High COX-2 expression is associated with increased angiogenesis, proliferation and tumoural inflammatory infiltrate in canine malignant mammary tumours: a multivariate survival study

Evaluation of immunophenotype and inflammation in canine mammary neoplasms with solid arrangement

Morphological and immunohistochemical studies of solid arrangement canine mammary carcinomas have shown that the different histological types may be characterized by proliferation of epithelial and/or myoepithelial cells. However, little is known about immunophenotypes and the importance of inflammation as prognostic factors in these neoplasms. The objective of the present study was to characterize the immunophenotype and degree of inflammation in the solid type of canine mammary neoplasm and to investigate their association with metastasis, Ki-67 index, tumour size, necrosis and survival. Sixty-five carcinomas with solid pattern, basaloid carcinomas, solid papillary carcinomas, malignant adenomyoepitheliomas (MAMEs) or malignant myoepitheliomas (MMEs) were investigated. Luminal A, luminal B HER2 negative and HER2 positive, HER2 overexpressed and triple negative immunophenotypes were immunolabelled as were Ki-67 protein and cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2). Histological peritumoural and intratumoural inflammatory infiltrates were graded (distribution × intensity) and the presence of necrosis identified. We found a statistical difference between histological types and immunophenotypes, with MME and MAME having a higher occurrence of luminal A, whereas most neoplasms had the luminal B HER-negative immunophenotype. There was no correlation between immunophenotype and degree of peri- and intratumoural inflammation, nodal metastasis, necrosis or tumour size. An increased degree of peri- and intratumoural inflammation was significantly associated with lymph node metastasis, and more severe intratumoural inflammation was associated with the presence of tumour necrosis. Tumour size, Ki-67 index and Cox-2 score were not associated with inflammation in either peri- or intratumoural regions. No difference was observed in survival in relation to immunophenotype or degree of inflammation, but the Cox regression model revealed that nodal metastasis influenced the risk of death.

Molecular and Pathobiology of Canine Mammary Tumour: Defining a Translational Model for Human Breast Cancer

Canine mammary tumours (CMT) have histological, clinicopathological and molecular resemblances to human breast cancer (HBC), positioning them as viable models for studying the human disease. CMT initiation and progression occur spontaneously in immune-competent animals, which challenge the suggested limitations of genetically modified mice, also enabling the evaluation of immunotherapies in canine patients. Dogs have shorter life expectancy compared to humans, and cancer advances more rapidly in this species. This makes it possible to perform studies about the clinical efficacy of new therapeutic modalities in a much shorter time than in human patients. The identification of biomarkers for tumour subtypes, progression and treatment response paves the way for the development of novel therapeutic and diagnostic approaches. This review addresses the similarities between CMT and HBC and the molecular signatures identified in CMT samples that have been explored to date. We proposed a detailed molecular exploration of the CMT stroma using state-of-the-art methods in transcriptomics and proteomics. Using CMT as an analog for HBC not only helps to understand the complexities of the disease, but also to advance comparative oncology to the next level to prove the claim of dogs as a valid translational model.

Pan-tumour analysis of COX-2 expression in dogs

Cyclooxgenase-2 (COX-2) is associated with inflammatory microenvironment and tumour progression. COX-2 expression was reported in canine tumours, and anti-COX treatment showed therapeutic effects in selected tumour types. Currently, direct comparisons between different tumour types or reports were impossible due to varying evaluation protocols. Additionally, COX-2 expression in relatively uncommon tumours were yet to be evaluated. Here, we analysed COX-2 expression across various tumour types in dogs in a consistent protocol, aiming to revisit accumulated evidence in the field and report novel candidate tumours for anti-COX therapy. COX-2 expression in 32 histological types of tumours, which consisted of 347 samples in total, was investigated using immunohistochemistry followed by the Belshaw's method scoring (range: 0-12). More than the half of the samples expressed COX-2 in mast cell tumours, transitional cell carcinoma in the urinary tract, squamous cell carcinoma, liposarcoma, and melanoma, with COX-2 median scores ranging from 1-8. On the other hand, <20% tissues expressed COX-2 in the half of tumour types investigated. Overall COX-2 positive rate was 27%. In conclusion, the results confirmed COX-2 expression in the well-known COX-2-expresing tumour types and suggested novel candidate tumours for anti-COX-2 therapy. At the same time, overall COX-2 expression was low, and inter- and intra-histology heterogeneity was apparent. This study will provide a foundation reference for future research in canine tumours.

Mammary neoplasms in female dogs: Clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic aspects

With the increase in the life expectancy of domestic animals and their increasingly affectionate relationship with their owners, it is possible to observe an increase in cases of neoplasms in these animals. Mammary neoplasia mainly affects older females who have not been castrated, due to hormonal dependence for the development of the tumour. The main form of treatment is surgery. This study aims to carry out an updated review on mammary neoplasms in female dogs covering the anatomy, physiology, prevalence, causes, diagnoses, treatments, prevention and prognosis, based on scientific articles by renowned researchers.

The role of lymph nodes and their drainage in canine mammary gland tumours: Systematic review

Mammary gland tumours are the most common neoplasms in intact bitches. Over the last decades, veterinary oncology has evolved in detecting and determining the lymph nodes to be removed in these patients for an accurate staging and prognosis, as well as to achieve better disease control and higher overall survival time. Our objective was to describe recent advances related to lymphatic drainage in bitches with mammary gland tumours, focusing on surgery, diagnosis, and prognosis. Through a systematic review using PubMed as the database, a thorough multi-step search reduced 316 studies to 30 for analysis. Vital dyes appear to be crucial in reducing the overall surgery time through transoperative staining of the lymph nodes. Imaging contrasts provide information regarding specific tumour drainage; however, there is still little evidence for their use. The axillary and superficial inguinal lymph nodes are well-established as regional lymph nodes of the cranial and caudal mammary glands. In sequence, accessory axillary, medial iliac, popliteal, and sternal lymph nodes should receive attention if they demonstrate contrast drainage, even considering that the literature has not shown a relationship between drainage and metastasis in these cases. In conclusion, recent studies have provided us with more support in regional lymph node excision regarding the TNM staging system. Studies are highly heterogeneous and method comparisons do not fit due to the non-uniformity of samples, materials, and procedures. We suggest further studies with a larger sample size, complete follow-up of patients, contrast use, and lymph node morphological and immunohistochemical analysis.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) Expression in Equine Melanocytic Tumors

Equine melanocytic tumors are common and have an unusual benign behavior with low invasiveness and metastatic rates. However, tumoral mass growth is usually a concern that can have life-threatening consequences. COX-2 is related to oncogenesis, promoting neoplastic cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the immunohistochemical expression of COX-2 in equine melanocytic tumors. Through extension and intensity of labeling, 39 melanocytomas and 38 melanomas were evaluated. Of the malignant tumors, 13.2% were negative and 63.2% presented a low COX-2 expression. Only 6 malignant tumors presented >50% of labeled cells, 18 malignant and 8 benign had an expression between 21 and 50%, 8 malignant and 3 benign tumors had an expression between 6 and 20%, 1 malignant tumor had an expression between 1 and 5%, and 5 malignant and 28 benign tumors had no expression. Malignant tumors showed higher COX-2 expression than did benign tumors, with statistically significant differences. The low levels of COX-2 may be one of the molecular reasons for the presence of expansive mass growth instead of the invasive pattern of other species, which is related to high COX-2 levels.

Firocoxib as a Potential Neoadjuvant Treatment in Canine Patients with Triple-Negative Mammary Gland Tumors

This study aimed to investigate the pro-apoptotic effects of NSAID (Previcox^®) in vitro and in vivo. Two CMT cell lines, one from the primary tumor and one from bone metastasis, were treated with firocoxib and MTT assay was performed to determine the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) value. The firocoxib IC₅₀ for the cell lines UNESP-CM5 and UNESP-MM1 were 25.21 µM and 27.41 µM, respectively. The cell lines were then treated with the respective firocoxib IC₅₀ concentrations and annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) assay was performed, to detect the induction of apoptosis in both cells (Annexin+/PI+). We conducted an in vivo study involving female dogs affected by CMT and divided them into control and treatment groups. For both groups, a biopsy was performed on day 0 (D0) and a mastectomy was performed on day 14 (D14). In the treatment group, after biopsy on D0, the patients received Previcox^® 5 mg/kg PO once a day until mastectomy was performed on D14. COX-2/caspase-3 double immunostaining was performed on samples from D0 and D14, revealing no difference in the control group. In contrast, in the treatment group Previcox^® increased the number of COX-2 positive apoptotic cells. Therefore, firocoxib can induce apoptosis in CMT cells in vitro and in vivo, and Previcox^® can be a potential neoadjuvant treatment for patients with mammary cancer.

The Novel Diagnostic Techniques and Biomarkers of Canine Mammary Tumors

Canine mammary tumors (CMTs) are considered a serious clinical problem in older bitches. Due to the high malignancy rate and poor prognosis, an early diagnosis is essential. This article is a summary of novel diagnostic techniques as well as the main biomarkers of CMTs. So far, CMTs are detected only when changes in mammary glands are clinically visible and surgical removal of the mass is the only recommended treatment. Proper diagnostics of CMT is especially important as they represent a very diverse group of tumors and therefore different treatment approaches may be required. Recently, new diagnostic options appeared, like a new cytological grading system of CMTs or B-mode ultrasound, the Doppler technique, contrast-enhanced ultrasound, and real-time elastography, which may be useful in pre-surgical evaluation. However, in order to detect malignancies before macroscopic changes are visible, evaluation of serum and tissue biomarkers should be considered. Among them, we distinguish markers of the cell cycle, proliferation, apoptosis, metastatic potential and prognosis, hormone receptors, inflammatory and more recent: metabolomic, gene expression, miRNA, and transcriptome sequencing markers. The use of a couple of the above-mentioned markers together seems to be the most useful for the early diagnosis of neoplastic diseases as well as to evaluate response to treatment, presence of tumor progression, or further prognosis. Molecular aspects of tumors seem to be crucial for proper understanding of tumorigenesis and the application of individual treatment options.

Shaping Polarization Of Tumor-Associated Macrophages In Cancer Immunotherapy

Different stimuli can polarize macrophages into two basic types, M1 and M2. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) in the tumor microenvironment (TME) are composed of heterogeneous subpopulations, which include the M1 anti-tumor and M2 pro-tumor phenotypes. TAMs predominantly play a M2-like tumor-promoting role in the TME and regulate various malignant effects, such as angiogenesis, immune suppression, and tumor metastasis; hence, TAMs have emerged as a hot topic of research in cancer therapy. This review focuses on three main aspects of TAMs. First, we summarize macrophage polarization along with the effects on the TME. Second, recent advances and challenges in cancer treatment and the role of M2-like TAMs in immune checkpoint blockade and CAR-T cell therapy are emphasized. Finally, factors, such as signaling pathways, associated with TAM polarization and potential strategies for targeting TAM repolarization to the M1 pro-inflammatory phenotype for cancer therapy are discussed.

CircRNA Expression Profiles in Canine Mammary Tumours

Numerous studies have shown that the occurrence and development of tumours are associated with the expression of circular RNAs (circRNAs). However, the expression profile and clinical significance of circRNAs in canine mammary tumours remain unclear. In this paper, we collected tissue samples from three dogs with canine mammary tumours and analysed the expression profiles of circRNAs in these samples using high-throughput sequencing technology. GO (Gene Ontology) and KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) analyses revealed 14 biological processes associated with these genes, and 11 of these genes were selected for qRT-PCR to verify their authenticity. CircRNAs have sponge adsorption to miRNAs, so we constructed a circRNA-miRNA network map using Cytoscape software. As a result, we identified a total of 14,851 circRNAs in canine mammary tumours and its adjacent normal tissues. Of these, 106 were differentially expressed (fold change ≥ 2, p ≤ 0.05), and 64 were upregulated and 42 were downregulated. The GO analysis revealed that the biological processes involved were mainly in the regulation of the secretory pathway, the regulation of neurotransmitter secretion and the positive regulation of phagocytosis. Most of these biological pathways were associated with the cGMP-PKG (cyclic guanosine monophosphate) signalling pathway, the cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) signalling pathway and the oxytocin signalling pathway. After screening, source genes closely associated with canine mammary tumours were found to include RYR2, PDE4D, ROCK2, CREB3L2 and UBA3, and associated circRNAs included chr27:26618544-26687235-, chr26:8194880-8201833+ and chr17:7960861-7967766-. In conclusion, we reveals the expression profile of circRNAs in canine mammary tumours. In addition, some circRNAs might be used as potential biomarkers for molecular diagnosis.

LncRNA Expression Profiles in Canine Mammary Tumors Identify lnc34977 as a Promoter of Proliferation, Migration and Invasion of Canine Mammary Tumor Cells

Canine mammary tumor (CMT) is the most common tumor in canines after skin tumors. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have crucial roles in human breast tumor initiation and progression, but the role of lncRNAs in canine mammary tumors is unclear. We analyzed the expression profiles of canine mammary tumors and their adjacent non-neoplastic tissue to explore abnormally expressed lncRNAs. LncRNA expression was detected by qRT–PCR. After overexpression of lnc40589 and knockdown of lnc34977 in CMT cells, CCK-8, colony formation, wound healing and Transwell assays were used to assess the proliferation, migration and invasive ability of canine mammary tumor cells. We also established a mammary tumor-bearing nude mouse model. GO analysis and KEGG pathway analysis demonstrated that the differentially expressed lncRNAs were closely related to the mammary tumor. lnc40589 was significantly upregulated and lnc34977 was significantly downregulated in CMTs. In addition, lnc40589 inhibits cell proliferation, migration and invasion, while lnc34977 promotes cell proliferation, migration and invasion. In addition, lnc34977 promotes the development of mammary tumors in animals. Taken together, our study results reveal the lncRNA expression profiles in CMTs and indicate that lnc34977 promotes the development of CMT both in cell culture and in vivo.

The Dog as a Model to Study the Tumor Microenvironment

Cancer is a complex and dynamic disease with an outcome that depends on a strict crosstalk between tumor cells and other components in tumor microenvironment, namely, tumor-infiltrating immune cells, fibroblasts, cancer stem cells, adipocytes, and endothelial cells. Within the tumor microenvironment, macrophages and T-lymphocytes appear to be key effectors during the several steps of tumor initiation and progression. Tumor cells, through the release of a plethora of signaling molecules, can induce immune tolerance, by avoiding immune surveillance, and inhibit immune cells cytotoxic functions. Furthermore, as the tumor grows, tumor microenvironment reveals a series of dysfunctional conditions that potentiate a polarization of harmful humoral Th2 and Th17, an upregulation of Treg cells, and a differentiation of macrophages into the M2 subtype, which contribute to the activation of several signaling pathways involving important tissue biomarkers (COX-2, EGFR, VEGF) implicated in cancer aggressiveness and poor clinical outcomes. In order to maintain the tumor growth, cancer cells acquire several adaptations such as neovascularization and metabolic reprogramming. An extensive intracellular production of lactate and protons is observed in tumor cells as a result of their high glycolytic metabolism. This contributes not only for the microenvironment pH alteration but also to shape the immune response that ultimately impairs immune cells capabilities and effector functions.In this chapter, the complexity of tumor microenvironment, with special focus on macrophages, T-lymphocytes, and the impact of lactate efflux, was reviewed, always trying to demonstrate the strong similarities between data from studies of humans and dogs, a widely proposed model for comparative oncology studies.

Canine mammary cancer in overweight or obese female dogs is associated with intratumoral microvessel density and macrophage counts

Obesity is a major health condition owing to its effects on chronic diseases and cancers in humans, but little information is available regarding the role of obesity in canine mammary cancer (CMC). In the present study, we performed immunohistochemistry to investigate the effect of obesity on CMC by analyzing the number of tumor-associated macrophages, intratumoral microvessel density (iMVD), and the expression of prognostic factors including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), and Ki67 in CMC specimens. These data were compared in CMC specimens from lean or ideal body weight (Group 1) versus overweight or obese (Group 2) female dogs (n = 60 for each group). Associations between obesity status and histologic characteristics, such as histologic subtype, grading, and lymphatic invasion, were also investigated. Compared with lean or ideal body weight dogs, TAM (tumor-associated macrophage) counts (P < .005) and iMVD (P < .001) were significantly higher in overweight or obese dogs. CMC specimens of dogs in the overweight or obese group also showed higher histologic grade (P < .001). In addition, although no association was found between obesity status and either COX-2 or EGFR expression, Ki67 expression was greater in CMC specimens of overweight or obese dogs (P < .005). The results of this study suggest that obesity may influence CMC development and progression, being associated with higher histologic grade, greater infiltration of TAMs, and increased tumor angiogenesis.

Metastatic feline mammary cancer: prognostic factors, outcome and comparison of different treatment modalities - a retrospective multicentre study

OBJECTIVES

Although feline mammary carcinomas (FMCs) are highly metastatic, the literature and treatment options pertaining to advanced tumours are scarce. This study aimed to investigate the clinical outcome of metastatic FMC with or without adjuvant treatment.

METHODS

The medical records of 73 cats with metastatic FMC (stage IV) were reviewed and included in this study. Metastatic disease was detected by distinct imaging techniques (radiography, ultrasound and CT) and confirmed by cytology and/or histopathology. Cats with adjuvant chemotherapy treatment (n = 34) were divided into three groups: group 1 (n = 9) cats receiving maximum tolerated dose chemotherapy; group 2 (n = 15) cats receiving metronomic chemotherapy; and group 3 (n = 10) cats treated with toceranib phosphate. The study endpoints were time to progression (TTP) and tumour-specific survival (TSS). Treatment-related toxicity was evaluated according to the Veterinary Co-operative Oncology Group's Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events version 1.1 (VCOG-CTCAE).

RESULTS

Overall mean TTP and TSS were 23 and 44 days, respectively. Cats with clinical signs at the time of diagnosis had a lower TSS (14 days) than asymptomatic cats (128 days; P <0.001). Cats with pleural effusion had a lower TSS (16 days) than cats without (P <0.001). Median TSS was 58, 75 and 63 days in groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively (P = 0.197). Toxicity was observed in 66.7%, 20% and 30% of cats in groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

To the best of our knowledge, this study includes the highest number of patients with metastatic FMC assessed. Despite the overall poor prognosis, some cats survived >6 months, indicating that adjuvant treatment may be an option to consider in metastatic disease. More studies are warranted for better understanding and management of stage IV patients.

CircRNA hsa_circ_0110102 inhibited macrophage activation and hepatocellular carcinoma progression via miR-580-5p/PPARα/CCL2 pathway

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have critical regulatory roles in tumor biology. However, their contributions in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) still remain enigmatic. The present study aimed to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the involvement of hsa_circ_0110102 in the occurrence and development of HCC. The expression level of hsa_circ_0110102 was significantly downregulated in HCC cell lines and tissues, which was associated with poor prognosis. Knockdown hsa_circ_0110102 significantly promoted cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Moreover, the interaction between hsa_circ_0110102 and miR-580-5p was predicted and verified by luciferase assay and RNA pull-down. The findings indicated that hsa_circ_0110102 functioned as a sponge for miR-580-5p. Moreover, miR-580-5p directly bound to the 3' UTR of PPARα, which decreased the production and release of C-C chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) in HCC cells. CCL2 could activate the cyclooxygenase-2/prostaglandin E2 (COX-2/PGE2) pathway in macrophage via FoxO1 in a p38 MAPK-dependent manner. Furthermore, the Δ256 mutant of FoxO1 showed no activation effect. These results concluded that hsa_circ_0110102 acted as a sponge for miR-580-5p and inhibited CCL2 secretion into tumor microenvironment by decrease the expression of PPARα in HCC cells, then inhibited the pro-inflammatory cytokine release from macrophages by regulating the COX-2/PGE2 pathway. In conclusion, hsa_circ_0110102 served as a potential prognostic predictor or therapeutic target for HCC.

The role of COX expression in the prognostication of overall survival of canine and feline cancer: A systematic review

Cyclooxygenase (COX) isoforms-1 and -2 have been extensively investigated in cancer. Although COX-2 is the isoform most studied and has been described in several malignancies associated with histologic criteria of malignancy and worse prognosis, COX-1 has also been linked to some forms of cancer. With the present review our aim was to summarize the current state of knowledge and clarify if and in which type of tumours COX-1 and/or COX-2 expression have real prognostic implications. We searched PubMed database for prognostic studies using predefined inclusion criteria in order to ascertain the prognostic value of COX-1 and COX-2 in malignant neoplasia in dogs and cats. Eighteen studies were analysed. COX-2 was shown to be a negative prognostic factor in canine and feline mammary tumours, canine mast cell tumour, canine melanoma, canine osteosarcoma and canine renal cell carcinoma. COX-1 showed a negative prognostic value in feline oral squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). We found high heterogeneity among studies regarding COX immunohistochemical evaluation methodology even in the same type of neoplasia pointing out the need for its standardization at least by tumour type. The available data support the use of COX-2 as a prognostic factor in canine (mammary carcinoma, mast cell tumour, melanoma, osteosarcoma and renal carcinoma) and feline (mammary carcinoma) cancers. For COX-1, its use is advised in feline oral SCC.

Nucleolin as a potential biomarker for canine malignant neoplasia

Human nucleolin (NCL) is a multifunctional protein that is involved in diverse pathological processes. Recent evidences have shown that NCL is markedly overexpressed on the surface of most human cancer cells when compared to normal cells, being overexpressed in several malignant cells. Based on the exposed, the purpose of this pilot study is to investigate the expression pattern of NCL in canine malignant neoplasia and control groups. NCL expression at both messenger RNA and protein levels in the subcellular fractions were respectively detected by RT-PCR and western blotting, allowing to infer the NCL positivity rate in canine neoplasia. The identity of NCL amplicons obtained by RT-PCR was confirmed by Sanger sequencing and found to correspond to Canis lupus familiaris. Using flow cytometry, the blood cells expressing NCL from canine neoplasms were also identified using several cell surface markers and their levels quantified. These results showed that NCL expressed in lymphocytes, monocytes and neutrophils in dogs with malignant neoplasia is higher (> 50%) when compared with the control group. We found an increased expression of surface and cytoplasmic NCL in canine malignant neoplasia group, while nuclear NCL is predominantly found in the control group. Overall, this study discloses and identifies for the first time the presence of NCL in canine blood.

Mechanisms of the antiangiogenic effects of aspirin in cancer

Aspirin is an old drug extracted from willow bark and is widely used for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Accumulating evidence has shown that aspirin use may significantly reduce the angiogenesis of cancer; however, the mechanism of the association between angiogenesis and aspirin is complex. Although COX-1 is widely known as a target of aspirin, several studies reveal other antiangiogenic targets of aspirin, such as angiotensin II, glucose transporter 1, heparanase, and matrix metalloproteinase. In addition, some data indicates that aspirin may produce antiangiogenic effects after acting in different cell types, such as endothelial cells, platelets, pericytes, and macrophages. In this review, we concentrate on research regarding the antiangiogenic effects of aspirin in cancer, and we discuss the molecular mechanisms of aspirin and its metabolites. Moreover, we discuss some mechanisms through which aspirin treatment may normalize existing blood vessels, including preventing the disintegration of endothelial adheres junctions and the recruitment of pericytes. We also address the antiangiogenic effects and the underlying mechanisms of aspirin derivatives, which are aimed at improving safety and efficacy.

From Conventional to Precision Therapy in Canine Mammary Cancer: A Comprehensive Review

Canine mammary tumors (CMTs) are the most common neoplasm in intact female dogs. Canine mammary cancer (CMC) represents 50% of CMTs, and besides surgery, which is the elective treatment, additional targeted and non-targeted therapies could offer benefits in terms of survival to these patients. Also, CMC is considered a good spontaneous intermediate animal model for the research of human breast cancer (HBC), and therefore, the study of new treatments for CMC is a promising field in comparative oncology. Dogs with CMC have a comparable disease, an intact immune system, and a much shorter life span, which allows the achievement of results in a relatively short time. Besides conventional chemotherapy, innovative therapies have a large niche of opportunities. In this article, a comprehensive review of the current research in adjuvant therapies for CMC is conducted to gather available information and evaluate the perspectives. Firstly, updates are provided on the clinical-pathological approach and the use of conventional therapies, to delve later into precision therapies against therapeutic targets such as hormone receptors, tyrosine kinase receptors, p53 tumor suppressor gene, cyclooxygenases, the signaling pathways involved in epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and immunotherapy in different approaches. A comparison of the different investigations on targeted therapies in HBC is also carried out. In the last years, the increasing number of basic research studies of new promising therapeutic agents on CMC cell lines and CMC mouse xenografts is outstanding. As the main conclusion of this review, the lack of effort to bring the in vitro studies into the field of applied clinical research emerges. There is a great need for well-planned large prospective randomized clinical trials in dogs with CMC to obtain valid results for both species, humans and dogs, on the use of new therapies. Following the One Health concept, human and veterinary oncology will have to join forces to take advantage of both the economic and technological resources that are invested in HBC research, together with the innumerable advantages of dogs with CMC as a spontaneous animal model.

M1 and M2 tumour-associated macrophages subsets in canine malignant mammary tumours: An immunohistochemical study

Among the innate and adaptative immune cells recruited to the tumour site, tumour associated macrophages (TAMs) are particularly abundant and by simplified classification can be classified into (M1) and (M2) TAMs. In the present study, we quantified by immunohistochemistry ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1)-positive total and CD204-positive M2-polarized TAMs in 60 canine malignant mammary tumours (CMMTs) to analyze the relationship between M1 or M2 response and the histopathologic features of examined CMMTs, the dogs' body condition score (BCS) and the progression of the neoplastic disease. The mean number of total and CD204+ TAMS were significantly higher in solid and in grade III than in grades I and II carcinomas. Moreover, the mean number of CD204-positive TAMs was significantly higher in CMMTs with lymphatic invasion and necrosis rather than CMMTs without. The presence of higher number of CD204-positive M2-polarized TAMs was associated with a worst outcome of the neoplastic disease: bitches bearing CMMTs with a prevalent M2-polarized TAM response had a median cancer-specific survival time of 449 days, while in animals with a M1-polarized TAM response the median cancer-specific survival time was 1209 days. The results of our study confirm that in CMMTs the presence of a M2-polarized TAMs response might affect the tumour development and behaviour. Finally, it strongly suggests the potential of CD204 expression as a prognostic factor.

Adjuvant doxorubicin vs metronomic cyclophosphamide and meloxicam vs surgery alone for cats with mammary carcinomas: A retrospective study of 137 cases

This study aims to evaluate the efficacy and side effects of low dose cyclophosphamide chemotherapy plus meloxicam as an adjuvant treatment, compared with high dose doxorubicin or surgery alone in cats with mammary carcinoma. Medical records of 228 female cats treated for mammary carcinoma between 2008 and 2018, were reviewed in eight veterinary institutions. Only cats with complete tumour staging and radical mastectomy were included in the study. One hundred and thirty-seven cats were divided into three treatment groups: group 1 (n = 80) cats treated with surgery, group 2 (n = 34) cats that had surgery and adjuvant treatment with doxorubicin, and group 3 (n = 23) cats with surgery and adjuvant treatment with low dose metronomic cyclophosphamide and meloxicam. The study endpoints were disease free interval (DFI) and overall survival (OS). Toxicity was evaluated according to the VCOG-CTCAE criteria. The median DFI was 270, 226 and 372 days in groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The median OS was 338 (group 1), 421 (group 2) and 430 (group 3) days. The differences between groups were not significant (DFI P = .280 and OS P = .186). Toxicity was observed in 52.9% (n = 18) of cats in group 2 and 39.1% (n = 9) of cats in group 3, with mild to moderate intensity. Differences were not significant (P = .306). In conclusion, adjuvant chemotherapy treatment did not improve survival and the overall benefit remains unproven. Randomized prospective trials are necessary to clarify the effectiveness of adjuvant chemotherapy treatment for feline mammary carcinomas.

Brazilian berry extract (Myrciaria jaboticaba): A promising therapy to minimize prostatic inflammation and oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

Brazilian berry is a fruit popularly known as "Jaboticaba," rich in bioactive compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Senescence and overweight are increasing worldwide and are considered risk factors to prostatic pathogenesis mainly due to oxidative and inflammatory processes induction. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of two increasing doses of the patented jaboticaba peel extract (PJE) on oxidative-stress and inflammation in the prostate of aging or high-fat-fed aging mice.

METHODS

PJE and/or high-fat diet (HFD) treatments started with 11-month-old mice and lasted 60 days. The levels or the immunoexpression of different inflammatory (nuclear factor κB [NFκB], CD3+, cyclooxygenase 2 [COX-2], toll-like receptor 4 [TLR4], phosphorylated signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 [pSTAT-3], tumor necrosis factor α [TNF-α], interleukin 6 [IL-6], and IL-1β) and oxidative-stress (catalase, superoxide dismutase 2 [SOD2], glutathione reductase [GSR], reduced glutathione, and glutathione peroxidase 3 [GPx3]) related molecules were analyzed by western-blotting, immunohistochemistry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays.

RESULTS

Both PJE doses reduced the levels of oxidative-stress-related molecules (GPx3, GSR, catalase), lipid peroxidation (4-hydroxynonenal), inflammatory mediators (COX-2, TNF-α, and pSTAT-3) and CD3+ T cells number, which were associated with the maintenance of the glandular morphological integrity in aging and HFD-fed-aging mice. Nevertheless, only the high PJE dose reduced the NFκB and TLR4 levels in aging mice; and SOD2, IL-6, and IL-1β levels in HFD-aging mice. Aging itself promoted an oxidative inflammation in the prostate, interfering in the levels of the different oxidative-stress, lipid peroxidation, and inflammatory mediators evaluated, in association with high incidence of prostate epithelial and stromal damages. The HFD intake intensified aging alterations, showing an unfavorable prostatic microenvironment prone to oxidative and inflammatory damages.

CONCLUSIONS

PJE exerted a dose-dependent effect controlling inflammation and oxidative-stress in aging and HFD-fed aging mice prostate. This fact contributed to prostate microenvironment balance recovery, preserving the tissue architecture of this gland. Thus, the PJE emerges as a potential therapy to prevent inflammation and oxidative stress in the prostate.

Cyclooxygenase-2 as a Biomarker with Diagnostic, Therapeutic, Prognostic, and Predictive Relevance in Small Animal Oncology

In canine and feline populations, the number of neoplasm cases continues to increase around the world. Attempts are being made in centres of research to identify new biomarkers that speed up and improve the quality of oncological diagnostics and therapy in human and animal tumour patients. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a promising biomarker with increasing relevance to human oncology, but as yet with less application in veterinary oncology. The expression of COX-2 increases significantly during pathological processes involving inflammation, pain or fever. It is also overexpressed in humans presenting various types of tumours and in selected types of tumours in animals, particularly in dogs. This article discusses the expression of COX-2 in canine and feline tumours, the importance of COX-2 as a biomarker with diagnostic, therapeutic, prognostic and predictive relevance in oncology, and the clinical significance of inhibiting COX-2 overexpression in tumours.

Know Thy Model: Charting Molecular Homology in Stromal Reprogramming Between Canine and Human Mammary Tumors

Spontaneous canine simple mammary tumors (CMTs) are often viewed as models of human breast cancer. Cancer-associated stroma (CAS) is central for initiation and progression of human cancer, and is likely to play a key role in canine tumors as well. Until recently, however, canine CAS in general, and in CMT in particular, lacked detailed characterization and it remained unclear how canine and human CAS compare. This void in knowledge regarding canine CAS and the resulting lack of unbiased cross-species analysis of molecular homologies and differences undermined the validity of the canine model for human disease. To assess stromal reprogramming in canine breast tumors, we have recently established a protocol to specifically isolate and analyze CAS and matched normal stroma from archival, formalin-fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) clinical tumor samples using laser-capture microdissection followed by next-generation RNA-sequencing. Using this approach, we have analyzed stromal reprogramming in both malignant canine mammary carcinomas (mCAs) as well as benign canine mammary adenomas in a series of studies. Our results demonstrate strong stromal reprogramming in CMTs and identify high-grade molecular homology between human and canine CAS. Here, I aim to give a short background on the value of comparative oncology in general, and spontaneous CMT in particular. This will be followed by a concise review of the current knowledge of stromal reprogramming in both malignant canine mCA and benign adenoma. Finally, I will conclude with insights on highly conserved aspects of stromal reprogramming between CMT and human breast cancer that accentuate the relevance of CAS in CMT as a model for the human disease.

Adjuvant Thalidomide and Metronomic Chemotherapy for the Treatment of Canine Malignant Mammary Gland Neoplasms

BACKGROUND/AIM

The aim of the present study was to evaluate a multimodal approach for the treatment of canine malignant mammary gland neoplasms, including surgery, chemotherapy, thalidomide, and metronomic chemotherapy (MC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty-eight female dogs were submitted to four different treatments: surgery; surgery with chemotherapy; surgery with chemotherapy and thalidomide; and surgery with chemotherapy and metronomic chemotherapy and overall survival was evaluated.

RESULTS

No statistical difference was found in the proliferative index and microvessel density of primary neoplasms and distant metastases following thalidomide treatment. Diffuse intense inflammatory infiltrate was predominant in primary tumors and diffuse moderate inflammatory infiltrate in metastatic lesions. No statistically significant difference was observed in median survival time (MST) between treatment groups when including all clinical stages (p=0.3177). However, animals diagnosed with distant metastasis treated with surgery and chemotherapy associated with thalidomide or MC presented longer MST when compared to animals treated only with surgery or surgery and chemotherapy (p<0.0001).

CONCLUSION

The proposed multimodal therapy protocols including antiangiogenic and immunomodulatory therapies demonstrated a clinical benefit for patients in advanced clinical stages.

High-fat diets promote colon orthotopic transplantation tumor metastasis in BALB/c mice

High-fat diets (HFDs) are a risk factor for colorectal cancer. The present study investigated whether HFDs increase colon cancer metastasis in BALB/c mice. A total of 40 BALB/c mice were divided into four groups, including the tumor, tumor-HFD, HFD and control groups. After 3 weeks, the tumor weights and metastases were observed. The serum levels of triglyceride, total cholesterol, lapin, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor were analyzed using ELISA. The CD34, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and angiotensin 2 (ANG2) protein and mRNA levels in tumor tissues were analyzed with immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The metastasis frequency increased in the tumor-HFD group. However, there was no difference in the mean tumor weight between the tumor-HFD and tumor groups. The serum cholesterol levels were increased in the tumor-HFD and HFD groups compared with the control group. The levels of serum IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α were increased in the tumor-HFD group compared with other groups. The CD34 protein level, and VEGF protein and mRNA levels were increased in the tumor-HFD group compared with the tumor group. No difference was identified between the ANG2 protein and mRNA levels in of the two groups. It was concluded that HFD increased the serum level of cholesterol and cytokines, and potentially induced tumor angiogenesis, promoting transplanted orthotopic colon tumor metastasis in BALB/c mice.

Bidirectional Regulation of COX-2 Expression Between Cancer Cells and Macrophages

BACKGROUND/AIM

Our aim was to investigate the crosstalk between tumor and immune cells (M2 macrophages) and its effects on cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX2) regulation in canine mammary tumors (CMT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sh1b CMT cells and human BT474 mammary or HT29 colon cancer cells were co-cultured with canine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or with macrophage-like differentiated THP1 monocytes (dTHP1). Intracellular COX2 expression by PBMCs, dTHP1 and cancer cells was evaluated by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Co-culturing of Sh1b and canine PBMCs induced COX2 overexpression in CMT cells. In turn, COX2 expression by PBMCs, mostly CD68⁺ macrophages, was attenuated by co-culture with Sh1b (p=0.0001). In accordance, co-culture with dTHP1 prompted intracellular production of COX2 in both Sh1b CMT cells and HT29 human colon cancer cells and reduced production of COX2 in BT474 human mammary cancer cells. The intracellular COX2 expression from dTHP1 decreased when treated with conditioned medium from cultured Sh1b and HT29 cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

Bidirectional COX2 regulation between cancer and monocytes/macrophages might shape a tolerogenic tumor microenvironment in CMT.

CD204-Expressing Tumor-Associated Macrophages Are Associated With Malignant, High-Grade, and Hormone Receptor-Negative Canine Mammary Gland Tumors

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are an important component of leukocyte infiltration in tumors. TAMs can be classified into M1 and M2 phenotypes. In the present study, the expression of CD204, an M2-polarized macrophage receptor, was investigated by immunohistochemistry in the area surrounding TAMs in 101 cases of canine mammary gland tumor (CMT). We examined the relationship between M2-polarized TAMs and malignancy, histological subtype, histological grade, molecular subtype, hormone receptor (HR) status, and clinical obesity indices. The mean number of CD204-positive macrophages was significantly higher in malignant CMTs than in benign CMTs ( P = .000). The number of CD204-positive macrophages differed significantly between histological grades ( P = .000) and were significantly higher in grade III than in grades I and II. Moreover, the mean number of CD204-positive macrophages was significantly higher in HR-negative malignant CMTs than in HR-positive malignant CMTs ( P = .035) and in malignant CMTs with lymphatic invasion compared to malignant CMTs without lymphatic invasion ( P = .000). These findings suggest that CD204-positive macrophages might affect the development and behavior of CMTs and highlight the potential of CD204 as a prognostic factor.

A Comparative Approach of Tumor-Associated Inflammation in Mammary Cancer between Humans and Dogs

Infiltrating cells of the immune system are widely accepted to be generic constituents of tumor microenvironment. It has been well established that the development of mammary cancer, both in humans and in dogs, is associated with alterations in numbers and functions of immune cells at the sites of tumor progression. These tumor infiltrating immune cells seem to exhibit exclusive phenotypic and functional characteristics and mammary cancer cells can take advantage of signaling molecules released by them. Cancer related inflammation has an important role in mammary carcinogenesis, contributing to the acquisition of core hallmark capabilities that allow cancer cells to survive, proliferate, and disseminate. Indeed, recent studies in human breast cancer and in canine mammary tumors have identified a growing list of signaling molecules released by inflammatory cells that serve as effectors of their tumor-promoting actions. These include the COX-2, the tumor EGF, the angiogenic VEGF, other proangiogenic factors, and a large variety of chemokines and cytokines that amplify the inflammatory state. This review describes the intertwined signaling pathways shared by T-lymphocytic/macrophage infiltrates and important tissue biomarkers in both human and dog mammary carcinogenesis.