression of genes with immunological functions in individuals with low antibody titers, compared to those with higher antibody titers, underscoring the fundamental importance of the innate immune response for boosting immunity. Our findings also provide new insights into the determinants of the immune response variability to the SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine booster, highlighting the significance of differential splicing regulatory mechanisms, mainly concerning HLA alleles, in delineating vaccine immunogenicity.

Strong humoral response after Covid-19 vaccination correlates with the common HLA allele A*03:01 and protection from breakthrough infection

Few data exist on the role of genetic factors involving the HLA system on response to Covid-19 vaccines. Moving from suggestions of a previous study investigating the association of some HLA alleles with humoral response to BNT162b2, we here compared the HLA allele frequencies among weak (n = 111) and strong (n = 123) responders, defined as those healthcare workers with the lowest and the highest anti-Spike antibody levels after vaccination. Individuals with clinical history of Covid-19 or positive anti-nucleocapside antibodies were excluded. We found the common HLA-A*03:01 allele as an independent predictor of strong humoral response (OR = 12.46, 95% CI: 4.41-35.21, p < 0.0001), together with younger age of vaccines (p = 0.004). Correlation between antibody levels and protection from breakthrough infection has been observed, with a 2-year cumulative incidence of 42% and 63% among strong and weak responders, respectively (p = 0.03). Due to the high frequency of HLA-A*03:01 and the need for seasonal vaccinations against SARS-CoV-2 mutants, our findings provide useful information about the inter-individual differences observed in humoral response after Covid-19 vaccine and might support further studies on the next seasonal vaccines.

Genome-wide association studies of response and side effects to the BNT162b2 vaccine in Italian healthcare workers: Increased antibody levels and side effects in carriers of the HLA-A*03:01 allele

The remarkable variability of response to vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 is apparent. The present study aims to estimate the extent to which the host genetic background contributes to this variability in terms of immune response and side effects following the administration of the BNT162b2 vaccine. We carried out a genome wide association study (GWAS) by genotyping 873 Italian healthcare workers who underwent anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccination with the BNT162b2 vaccine and for whom information about anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike antibodies titers and vaccine side effects were available. The GWAS revealed a significant association between the HLA locus and the anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike antibodies level at 2 months following the first dose of vaccine (SNP: rs1737060; p = 9.80 × 10-11 ). In particular, we observed a positive association between the antibody levels and the presence of the HLA-A*03:01 allele. The same allele was found associated with a 2-2.4-fold increased risk of experiencing specific side effects such as fever, chills and myalgia and a 1.5-1.8-fold increased risk of joint pain, nausea, fatigue, headache and asthenia, independently of age and sex. This study confirms that the heterogeneity in the immune response to the BNT162b2 vaccine and in its side effects are at least partially influenced by genetic variants. This information, integrated with individual biological and lifestyle-related correlates, could be of use in the definition of algorithms aimed at the identification of subjects in which the administration of additional vaccine doses would be particularly beneficial to maintain immunity against the virus.

Association between SARS-CoV-2 Symptoms, Ct Values, and Serological Response in Vaccinated and Unvaccinated Healthcare Personnel

BACKGROUND

SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are effective at reducing symptomatic and asymptomatic COVID-19. Limited studies have compared symptoms, threshold cycle (Ct) values from reverse transcription (RT)-PCR testing, and serological testing results between previously vaccinated vs unvaccinated populations with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

METHODS

Healthcare personnel (HCP) with a positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR test within the previous 14 to 28 days completed surveys including questions about demographics, medical conditions, social factors, and symptoms of COVID-19. Ct values were observed, and serological testing was performed for anti-nucleocapsid (anti-N) and anti-Spike (anti-S) antibodies at enrollment and 40 to 90 days later. Serological results were compared to HCP with no known SARS-CoV-2 infection and negative anti-N testing.

RESULTS

There were 104 unvaccinated/not fully vaccinated and 77 vaccinated HCP with 2 doses of an mRNA vaccine at time of infection. No differences in type or duration of symptoms were reported (P = 0.45). The median (interquartile range [IQR]) Ct was 21.4 (17.6-24.6) and 21.5 (18.1-24.6) for the unvaccinated and vaccinated HCP, respectively. Higher anti-N IgG was observed in unvaccinated HCP (5.08 S/CO, 3.08-6.92) than vaccinated (3.61 signal to cutoff ratio [S/CO], 2.16-5.05). Anti-S IgG was highest among vaccinated HCP with infection (34 285 aribitrary units [AU]/mL, 17 672-61 775), followed by vaccinated HCP with no prior infection (1452 AU/mL, 791-2943), then unvaccinated HCP with infection (829 AU/mL, 290-1555). Anti-S IgG decreased 1.56% (0.9%-1.79%) per day in unvaccinated and 0.38% (0.03%-0.94%) in vaccinated HCP.

CONCLUSIONS

Vaccinated HCP infected with SARS-CoV-2 reported comparable symptoms and had similar Ct values relative to unvaccinated. However, vaccinated HCP had increased and prolonged anti-S and decreased anti-N response relative to unvaccinated.

Genomic characterization of HLA class I and class II genes in ethnically diverse sub-Saharan African populations: A report on novel HLA alleles

HLA allelic variation has been well studied and documented in many parts of the world. However, African populations have been relatively under-represented in studies of HLA variation. We have characterized HLA variation from 489 individuals belonging to 13 ethnically diverse populations from rural communities from the African countries of Botswana, Cameroon, Ethiopia, and Tanzania, known to practice traditional subsistence lifestyles using next generation sequencing (Illumina) and long-reads from Oxford Nanopore Technologies. We identified 342 distinct alleles among the 11 HLA targeted genes: HLA-A, -B, -C, -DRB1, -DRB3, -DRB4, -DRB5, -DQA1, -DQB1, -DPA1, and -DPB1, with 140 of those alleles containing novel sequences that were submitted to the IPD-IMGT/HLA database. Sixteen of the 140 alleles contained novel content within the exonic regions of the genes, while 110 alleles contained novel intronic variants. Four alleles were found to be recombinants of already described HLA alleles and 10 alleles extended the sequence content of already described alleles. All 140 alleles include complete allelic sequence from the 5' UTR to the 3' UTR that are inclusive of all exons and introns. This report characterizes the HLA allelic variation from these individuals and describes the novel allelic variation present within these specific African populations.

Influence of the Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms rs12252 and rs34481144 in IFITM3 on the Antibody Response after Vaccination against COVID-19

The COVID-19 mRNA vaccine is the first mRNA vaccine approved for human administration by both the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency. Studies have shown that the immune response and the decay of immunity after vaccination with the COVID-19 vaccines are variable within a population. Host genetic factors probably contribute to this variability. In this study, we investigated the effect of the single-nucleotide polymorphisms rs12252 and rs34481144 in the interferon-induced transmembrane protein (IFITM) 3 gene on the humoral immune response after vaccination against COVID-19 with mRNA vaccines. Blood samples were collected from 1893 healthcare workers and medical students at multiple time points post-vaccination and antibody titers against the SARS-CoV-2 S1 protein receptor binding domain were determined at all time points. All participants were genotyped for the rs34481144 and rs12252 polymorphisms in the IFITM3 gene. After the second and third vaccinations, antibody titer levels increased at one month and decreased at six months (p < 0.0001) and were higher after the booster vaccination than after the basic immunization (p < 0.0001). Participants vaccinated with mRNA-1273 had a higher humoral immune response than participants vaccinated with BNT162b2. rs12252 had no effect on the antibody response. In contrast, carriers of the GG genotype in rs34481144 vaccinated with BNT162b2 had a lower humoral immune response compared to A allele carriers, which reached statistical significance on the day of the second vaccination (p = 0.03) and one month after the second vaccination (p = 0.04). Further studies on the influence of rs12252 and rs34481144 on the humoral immune response after vaccination against COVID-19 are needed.

Bibliometric analysis of RNA vaccines for cancer

Cancer represents a challenging medical problem worldwide. Several exploratory studies have been conducted to overcome these limitations. RNA vaccines play an important role in cancer prevention and treatment. Recent studies have shown that RNA vaccines play an important role in cancer prevention. However, there are currently no relevant bibliometric studies. This study aimed to apply bibliometrics to summarize the knowledge structure and research hotspots regarding the role of RNA vaccines in cancer. Publications related to RNA vaccines in cancer were searched on the web of science core collection (WoSCC) database. VOSviewers, CiteSpace and R package "bibliometrix" were used to conduct this bibliometric analysis. A total of 1399 articles were included, comprising 803 original articles and 596 reviews. The number of studies on RNA vaccines against cancer has been increasing annually. China and the United States were the principal countries of origin of publications. Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, NCI, and Duke University were the main organizations. Frontiers in Immunology is the leading journal in the field. Hot keywords included tumor antigens, lipid nanoparticles, emerging roles, and dendritic cells. This is the bibliometric study to summarize the research trends and development of RNA vaccines for cancer. This information will provide a reference for researchers studying RNA vaccines against cancer.

Spotlight on contributory role of host immunogenetic profiling in SARS-CoV-2 infection: Susceptibility, severity, mortality, and vaccine effectiveness

BACKGROUND

The SARS-CoV-2 virus has spread continuously worldwide, characterized by various clinical symptoms. The immune system responds to SARS-CoV-2 infection by producing Abs and secreting cytokines. Recently, numerous studies have highlighted that immunogenetic factors perform a putative role in COVID-19 pathogenesis and implicate vaccination effectiveness.

AIM

This review summarizes the relevant articles and evaluates the significance of mutation and polymorphism in immune-related genes regarding susceptibility, severity, mortality, and vaccination effectiveness of COVID-19. Furthermore, the correlation between host immunogenetic and SARS-CoV-2 reinfection is discussed.

METHOD

A comprehensive search was conducted to identify relevant articles using five databases until January 2023, which resulted in 105 total articles.

KEY FINDINGS

Taken to gather this review summarized that: (a) there is a plausible correlation between immune-related genes and COVID-19 outcomes, (b) the HLAs, cytokines, chemokines, and other immune-related genes expression profiles can be a prognostic factor in COVID-19-infected patients, and (c) polymorphisms in immune-related genes have been associated with the effectiveness of vaccination.

SIGNIFICANCE

Regarding the importance of mutation and polymorphisms in immune-related genes in COVID-19 outcomes, modulating candidate genes is expected to help clinical decisions, patient outcomes management, and innovative therapeutic approach development. In addition, the manipulation of host immunogenetics is hypothesized to induce more robust cellular and humoral immune responses, effectively increase the efficacy of vaccines, and subsequently reduce the incidence rates of reinfection-associated COVID-19.

Is HLA type a possible cancer risk modifier in Lynch syndrome?

Lynch syndrome (LS) is the most common inherited cancer syndrome. It is inherited via a monoallelic germline variant in one of the DNA mismatch repair (MMR) genes. LS carriers have a broad 30% to 80% risk of developing various malignancies, and more precise, individual risk estimations would be of high clinical value, allowing tailored cancer prevention and surveillance. Due to MMR deficiency, LS cancers are characterized by the accumulation of frameshift mutations leading to highly immunogenic frameshift peptides (FSPs). Thus, immune surveillance is proposed to inhibit the outgrowth of MMR-deficient cell clones. Recent studies have shown that immunoediting during the evolution of MMR-deficient cancers leads to a counter-selection of highly immunogenic antigens. The immunogenicity of FSPs is dependent on the antigen presentation. One crucial factor determining antigen presentation is the HLA genotype. Hence, a LS carrier's HLA genotype plays an important role in the presentation of FSP antigens to the immune system, and may influence the likelihood of progression from precancerous lesions to cancer. To address the challenge of clarifying this possibility including diverse populations with different HLA types, we have established the INDICATE initiative (Individual cancer risk by HLA type, http://indicate-lynch.org/), an international network aiming at a systematic evaluation of the HLA genotype as a possible cancer risk modifier in LS. Here we summarize the current knowledge on the role of HLA type in cancer risk and outline future research directions to delineate possible association in the scenario of LS with genetically defined risk population and highly immunogenic tumors.

HLA Variation and SARS-CoV-2 Specific Antibody Response

Differences in SARS-CoV-2-specific immune responses have been observed between individuals following natural infection or vaccination. In addition to already known factors, such as age, sex, COVID-19 severity, comorbidity, vaccination status, hybrid immunity, and duration of infection, inter-individual variations in SARS-CoV-2 immune responses may, in part, be explained by structural differences brought about by genetic variation in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules responsible for the presentation of SARS-CoV-2 antigens to T effector cells. While dendritic cells present peptides with HLA class I molecules to CD8+ T cells to induce cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses (CTLs), they present peptides with HLA class II molecules to T follicular helper cells to induce B cell differentiation followed by memory B cell and plasma cell maturation. Plasma cells then produce SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies. Here, we review published data linking HLA genetic variation or polymorphisms with differences in SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody responses. While there is evidence that heterogeneity in antibody response might be related to HLA variation, there are conflicting findings due in part to differences in study designs. We provide insight into why more research is needed in this area. Elucidating the genetic basis of variability in the SARS-CoV-2 immune response will help to optimize diagnostic tools and lead to the development of new vaccines and therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2 and other infectious diseases.

Spotlight on mycobacterial lipid exploitation using nanotechnology for diagnosis, vaccines, and treatments

Tuberculosis (TB), historically the most significant cause of human morbidity and mortality, has returned as the top infectious disease worldwide, under circumstances worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic's devastating effects on public health. Although Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causal agent, has been known of for more than a century, the development of tools to control it has been largely neglected. With the advancement of nanotechnology, the possibility of engineering tools at the nanoscale creates unique opportunities to exploit any molecular type. However, little attention has been paid to one of the major attributes of the pathogen, represented by the atypical coat and its abundant lipids. In this review, an overview of the lipids encountered in M. tuberculosis and interest in exploiting them for the development of TB control tools are presented. Then, the amalgamation of nanotechnology with mycobacterial lipids from both reported and future works are discussed.

Lynch syndrome cancer vaccines: A roadmap for the development of precision immunoprevention strategies

Hereditary cancer syndromes (HCS) account for 5~10% of all cancer diagnosis. Lynch syndrome (LS) is one of the most common HCS, caused by germline mutations in the DNA mismatch repair (MMR) genes. Even with prospective cancer surveillance, LS is associated with up to 50% lifetime risk of colorectal, endometrial, and other cancers. While significant progress has been made in the timely identification of germline pathogenic variant carriers and monitoring and early detection of precancerous lesions, cancer-risk reduction strategies are still centered around endoscopic or surgical removal of neoplastic lesions and susceptible organs. Safe and effective cancer prevention strategies are critically needed to improve the life quality and longevity of LS and other HCS carriers. The era of precision oncology driven by recent technological advances in tumor molecular profiling and a better understanding of genetic risk factors has transformed cancer prevention approaches for at-risk individuals, including LS carriers. MMR deficiency leads to the accumulation of insertion and deletion mutations in microsatellites (MS), which are particularly prone to DNA polymerase slippage during DNA replication. Mutations in coding MS give rise to frameshift peptides (FSP) that are recognized by the immune system as neoantigens. Due to clonal evolution, LS tumors share a set of recurrent and predictable FSP neoantigens in the same and in different LS patients. Cancer vaccines composed of commonly recurring FSP neoantigens selected through prediction algorithms have been clinically evaluated in LS carriers and proven safe and immunogenic. Preclinically analogous FSP vaccines have been shown to elicit FSP-directed immune responses and exert tumor-preventive efficacy in murine models of LS. While the immunopreventive efficacy of "off-the-shelf" vaccines consisting of commonly recurring FSP antigens is currently investigated in LS clinical trials, the feasibility and utility of personalized FSP vaccines with individual HLA-restricted epitopes are being explored for more precise targeting. Here, we discuss recent advances in precision cancer immunoprevention approaches, emerging enabling technologies, research gaps, and implementation barriers toward clinical translation of risk-tailored prevention strategies for LS carriers. We will also discuss the feasibility and practicality of next-generation cancer vaccines that are based on personalized immunogenic epitopes for precision cancer immunoprevention.

Host genetics impact on SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-induced immunoglobulin levels and dynamics: The role of TP53, ABO, APOE, ACE2, HLA-A, and CRP genes

Background: Development and worldwide availability of safe and effective vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) to fight severe symptoms of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and block the pandemic have been a great achievement and stimulated researchers on understanding the efficacy and duration of different vaccine types. Methods: We investigated the levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (IgG) and neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) in 195 healthy adult subjects belonging to the staff of the University-Hospital of Ferrara (Italy) starting from 15 days up to 190 days (about 6 months) after the second dose of the BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) mRNA-based vaccine (n = 128) or ChAdOx1 (AstraZeneca) adenovirus-based vaccine (n = 67) using a combined approach of serological and genomics investigations. Results: A strong correlation between IgG and NAb levels was detected during the 190 days of follow-up (r 2 = 0.807; p < 0.0001) and was confirmed during the first 90 days (T1) after vaccination (r 2 = 0.789; p = 0.0001) and 91-190 days (T2) after vaccination (r 2 = 0.764; p = 0.0001) for both vaccine types (r 2 = 0.842; p = 0.0001 and r 2 = 0.780; p = 0.0001 for mRNA- and adenovirus-based vaccine, respectively). In addition to age (p < 0.01), sex (p = 0.03), and type of vaccine (p < 0.0001), which partially accounted for the remarkable individual differences observed in the antibody levels and dynamics, interesting genetic determinants appeared as significant modifiers of both IgG and NAb responses among the selected genes investigated (TP53, rs1042522; APOE, rs7412/rs429358; ABO, rs657152; ACE2, rs2285666; HLA-A rs2571381/rs2499; CRP, rs2808635/rs876538; LZTFL1, rs35044562; OAS3, rs10735079; SLC6A20, rs11385942; CFH, rs1061170; and ACE1, ins/del, rs4646994). In detail, regression analysis and mean antibody level comparison yielded appreciable differences after genotype stratification (P1 and P2, respectively, for IgG and NAb distribution) in the whole cohort and/or in the mRNA-based vaccine in the following genes: TP53, rs1042522 (P1 = 0.03; P2 = 0.04); ABO, rs657152 (P1 = 0.01; P2 = 0.03); APOE, rs7412/rs429358 (P1 = 0.0018; P2 = 0.0002); ACE2, rs2285666 (P1 = 0.014; P2 = 0.009); HLA-A, rs2571381/rs2499 (P1 = 0.02; P2 = 0.03); and CRP, rs2808635/rs876538 (P1 = 0.01 and P2 = 0.09). Conclusion: High- or low-responsive subjects can be identified among healthy adult vaccinated subjects after targeted genetic screening. This suggests that favorable genetic backgrounds may support the progression of an effective vaccine-induced immune response, though no definite conclusions can be drawn on the real effectiveness ascribed to a specific vaccine or to the different extent of a genotype-driven humoral response. The interplay between data from the polygenic predictive markers and serological screening stratified by demogeographic information can help to recognize the individual humoral response, accounting for ethnic and geographical differences, in both COVID-19 and anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations.

GNB3 c.825c>T polymorphism influences T-cell but not antibody response following vaccination with the mRNA-1273 vaccine

Background: Immune responses following vaccination against COVID-19 with different vaccines and the waning of immunity vary within the population. Genetic host factors are likely to contribute to this variability. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study on G protein polymorphisms and vaccination responses against COVID-19 has been published so far.

Methods: Antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and T-cell responses against a peptide pool of SARS-CoV-2 S1 proteins were measured 1 and 6 months after the second vaccination with mRNA-1273 in the main study group of 204 participants. Additionally, antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein were measured in a group of 597 participants 1 month after the second vaccination with mRNA-1273. Genotypes of GNB3 c.825C>T were determined in all participants.

Results: The median antibody titer against the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and median values of spots increment in the SARS-CoV-2 IFN-γ ELISpot assay against the S1-peptide pool were significantly decreased from months 1 to 6 (p < 0.0001). Genotypes of GNB3 c.825C>T had no influence on the humoral immune response. At month 1, CC genotype carriers had significantly increased T-cell responses compared to CT (p = 0.005) or TT (p = 0.02) genotypes. CC genotype carriers had an almost 6-fold increased probability compared to TT genotype carriers and an almost 3-fold increased probability compared to T-allele carriers to mount a SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell response above the median value.

Conclusion: CC genotype carriers of the GNB3 c.825C>T polymorphism have an increased T-cell immune response to SARS-CoV-2, which may indicate better T-cell-mediated protection against COVID-19 after vaccination with mRNA-1273.

Don't blame the messenger: lessons learned for cancer mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic

mRNA vaccines have proven safe and effective in preventing serious illness and death during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this Comment, Morris and Kopetz argue that these technologies offer a novel approach towards personalizing immune-based treatments for patients with cancer with the potential for immune activation beyond commonly utilized immunotherapies.