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Lucier R, Kamileen MO, Nakamura Y, Serediuk S, Barbole R, Wurlitzer J, Kunert M, Heinicke S, O'Connor SE, Sonawane PD. Steroidal scaffold decorations in Solanum alkaloid biosynthesis. MOLECULAR PLANT 2024:S1674-2052(24)00193-X. [PMID: 38937971 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2024.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) are specialized metabolites produced by hundreds of Solanum species, including important vegetable crops such as tomato, potato, and eggplant. Although it has been known that SGAs play important roles in defense in plants and "anti-nutritional" effects (e.g., toxicity and bitterness) to humans, many of these molecules have documented anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and anti-pyretic activities. Among these, α-solasonine and α-solamargine isolated from black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) are reported to have potent anti-tumor, anti-proliferative, and anti-inflammatory activities. Notably, α-solasonine and α-solamargine, along with the core steroidal aglycone solasodine, are the most widespread SGAs produced among the Solanum plants. However, it is still unknown how plants synthesize these bioactive steroidal molecules. Through comparative metabolomic-transcriptome-guided approach, biosynthetic logic, combinatorial expression in Nicotiana benthamiana, and functional recombinant enzyme assays, here we report the discovery of 12 enzymes from S. nigrum that converts the starting cholesterol precursor to solasodine aglycone, and the downstream α-solasonine, α-solamargine, and malonyl-solamargine SGA products. We further identified six enzymes from cultivated eggplant that catalyze the production of α-solasonine, α-solamargine, and malonyl-solamargine SGAs from solasodine aglycone via glycosylation and atypical malonylation decorations. Our work provides the gene tool box and platform for engineering the production of high-value, steroidal bioactive molecules in heterologous hosts using synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalind Lucier
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Mohamed O Kamileen
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Yoko Nakamura
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany; Research Group Biosynthesis and NMR, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sofiia Serediuk
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Ranjit Barbole
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune 411008, Maharashtra, India
| | - Jens Wurlitzer
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Maritta Kunert
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sarah Heinicke
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sarah E O'Connor
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Prashant D Sonawane
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany.
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Wang H, Abe I. Recent developments in the enzymatic modifications of steroid scaffolds. Org Biomol Chem 2024; 22:3559-3583. [PMID: 38639195 DOI: 10.1039/d4ob00327f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Steroids are an important family of bioactive compounds. Steroid drugs are renowned for their multifaceted pharmacological activities and are the second-largest category in the global pharmaceutical market. Recent developments in biocatalysis and biosynthesis have led to the increased use of enzymes to enhance the selectivity, efficiency, and sustainability for diverse modifications of steroids. This review discusses the advancements achieved over the past five years in the enzymatic modifications of steroid scaffolds, focusing on enzymatic hydroxylation, reduction, dehydrogenation, cascade reactions, and other modifications for future research on the synthesis of novel steroid compounds and related drugs, and new therapeutic possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huibin Wang
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
| | - Ikuro Abe
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
- Collaborative Research Institute for Innovative Microbiology, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Liu Y, Wei C, Yoon SC, Ni X, Wang W, Liu Y, Wang D, Wang X, Guo X. Development of Multimodal Fusion Technology for Tomato Maturity Assessment. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2467. [PMID: 38676084 PMCID: PMC11054974 DOI: 10.3390/s24082467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The maturity of fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes significantly impacts indicators of their quality, such as taste, nutritional value, and shelf life, making maturity determination vital in agricultural production and the food processing industry. Tomatoes mature from the inside out, leading to an uneven ripening process inside and outside, and these situations make it very challenging to judge their maturity with the help of a single modality. In this paper, we propose a deep learning-assisted multimodal data fusion technique combining color imaging, spectroscopy, and haptic sensing for the maturity assessment of tomatoes. The method uses feature fusion to integrate feature information from images, near-infrared spectra, and haptic modalities into a unified feature set and then classifies the maturity of tomatoes through deep learning. Each modality independently extracts features, capturing the tomatoes' exterior color from color images, internal and surface spectral features linked to chemical compositions in the visible and near-infrared spectra (350 nm to 1100 nm), and physical firmness using haptic sensing. By combining preprocessed and extracted features from multiple modalities, data fusion creates a comprehensive representation of information from all three modalities using an eigenvector in an eigenspace suitable for tomato maturity assessment. Then, a fully connected neural network is constructed to process these fused data. This neural network model achieves 99.4% accuracy in tomato maturity classification, surpassing single-modal methods (color imaging: 94.2%; spectroscopy: 87.8%; haptics: 87.2%). For internal and external maturity unevenness, the classification accuracy reaches 94.4%, demonstrating effective results. A comparative analysis of performance between multimodal fusion and single-modal methods validates the stability and applicability of the multimodal fusion technique. These findings demonstrate the key benefits of multimodal fusion in terms of improving the accuracy of tomato ripening classification and provide a strong theoretical and practical basis for applying multimodal fusion technology to classify the quality and maturity of other fruits and vegetables. Utilizing deep learning (a fully connected neural network) for processing multimodal data provides a new and efficient non-destructive approach for the massive classification of agricultural and food products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Optimization Design for Modern Agricultural Equipment, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Chaojie Wei
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Optimization Design for Modern Agricultural Equipment, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Seung-Chul Yoon
- Quality & Safety Assessment Research Unit, U. S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, 950 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Xinzhi Ni
- Crop Genetics and Breeding Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, 2747 Davis Road, Tifton, GA 31793, USA
| | - Wei Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Optimization Design for Modern Agricultural Equipment, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yizhe Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Optimization Design for Modern Agricultural Equipment, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Daren Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Optimization Design for Modern Agricultural Equipment, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xiaorong Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Optimization Design for Modern Agricultural Equipment, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xiaohuan Guo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Optimization Design for Modern Agricultural Equipment, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
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Kusaka H, Nakasato S, Sano K, Kobata K, Ohno S, Doi M, Tanaka Y. An evolutionary view of vanillylamine synthase pAMT, a key enzyme of capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway in chili pepper. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 117:1453-1465. [PMID: 38117481 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Pungent capsaicinoid is synthesized only in chili pepper (Capsicum spp.). The production of vanillylamine from vanillin is a unique reaction in the capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway. Although putative aminotransferase (pAMT) has been isolated as the vanillylamine synthase gene, it is unclear how Capsicum acquired pAMT. Here, we present a phylogenetic overview of pAMT and its homologs. The Capsicum genome contained 5 homologs, including pAMT, CaGABA-T1, CaGABA-T3, and two pseudogenes. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that pAMT is a member of the Solanaceae cytoplasmic GABA-Ts. Comparative genome analysis found that multiple copies of GABA-T exist in a specific Solanaceae genomic region, and the cytoplasmic GABA-Ts other than pAMT are located in the region. The cytoplasmic GABA-T was phylogenetically close to pseudo-GABA-T harboring a plastid transit peptide (pseudo-GABA-T3). This suggested that Solanaceae cytoplasmic GABA-Ts occurred via duplication of a chloroplastic GABA-T ancestor and subsequent loss of the plastid transit signal. The cytoplasmic GABA-T may have been translocated from the specific Solanaceae genomic region during Capsicum divergence, resulting in the current pAMT locus. A recombinant protein assay demonstrated that pAMT had higher vanillylamine synthase activity than those of other plant GABA-Ts. pAMT was expressed exclusively in the placental septum of mature green fruit, whereas tomato orthologs SlGABA-T2/4 exhibit a ubiquitous expression pattern in plants. These findings suggested that both the increased catalytic efficiency and transcriptional changes in pAMT may have contributed to establish vanillylamine synthesis in the capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway. This study provides insights into the establishment of pungency in the evolution of chili peppers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Kusaka
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Saika Nakasato
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai University, Saitama, 350-0295, Japan
| | - Kaori Sano
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Josai University, Saitama, 350-0295, Japan
| | - Kenji Kobata
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai University, Saitama, 350-0295, Japan
| | - Sho Ohno
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Motoaki Doi
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Tanaka
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
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Merino I, Guasca AO, Krmela A, Arif U, Ali A, Westerberg E, Jalmi SK, Hajslova J, Schulzova V, Sitbon F. Metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses identify external conditions and key genes underlying high levels of toxic glycoalkaloids in tubers of stress-sensitive potato cultivars. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1210850. [PMID: 37860257 PMCID: PMC10582707 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1210850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Introduction High levels of toxic steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) in potato tubers constitute a recognized food quality problem. Tuber SGA levels vary between potato cultivars and can increase after post-harvest stresses such as wounding and light exposure. A few cultivars, e.g., 'Magnum Bonum' and 'Lenape,' have been withdrawn from commercial sales due to excessive SGA levels during some cultivation years. However, these sudden SGA increases are diffucult to predict, and their causes are not understood. To identify external and genetic factors that underlie sudden SGA increases in certain potato cultivars, we have here in a 2-year study investigated 'Magnum Bonum' and five additional table potato cultivars for their SGA levels after wounding and light exposure. Results and methods Results showed that 'Magnum Bonum' has an unusual strong SGA response to light exposure, but not to wounding, whereas 'Bintje' displayed an opposite regulation. Levels of calystegine alkaloids were not significantly altered by treatments, implicating independent metabolic regulation of SGA and calystegine levels also under conditions of high SGA accumulation. Metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses identified a small number of key genes whose expression correlated with SGA differences between cultivars. Overexpression of two key genes in transgenic low-SGA potato cultivars increased their leaf SGA levels significantly. Discussion The results show that a strong response to light can underlie the SGA peaks that occasionally occur in certain potato cultivars and indicate that a between-cultivar variation in the expression of single SGA key genes can account for cultivar SGA differerences. We propose that current attempts to mitigate the SGA hazard will benefit from an increased consideration of cultivar-dependent SGA responses to post-harvest conditions, particularly light exposure. The identified key SGA genes can now be used as a molecular tool in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Merino
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, and Linnean Centre for Plant Biology, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Alexandra Olarte Guasca
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, and Linnean Centre for Plant Biology, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ales Krmela
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Usman Arif
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, and Linnean Centre for Plant Biology, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ashfaq Ali
- National Bioinformatics Infrastructure Sweden (NBIS), SciLifeLab at Department of Immunotechnology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Erik Westerberg
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, and Linnean Centre for Plant Biology, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Siddhi Kashinanth Jalmi
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, and Linnean Centre for Plant Biology, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jana Hajslova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Vera Schulzova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Folke Sitbon
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, and Linnean Centre for Plant Biology, Uppsala, Sweden
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Akiyama R, Umemoto N, Mizutani M. Recent advances in steroidal glycoalkaloid biosynthesis in the genus Solanum. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY (TOKYO, JAPAN) 2023; 40:185-191. [PMID: 38293253 PMCID: PMC10824493 DOI: 10.5511/plantbiotechnology.23.0717b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) are specialized metabolites found in members of Solanum species, and are also known as toxic substances in Solanum food crops such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), and eggplant (Solanum melongena). SGA biosynthesis can be divided into two main parts: formation of steroidal aglycones, which are derived from cholesterol, and glycosylation at the C-3 hydroxy group. This review focuses on recent studies that shed light on the complete process of the aglycone formation in SGA biosynthesis and structural diversification of SGAs by duplicated dioxygenases, as well as the development of non-toxic potatoes through genome editing using these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Akiyama
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Hyogo 657-8501, Japan
| | - Naoyuki Umemoto
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Masaharu Mizutani
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Hyogo 657-8501, Japan
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Koper K, Han SW, Pastor DC, Yoshikuni Y, Maeda HA. Evolutionary Origin and Functional Diversification of Aminotransferases. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102122. [PMID: 35697072 PMCID: PMC9309667 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Aminotransferases (ATs) are pyridoxal 5′-phosphate–dependent enzymes that catalyze the transamination reactions between amino acid donor and keto acid acceptor substrates. Modern AT enzymes constitute ∼2% of all classified enzymatic activities, play central roles in nitrogen metabolism, and generate multitude of primary and secondary metabolites. ATs likely diverged into four distinct AT classes before the appearance of the last universal common ancestor and further expanded to a large and diverse enzyme family. Although the AT family underwent an extensive functional specialization, many AT enzymes retained considerable substrate promiscuity and multifunctionality because of their inherent mechanistic, structural, and functional constraints. This review summarizes the evolutionary history, diverse metabolic roles, reaction mechanisms, and structure–function relationships of the AT family enzymes, with a special emphasis on their substrate promiscuity and multifunctionality. Comprehensive characterization of AT substrate specificity is still needed to reveal their true metabolic functions in interconnecting various branches of the nitrogen metabolic network in different organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaan Koper
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Sang-Woo Han
- The US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | | | - Yasuo Yoshikuni
- The US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Global Center for Food, Land, and Water Resources, Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-8589, Japan
| | - Hiroshi A Maeda
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
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Genome-Wide Identification of CYP72A Gene Family and Expression Patterns Related to Jasmonic Acid Treatment and Steroidal Saponin Accumulation in Dioscorea zingiberensis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222010953. [PMID: 34681613 PMCID: PMC8536171 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222010953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dioscorea zingiberensis is a medicinal herb containing a large amount of steroidal saponins, which are the major bioactive compounds and the primary storage form of diosgenin. The CYP72A gene family, belonging to cytochromes P450, exerts indispensable effects on the biosynthesis of numerous bioactive compounds. In this work, a total of 25 CYP72A genes were identified in D. zingiberensis and categorized into two groups according to the homology of protein sequences. The characteristics of their phylogenetic relationship, intron–exon organization, conserved motifs and cis-regulatory elements were performed by bioinformatics methods. The transcriptome data demonstrated that expression patterns of DzCYP72As varied by tissues. Moreover, qRT-PCR results displayed diverse expression profiles of DzCYP72As under different concentrations of jasmonic acid (JA). Likewise, eight metabolites in the biosynthesis pathway of steroidal saponins (four phytosterols, diosgenin, parvifloside, protodeltonin and dioscin) exhibited different contents under different concentrations of JA, and the content of total steroidal saponin was largest at the dose of 100 μmol/L of JA. The redundant analysis showed that 12 DzCYP72As had a strong correlation with specialized metabolites. Those genes were negatively correlated with stigmasterol and cholesterol but positively correlated with six other specialized metabolites. Among all DzCYP72As evaluated, DzCYP72A6, DzCYP72A16 and DzCYP72A17 contributed the most to the variation of specialized metabolites in the biosynthesis pathway of steroidal saponins. This study provides valuable information for further research on the biological functions related to steroidal saponin biosynthesis.
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