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Brounts SH, Henry T, Lund JR, Whitton RC, Ergun DL, Muir P. Use of a novel helical fan beam imaging system for computed tomography of the head and neck in sedated standing horses: 120 cases (2019–2020). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2022; 260:1361-1368. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.21.10.0471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the diagnostic capabilities of a novel helical fan beam CT system used for imaging of horses with clinical problems of the head and neck.
ANIMALS
120 horses.
PROCEDURES
Medical records were reviewed of horses presented for CT of the head or neck at 2 university hospitals. The following data were recorded: age, sex, breed, presenting complaint, sedation used for imaging, scanning time, procedure time, other diagnostic imaging methods performed, imaging diagnosis, clinical diagnosis, and complications during imaging.
RESULTS
Quarter Horses and Warmbloods were the most common breeds, and the most common complaint was nasal discharge. The head (101/120 [84%] horses) was scanned most frequently, and the most common diagnoses were primary dental disease and a space-occupying lesion of the paranasal sinuses. Nuchal bursitis was the most common imaging diagnosis in the neck region. Procedure time ranged from 20 to 45 minutes with a scanning time of 30 to 40 seconds. No complications with horse sedation occurred, and horses tolerated scanning well. An imaging diagnosis was more frequently achieved with CT (109/120 [91%] horses) than with planar digital radiography (23/61 [38%] horses).
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
The helical fan beam CT system had fast scanning times and could be used safely for routine imaging of the teeth and sinuses in horses. The caudal extent of scanning in the neck region was limited by the shape of the horse’s neck and thorax.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina H. Brounts
- Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | | | - Jane R. Lund
- Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - R. Chris Whitton
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Australia
| | - David L. Ergun
- Department of Medical Physics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
- Asto CT Inc, Middleton, WI
| | - Peter Muir
- Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
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2
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Stieger-Vanegas SM, Hanna AL. The Role of Computed Tomography in Imaging Non-neurologic Disorders of the Head in Equine Patients. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:798216. [PMID: 35321060 PMCID: PMC8936190 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.798216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Computed tomography (CT) imaging of the head in equine patients is now commonly performed as CT scanners are more readily available. Head CT has proven valuable in evaluating spatially complex anatomic structures, where radiographic superimposition, or restricted access via endoscopy or ultrasound, limit complete evaluation of the disease process. Head CT has been demonstrated to be incredibly valuable in the evaluation of dental and paranasal sinus disease, disease of the hyoid apparatus and ear, and in evaluation of skull trauma. CT is an excellent modality for assessment of both osseous and soft tissue structures; however, evaluation of complex vascular anatomy and determination of tissue viability is limited without the use of contrast agents. Therefore, various contrast agent protocols including intravenous and intraarterial iodinated contrast administration techniques have been established. CT also has limitations in the evaluation of brain and spinal cord disease, for which magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has major advantages. Head CT images are most commonly evaluated in transverse planes. However, standard multiplanar reconstructions of the head including dorsal and parasagittal planes improve the understanding of spatially complex disease processes. These reconstructions can be crucial for accurate identification of diseased teeth and determination of the extent and severity of osseous and paranasal sinus disease. Head CT examinations are becoming an increasingly important diagnostic tool in the evaluation of horses with head disorders, and CT imaging findings are an important aspect in the clinical decision-making process. The following review discusses the indications, benefits, and technical considerations for the use of computed tomography (CT) in evaluating non-neurologic head pathologies in equine patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne M. Stieger-Vanegas
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
- *Correspondence: Susanne M. Stieger-Vanegas
| | - Ashley L. Hanna
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
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3
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Epperly E, Whitty JA. Equine Imaging: Computed Tomography Interpretation. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2020; 36:527-543. [PMID: 33067100 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2020.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Computed tomography (CT) has revolutionized the veterinarian's ability to image the equine skull and led to improved diagnostic accuracy and clarity for surgical planning. The increased cost for this evaluation is offset by more accurate diagnosis and targeted therapy. As novel technology is developed that allows for increased availability of equine head, the price will continue to decrease and more examinations will be performed. New skills are needed for the veterinarian to accurately interpret this modality. This article reviews the normal CT appearance of the equine skull and presents examples and key features of several common diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Epperly
- Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, 930 Campus Road, Box 25, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Justin A Whitty
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, 930 Campus Road, Box 25, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Ostrowska J, Lindström L, Tóth T, Hansson K, Uhlhorn M, Ley CJ. Computed tomography characteristics of equine paranasal sinus cysts. Equine Vet J 2020; 52:538-546. [PMID: 31793020 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Computed tomography (CT) is commonly used to investigate equine paranasal sinus disease, however, only limited information is available in the literature about the detailed CT appearance of equine paranasal sinus cysts. OBJECTIVES To investigate if paranasal sinus cysts have specific characteristics in CT images that allow differentiation from other sinus diseases. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective observational study. METHODS Evaluation and comparison of CT studies of eight horses with surgically and/or histopathologically confirmed paranasal sinus cysts and 10 horses with other confirmed paranasal sinus diseases. RESULTS A discrete hyperattenuating wall-like structure was detected in the periphery of the sinus lesion in precontrast acquisition in 7/8 horses with paranasal sinus cysts. A similar wall-like structure was detected in 3/10 horses with other sinus diseases, however, in contrast to horses with paranasal sinus cysts, two of these also had hyperattenuating regions within the contents of the sinus lesion. Bone destruction and formation affecting cancellous and cortical bone and dental disease were frequent in horses with paranasal sinus cysts. No significant difference in attenuation values was found when the fluid/soft tissue attenuation contents of lesions in horses with paranasal sinus cysts (mean 28.9 ± SD 9.2 HU) were compared with other sinus diseases when ethmoid haematomas were excluded (30.4 ± 12.9 HU, P = .8). MAIN LIMITATIONS Low number of cases. CONCLUSIONS Detection of a hyperattenuating cystic wall is a helpful feature for identifying paranasal sinus cysts in CT images of horses. In contrast, measurement of attenuation values of the soft tissue/fluid contents of the sinus lesions was not helpful in identifying paranasal sinus cysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Ostrowska
- University Animal Hospital, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lisa Lindström
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Tamás Tóth
- University Animal Hospital, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Kerstin Hansson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Margareta Uhlhorn
- University Animal Hospital, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Charles J Ley
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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Blohm KO, Tichy A, Nell B. Clinical utility, dose determination, and safety of ocular contrast-enhanced ultrasonography in horses: A pilot study. Vet Ophthalmol 2019; 23:331-340. [PMID: 31799804 PMCID: PMC7155076 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Objective To determine efficacy of contrast‐enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS) using different sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) doses to assess blood flow and perfusion in equine eyes and to evaluate safety of SF6 in horses. Procedures Ocular B‐mode and contrast‐enhanced ultrasonography were performed bilaterally in nine sedated university‐owned horses. Intravenous SonoVue® bolus injections of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 mL were administered for 2/18, 5/18, 6/18, 3/18, 1/18, and 1/18 eyes, respectively. Doses were increased based on ascending bodyweight. Each eye within one horse was examined utilizing a different dose. Qualitative blood flow and quantitative perfusion were analyzed. Heart and respiratory rates were monitored nonsedated, sedated, and during first and second minutes of CEUS. Results Qualitative contrast enhancement (CE) was visible in 7/9 animals. Quantitative CE was measurable bilaterally in four horses, unilaterally in three individuals, and not detected in two animals. In all horses with unilateral CE, the positive eye received the higher dose. Fifteen mL dose resulted in significantly shorter time to peak than 10 mL (P < .05). Peak intensity, maximum signal increase, and corresponding area under the curve were significantly higher for 15 and 20 mL doses compared with 10 mL (P < .05). Uveal and retinal tissues were enhanced frequently. Twenty‐five and 30 mL doses revealed no CE. Only sedation reduced heart rates significantly (P < .05). Clinically relevant changes in respiratory rates or adverse reactions following SF6 application were not observed. Conclusions Contrast enhancement was in most instances dose‐dependent. Fifteen mL appeared appropriate to assess equine ocular perfusion. The reliability in horses remains questionable; however, CEUS was well‐tolerated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaas-Ole Blohm
- Department for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexander Tichy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Nell
- Department for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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Edwards RA, Hermans H, Veraa S. Morphological variations of the infraorbital canal during CT has limited association with headshaking in horses. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2019; 60:485-492. [PMID: 31161704 DOI: 10.1111/vru.12773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Headshaking is a common problem in horses. The etiology is unknown but thought to involve sensory input from branches of the trigeminal nerve, some of which are within the infraorbital canal. The objective of this retrospective cross-sectional study was to describe the CT anatomy and variations of the infraorbital canal in horses with local disease processes and normal horses, and to examine associations between those findings and headshaking. Computed tomography scans were reviewed and morphological changes of the infraorbital canal were described. Presence of changes was then tested for association with headshaking prevalence, presence of disease processes in the region of the infraorbital canal, age, and sex. Nonparametric tests were used and a P-value of .05 was considered significant. A total of 218 horses were included, 9% of which had headshaking and 45% had CT lesions in the region of the infraorbital canal. Morphological changes to the bone of the infraorbital canal were found in 121 horses (56%) and included the following: increased mineralization 39 (18%), decreased mineralization 89 (41%), deformed shape 51 (23%), displaced position 43 (20%), and disruption 11 (5%). All changes of the infraorbital canal significantly increased in frequency with the presence of adjacent disease. Increased mineralization and disruption of the infraorbital canal were significantly associated with headshaking in horses with adjacent disease; the latter only reached significance after exclusion of dentally immature horses. No other changes were significantly associated with the presence of headshaking. No association was found between headshaking and the age or sex of the horse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph A Edwards
- Division of Diagnostic Imaging, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hanneke Hermans
- Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Stefanie Veraa
- Division of Diagnostic Imaging, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Manso‐Díaz G, Taeymans O, García‐López JM, Weller R. Application and indications of magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography of the equine head. EQUINE VET EDUC 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- G. Manso‐Díaz
- Hospital Clínico Veterinario Complutense Universidad Complutense de Madrid Madrid Spain
- The Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
| | | | - J. M. García‐López
- Department of Clinical Sciences Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine Tufts University North Grafton Massachusetts USA
| | - R. Weller
- The Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
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8
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Zani DD, Rabbogliatti V, Ravasio G, Pettinato C, Giancamillo MD, Zani DD. Contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of the foot in horses using intravenous versus regional intraarterial injection of gadolinium. Open Vet J 2018; 8:471-478. [PMID: 30775287 PMCID: PMC6356101 DOI: 10.4314/ovj.v8i4.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the detection of orthopedic pathologies in equine patients is poorly described. In few studies, enhanced MRI allowed to differentiate active lesions from chronic ones and to classify ambiguous lesions. The aim of this clinical prospective pilot study is to describe and compare the MRI lesions observed in horses with lameness localized to the foot using a single intravenous bolus dose of gadolinium contrast versus regional intraarterial bolus of contrast agent. Ten horses that underwent contrast enhanced MRI were included in the study. Gadolinium was injected intravenously in 3 patients and in 7 horses contrast agent was administered by intraarterial regional delivery. Regions of interest (ROI) were collected from both pre- and post-contrast images and ratios between pre- and post-contrast ROIs were calculated. No adverse reactions were noted after contrast agent injection. Injured structures that revealed greater increase in signal in post-contrast images were the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), the navicular spongiosa and the peritendinous tissues. Regional intraarterial administration of gadolinium provided higher ratio of contrast enhancement. Enhanced MRI using both intravenous or intraarterial injection of gadolinium, increased the diagnostic capability of MRI in horses with foot lesions. Nevertheless, regional intraarterial administration of gadolinium was considered the best choice due to the higher signal and lower volumes of contrast agent required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatella De Zani
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Centro Clinico Veterinario e Zootecnico Sperimentale, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
| | - Vanessa Rabbogliatti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Centro Clinico Veterinario e Zootecnico Sperimentale, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
| | - Giuliano Ravasio
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Centro Clinico Veterinario e Zootecnico Sperimentale, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
| | - Cinzia Pettinato
- Department of Medical Physics, Policlinico S.Orsola-Malpighi, Bologna, Italy
| | - Mauro Di Giancamillo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Centro Clinico Veterinario e Zootecnico Sperimentale, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
| | - Davide Danilo Zani
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Centro Clinico Veterinario e Zootecnico Sperimentale, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
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Nelson BB, Goodrich LR, Barrett MF, Grinstaff MW, Kawcak CE. Use of contrast media in computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in horses: Techniques, adverse events and opportunities. Equine Vet J 2017; 49:410-424. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B. B. Nelson
- Gail Holmes Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University; Fort Collins Colorado USA
| | - L. R. Goodrich
- Gail Holmes Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University; Fort Collins Colorado USA
| | - M. F. Barrett
- Gail Holmes Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University; Fort Collins Colorado USA
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences; Colorado State University; Fort Collins Colorado USA
| | - M. W. Grinstaff
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry, Materials Science & Engineering and Medicine; Boston University; Boston Massachusetts USA
| | - C. E. Kawcak
- Gail Holmes Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University; Fort Collins Colorado USA
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10
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Crijns CP, Van Bree HJ, Broeckx BJG, Schauvliege S, Van Loon G, Martens A, Vanderperren K, Dingemanse WB, Gielen IM. The Influence of the Size, Age and Sex on the Computed Tomographic Measured Size of the Pituitary Gland in Normal Horses. Anat Histol Embryol 2017; 46:267-273. [PMID: 28239900 DOI: 10.1111/ahe.12266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 01/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to examine the influence of the size, age and sex of the horse on the size of the pituitary gland and determine the possibility of using the pituitary gland height-to-brain area ratio (P:B ratio) to allow comparison of different sized and aged horses. Thirty-two horses without pituitary pars inter-media dysfunction that underwent a contrast-enhanced computed tomographic (CT) examination were included in a cross-sectional study. On the CT images, the pituitary gland height was measured and the P:B ratio was calculated. These measurements were correlated to the size, age and sex of the horses. The pituitary gland height was significantly associated with the size (P < 0.001) and the age (P < 0.001), but not with the sex (P = 0.40), of the horses. No significant association was found between the P:B ratio and the size (P = 0.25), the age (P = 0.06) or the sex (P = 0.25) of the horses. In conclusion, the pituitary gland size varies between different sized and aged horses. The use of the P:B ratio is a valuable metric for making comparisons between the pituitary glands of these horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- C P Crijns
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium AND Veterinary Clinic DAP Bodegraven BV, Bodegraven, The Netherlands
| | - H J Van Bree
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium AND Veterinary Clinic DAP Bodegraven BV, Bodegraven, The Netherlands
| | - B J G Broeckx
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - S Schauvliege
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Large Animals, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - G Van Loon
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Biology of Large Animals, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - A Martens
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Large Animals, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K Vanderperren
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium AND Veterinary Clinic DAP Bodegraven BV, Bodegraven, The Netherlands
| | - W B Dingemanse
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium AND Veterinary Clinic DAP Bodegraven BV, Bodegraven, The Netherlands
| | - I M Gielen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium AND Veterinary Clinic DAP Bodegraven BV, Bodegraven, The Netherlands
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Seiler GS, Campbell N, Nixon B, Tsuruta JK, Dayton PA, Jennings S, Redding WR, Lustgarten M. FEASIBILITY AND SAFETY OF CONTRAST-ENHANCED ULTRASOUND IN THE DISTAL LIMB OF SIX HORSES. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2016; 57:282-9. [DOI: 10.1111/vru.12333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2015] [Revised: 10/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela S. Seiler
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences; North Carolina State University; Raleigh NC 27607
| | - Nigel Campbell
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences; North Carolina State University; Raleigh NC 27607
| | - Britton Nixon
- Department of Clinical Sciences; North Carolina State University; Raleigh NC 27607
| | - James K. Tsuruta
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering; University of North Carolina Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University; Chapel Hill NC 27514
| | - Paul A. Dayton
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering; University of North Carolina Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University; Chapel Hill NC 27514
| | - Samuel Jennings
- Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine; North Grafton MA 01536
| | - W. Rich Redding
- Department of Clinical Sciences; North Carolina State University; Raleigh NC 27607
| | - Meghann Lustgarten
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences; North Carolina State University; Raleigh NC 27607
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