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Sini MF, Manconi M, Varcasia A, Massei G, Sandu R, Mehmood N, Ahmed F, Carta C, Cantacessi C, Scarano C, Scala A, Tamponi C. Seroepidemiological and biomolecular survey on Toxoplasma gondii in Sardinian wild boar ( Sus scrofa). Food Waterborne Parasitol 2024; 34:e00222. [PMID: 38323095 PMCID: PMC10844814 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2024.e00222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite able of infecting all warm-blooded animals. Toxoplasmosis is one of the major foodborne diseases globally. The consumption of wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat from recreational hunting has been linked to outbreaks of human toxoplasmosis. The island of Sardinia (Italy) contains a large wild boar population, thus providing an opportunity to assess the distribution of Toxoplasma in this species and the associated risks of transmission to humans. A total of 562 wild boars were screened: heart and meat juice samples were tested for T. gondii DNA via nested-PCR and IgG anti-Toxoplasma by commercial ELISA. Anti-Toxoplasma IgG were detected in 24.6% (138/562) of animals, while 37.2% (209/562) of the heart samples were PCR positive. The prevalence of T. gondii antibodies and DNA highlights the potential role of wild boar as an important reservoir for this parasite. The study suggests that wild boar could play a significant role in spreading the parasite to humans. As wild boar numbers are increasing throughout their range, their potential role in transmitting toxoplasmosis should be communicated to stakeholders, and the impact of different population control methods on disease transmission should be thoroughly assessed to mitigate potential threats effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Manconi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Antonio Varcasia
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Giovanna Massei
- Botstiber Institute for Wildlife Fertility Control Europe, Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, 290 Wentworth Way, Heslington, York YO10 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Ramona Sandu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Naunain Mehmood
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
- Department of Zoology, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Fahad Ahmed
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Carlo Carta
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Cinzia Cantacessi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Scarano
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Antonio Scala
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Claudia Tamponi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
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2
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Pacifico L, Rubiola S, Buono F, Sgadari M, D'Alessio N, Scarcelli S, Sgroi G, Buglione M, Chiesa F, Restucci B, Fioretti A, Prakas P, Veneziano V. Molecular differentiation of Sarcocystis miescheriana and Sarcocystis suihominis using a new multiplex PCR targeting the mtDNA cox1 gene in wild boars in southern Italy. Res Vet Sci 2023; 164:105039. [PMID: 37812987 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.105039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
The increase of wild boar populations density and their meat consumption across Europe could expose humans to a plethora of foodborne diseases as sarcocystosis, caused by the zoonotic protozoan Sarcocystis suihominis. Humans become infected by eating raw or undercooked pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) containing S. suihominis sarcocysts. Despite this, to date very few data are available on the risk of infection by this parasite to wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat consumers. Thus, the present study aimed to assess the occurrence of Sarcocystis spp. in wild boars from southern Italy, applying both histology and a new multiplex PCR assay targeting the cox1 gene. Between 2019 and 2020, 997 muscle tissues (i.e., n = 269 oesophagus, n = 277 diaphragms, n = 298 hearts, n = 153 tongues) from 311 wild boars were collected and screened by a combined histological and molecular approach. Overall, 251 (80.7%) animals tested were positive for Sarcocystis spp., and S. miescheriana whose definitive hosts are canids, was the only molecularly identified species. A statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) in the prevalence of Sarcocystis infection was found according to the wild boar age and muscle tissue. Findings outlined the low zoonotic potential of infection to humans via wild boar meat consumption in Italy and the importance of the application of new molecular methods in distinguishing different Sarcocystis species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Pacifico
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Via Delpino 1, Naples, Italy; Department of Prevention, Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety Area, Azienda Sanitaria Locale Caserta, Via Feudo di San Martino 10, Caserta, Italy
| | - Selene Rubiola
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy
| | - Francesco Buono
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Via Delpino 1, Naples, Italy.
| | - Mariafrancesca Sgadari
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Via Delpino 1, Naples, Italy
| | - Nicola D'Alessio
- Department of Animal Health, Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of southern Italy, Portici, via Salute 2, Italy; Osservatorio Faunistico Venatorio - Campania Region, Naples, Italy
| | - Stefano Scarcelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Via Delpino 1, Naples, Italy
| | - Giovanni Sgroi
- Department of Animal Health, Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of southern Italy, Portici, via Salute 2, Italy
| | - Maria Buglione
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia, 26, Naples, Italy
| | - Francesco Chiesa
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy
| | - Brunella Restucci
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Via Delpino 1, Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandro Fioretti
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Via Delpino 1, Naples, Italy; Osservatorio Faunistico Venatorio - Campania Region, Naples, Italy
| | - Petras Prakas
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Vincenzo Veneziano
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Via Delpino 1, Naples, Italy; Osservatorio Faunistico Venatorio - Campania Region, Naples, Italy
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3
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de Martinis C, Pucciarelli A, Ottaiano M, Pellicanò R, Baldi L, Veneziano V, Sgroi G, Boccia F, Carbone C, Cardillo L, Fusco G. Toxoplasma gondii Investigation of Home-Reared Pigs through Real-Time PCR and Digital Droplet PCR: A Very Low Prevalence. Pathogens 2023; 12:882. [PMID: 37513729 PMCID: PMC10384325 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12070882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread protozoon that can infect both animals and humans. The main route of human infection is the consumption of the raw or undercooked meat of several animal species, including pigs. Although T. gondii represents a public health concern, control during slaughter is not mandatory, leading to a lack of information on the impact on human contagion as well as poor data availability in domestic animals intended for human consumption. We studied the presence of T. gondii in home-reared pigs, an unconventional type of farming subjected to stringent breeding conditions dictated by Italian regulation. Thus, the diaphragms, livers and masseter muscles from 480 pigs in Napoli Province (Italy) were analyzed using real-time PCR and digital droplet PCR. The results showed four matrices that tested positive for T. gondii with very low protozoan loads (0.62%), belonging to three different animals. The low density of the animals (the maximum was four animals per farm) and the biosafety farming features decisively contributed to the bioexclusion of this pathogen. Comparing these results to intensive and extensive farm data, lower exposure to the parasite was revealed, suggesting that this farming method might mitigate the risk of human exposure through meat consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio de Martinis
- Unit of Exotic and Vector-Borne Diseases, Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Alessia Pucciarelli
- Unit of Exotic and Vector-Borne Diseases, Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Ottaiano
- Regional Observatory of Epidemiology and Biostatistic, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Roberta Pellicanò
- Regional Observatory of Epidemiology and Biostatistic, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Loredana Baldi
- Regional Observatory of Epidemiology and Biostatistic, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Veneziano
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Produzioni Animali, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Giovanni Sgroi
- Unit of Wildlife, Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Federica Boccia
- Azienda Sanitaria Locale (ASL) Napoli 3 Sud, Unit of Animal Health, Department of Prevention, 80059 Naples, Italy
| | - Carmine Carbone
- Azienda Sanitaria Locale (ASL) Napoli 3 Sud, Unit of Animal Health, Department of Prevention, 80059 Naples, Italy
| | - Lorena Cardillo
- Unit of Exotic and Vector-Borne Diseases, Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Giovanna Fusco
- Unit of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Naples, Italy
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Molecular Survey of Toxoplasma gondii in Wild Mammals of Southern Italy. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12030471. [PMID: 36986393 PMCID: PMC10051445 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Systematic wildlife surveillance is important to aid the prevention of zoonotic infections that jeopardize human health and undermine biodiversity. Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic zoonotic protozoan that can infect all endothermic vertebrates, causing severe disease in immunocompromised humans and cases of congenital transmission. Humans can be infected by ingestion of raw meat containing bradyzoites or water contaminated by oocysts. In our study, we assessed the potential circulation of Toxoplasma gondii in wild mammals by performing surveillance in the Campania region (southern Italy) and surveyed its presence from 2020 to 2022 within the framework of the Regional Plans for Wildlife Surveillance. In detail, 211 individuals belonging to five wild mammals (wolf, fox, wild boar, badger, and roe deer) underwent necropsy and the organs were analyzed by real-time PCR for the detection of the parasite. Toxoplasma gondii was found in 21.8% (46/211) of the subjects examined. No statistically significant differences were noticed between the prevalence and the host’s trophic level or age, rejecting the hypotheses that Toxoplasma gondii will have a higher prevalence in top predators and adult individuals, respectively. Our work emphasized the high circulation of Toxoplasma gondii in wildlife and remarked on the critical role of anthropized areas where domestic cats and wildlife may come into contact, urging a systematic surveillance.
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Abrantes AC, Vieira-Pinto M. 15 years overview of European zoonotic surveys in wild boar and red deer: A systematic review. One Health 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
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Trichinella britovi in wild boar meat from Italy, 2015-2021: A citizen science approach to surveillance. One Health 2022; 16:100480. [PMID: 36632478 PMCID: PMC9826805 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2022.100480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
As a result of the increase of game meat intended for human consumption through Europe, a plethora of food-borne diseases, including trichinellosis, may occur in consumers, posing a relevant public health threat. Thus, this study aims to a citizen science approach to monitor the occurrence of Trichinella spp. in wild boar meat intended for human consumption, evaluating the risk of infection for consumers. Following the European Regulation 2015/1375 (laying down specific rules on official controls for Trichinella in meat), from 2015 to 2021, hunters (n = 478) were involved to collect diaphragm pillar samples of wild boars from mainland southern Italy, which were tested for Trichinella spp. L1 larvae via HCl-pepsin digestion and Multiplex PCR. Overall, 139,160 animals were collected (average of 19,880 per year), being 14 (i.e., 0.01%) tested positive to Trichinella britovi by the combined biochemical and molecular approach. An average larval burden of 28.4 L1 per gram of meat was found (minimum 3.2 - maximum 132.6). A statistically significant difference was found in the prevalence according to hunting seasons (p < 0.01, with higher values in 2016 and 2021) and regions of the study area (p < 0.01). No statistically significant decrease in the prevalence of T. britovi throughout the study period was found (p = 0.51), except in Apulia region (p < 0.01). These findings revealed a stable prevalence of T. britovi in wild boar meat intended for human consumption, suggesting a risk of infection for consumers, especially hunters and local markets users. Citizen science surveillance models could be promoted to improve trichinellosis control and prevention in a One Health perspective.
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Toxoplasma gondii in Foods: Prevalence, Control, and Safety. Foods 2022; 11:foods11162542. [PMID: 36010541 PMCID: PMC9407268 DOI: 10.3390/foods11162542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that causes toxoplasmosis, with approximately one third of the population around the world seropositive. The consumption of contaminated food is the main source of infection. These include meat products with T. gondii tissue cysts, and dairy products with tachyzoites. Recently, contamination has been detected in fresh products with oocysts and marine products. Despite the great health problems that are caused by T. gondii, currently there are no standardized methods for its detection in the food industry. In this review, we analyze the current detection methods, the prevalence of T. gondii in different food products, and the control measures. The main detection methods are bioassays, cell culture, molecular and microscopic techniques, and serological methods, but some of these do not have applicability in the food industry. As a result, emerging techniques are being developed that are aimed at the detection of multiple parasites simultaneously that would make their application more efficient in the industry. Since the prevalence of this parasite is high in many products (meat and milk, marine products, and vegetables), it is necessary to standardize detection methods, as well as implement control measures.
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Toxoplasma gondii Serotypes in Italian and Foreign Populations: A Cross-Sectional Study Using a Homemade ELISA Test. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10081577. [PMID: 36013995 PMCID: PMC9415598 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10081577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite responsible for human toxoplasmosis. The three major clonal lineages and different recombinant strains of T. gondii have a varied global distribution. This study aimed at evaluating the epidemiological distribution of types II and I–III and recombinant or mixed T. gondii in Italians and foreigners residing in Italy, establishing an association between serotypes and demographic characteristics. We collected the sera of 188 subjects who had tested positive for specific T. gondii antibodies. The population was differentiated into groups based on sex, nationality, and place of birth (Italy, Africa, South America, Asia, or Europe (except Italy)). We then performed a homemade ELISA test that detected both the antibodies against the amino acid sequences of the three main genotype antigens (I–III) in human sera and discerned the T. gondii strains. Serotype II of T. gondii was the most prevalent in the Italian population, whereas type I–III was the most prevalent in the foreign group. Surprisingly, we observed a notable amount of recombinant or mixed serotypes in European and Italian subjects. Moreover, we showed a significant difference in the prevalence of T. gondii serotypes between men and women, Italians, and foreigners. This descriptive study is the first to investigate the epidemiological distribution of T. gondii serotypes in humans in Italy using a homemade ELISA. We considered this technique suitable for discriminating between serotypes II and I–III and, consequently, for an epidemiological study focusing on the observation of circulating T. gondii strains and clinical correlations.
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Yuan H, Zhang XX, Yang ZP, Wang XH, Mahmmod YS, Zhang P, Yan ZJ, Wang YY, Ren ZW, Guo QY, Yuan ZG. Unveiling of brain transcriptome of masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) with chronic infection of Toxoplasma gondii. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:263. [PMID: 35871661 PMCID: PMC9308931 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05378-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of the transcriptomic changes that occur in a wild species when infected with Toxoplasma gondii. The masked palm civet, an artifically domesticated animal, was used as the model of a wild species. Transcriptome analysis was used to study alterations in gene expression in the domesticated masked palm civet after chronic infection with T. gondii. METHODS Masked palm civets were infected with 105 T. gondii cysts and their brain tissue collected after 4 months of infection. RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) was used to gain insight into the spectrum of genes that were differentially expressed due to infection. Quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) was also used to validate the level of expression of a set of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) obtained by sequencing. RESULTS DEGs were screened from the sequencing results and analyzed. A total of 2808 DEGs were detected, of which 860 were upregulated and 1948 were downregulated. RNA-Seq results were confirmed by qRT-PCR. DEGs were mainly enriched in cellular process and metabolic process based on gene ontology enrichment analysis. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis showed that transcriptional changes in the brain of infected masked palm civets evolved over the course of infection and that DEGs were mainly enriched in the signal transduction, immune system processes, transport and catabolic pathways. Finally, 10 essential driving genes were identified from the immune signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS This study revealed novel host genes which may provide target genes for the development of new therapeutics and detection methods for T. gondii infection in wild animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Yuan
- grid.413251.00000 0000 9354 9799College of Veterinary Medicine, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, 830052 Xinjiang People’s Republic of China ,grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642 People’s Republic of China ,grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiu-Xiang Zhang
- grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Zi-Peng Yang
- grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Hu Wang
- grid.135769.f0000 0001 0561 6611Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Yasser S. Mahmmod
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Infectious Diseases, Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511 Sharika Egypt ,grid.444463.50000 0004 1796 4519Veterinary Sciences Division, Faculty of Health Sciences, Higher Colleges of Technology, 17155- Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Pian Zhang
- grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Zi-Jing Yan
- grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Yan-Yun Wang
- grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhao-Wen Ren
- grid.20561.300000 0000 9546 5767College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Qing-Yong Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, 830052, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zi-Guo Yuan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, People's Republic of China. .,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, People's Republic of China.
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Fernández-Escobar M, Schares G, Maksimov P, Joeres M, Ortega-Mora LM, Calero-Bernal R. Toxoplasma gondii Genotyping: A Closer Look Into Europe. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:842595. [PMID: 35402301 PMCID: PMC8984497 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.842595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a major zoonotic agent which may cause harmful effects mainly in pregnant and immunocompromised hosts. Despite many efforts on its genetic characterization, an entirely clear picture of the population structure in Europe has not been achieved yet. The present study aimed to summarize the available genotyping information and to map the distribution of circulating strains. There is consensus on type II T. gondii genotypes prevailing in Europe, but the absence of harmonization in the use of typing methods limits detailed knowledge. Standardized, high-end typing tools and integrative strategies are needed to fill the gaps and complete an accurate image of the T. gondii genetic population in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Fernández-Escobar
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gereon Schares
- National Reference Laboratory for Toxoplasmosis, Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Pavlo Maksimov
- National Reference Laboratory for Toxoplasmosis, Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Maike Joeres
- National Reference Laboratory for Toxoplasmosis, Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Luis Miguel Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Calero-Bernal
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- *Correspondence: Rafael Calero-Bernal,
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Uzelac A, Klun I, Ćirković V, Bauman N, Bobić B, Štajner T, Srbljanović J, Lijeskić O, Djurković-Djaković O. Toxoplasma gondii Genotypes Circulating in Serbia-Insight into the Population Structure and Diversity of the Species in Southeastern Europe, a Region of Intercontinental Strain Exchange. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9122526. [PMID: 34946128 PMCID: PMC8708754 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9122526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In Europe, Toxoplasma gondii lineage II is dominant, and ToxoDB#1 the most frequently occurring genotype. The abundance of lineage III genotypes varies geographically and lineage I are rare, yet present in several regions of the continent. Data on the T. gondii population structure in southeastern Europe (SEE) are scarce, yet necessary to appreciate the diversity of the species in Europe. To help fill this gap, we genotyped 67 strains from nine species of intermediate hosts in Serbia by MnPCR-RFLP, determined the population structure, and identified the genotypes using ToxoDB. A neighbor-joining tree was also constructed from the isolates genotyped on nine loci. While 42% of the total genotype population consisted of ToxoDB#1 and ToxoDB#2, variant genotypes of both lineages comprised 46% of the population in wildlife and 28% in domestic animals and humans. One genotype of Africa 4 lineage was detected in a human sample. Interestingly, the findings include one lineage III variant and one II/III recombinant isolate with intercontinental distribution, which appear to be moderately related to South American genotypes. Based on these findings, SEE is a region of underappreciated T. gondii genetic diversity and possible strain exchange between Europe and Africa.
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12
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Dessì G, Cabras P, Mehmood N, Ahmed F, Porcu F, Veneziano V, Burrai GP, Tamponi C, Scala A, Varcasia A. First molecular description of Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus in wild boars from Italy with pathomorphological and epidemiological insights. Parasitol Res 2021; 121:197-204. [PMID: 34820718 PMCID: PMC8612822 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07386-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus is a zoonotic parasite affecting suids worldwide which are the definitive hosts for this helminth species. Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus is of significant economic and management concern due to its pathogenicity, causing intestinal obstruction and perforation in the definitive hosts. Current study is the preliminary investigation from Sardinia, Italy, reporting the pathomorphological findings and molecular characterization of M. hirudinaceus in the wild boars (Sus scrofa meridionalis). A total of 59 wild boars were examined showing acanthocephalan infection in 8 (13.6%) animals. In total, 49 parasites were collected with a mean intensity of 6.1. Comparatively higher infection levels were observed for males (16.7%) and young boars (14.3%); however, these epidemiological differences were statistically non-significant. Histopathological examination revealed the presence of a variable number of nodules (∼5 mm) in the intestine of M. hirudinaceus infested animals surrounded by a hyperemic-hemorrhagic halo. Several parasites were recovered from the intestinal lumen attached by the means of characteristic hooks showing necrosis in muscle layers. A moderate number of plump reactive fibroblasts and lesser numbers of fibrocytes were embedded with and at the borders of the inflammatory nodules in a moderate amount of homogeneous intensely eosinophilic fibrillary material rupturing the cell membrane. For molecular characterization, six isolated worms were amplified for the partial mitochondrial cox1 gene showing distinct interindividual variations. This first pathological and molecular description from southern Europe provided new knowledge about the diffusion of M. hirudinaceus in wild boars, furthering the research into the origin and transmission status of M. hirudinaceus in endemic localities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Dessì
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Pierangela Cabras
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Sardegna, Tortolì, Italy
| | - Naunain Mehmood
- Department of Zoology, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Fahad Ahmed
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Francesca Porcu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Veneziano
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Giovanni Pietro Burrai
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.,Mediterranean Center for Disease Control (MCDC), University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Claudia Tamponi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
| | - Antonio Scala
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Antonio Varcasia
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
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Crotta M, Pellicioli L, Gaffuri A, Trogu T, Formenti N, Tranquillo V, Luzzago C, Ferrari N, Lanfranchi P. Analysis of seroprevalence data on Hepatitis E virus and Toxoplasma gondii in wild ungulates for the assessment of human exposure to zoonotic meat-borne pathogens. Food Microbiol 2021; 101:103890. [PMID: 34579849 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2021.103890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Seroprevalence data for Toxoplasma gondii and Hepatitis E virus (HEV) in wild boar (Sus scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), mouflon (Ovis aries/musimon) and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) hunted/culled in northern Italy were used to fit seroprevalence distributions describing the exposure and co-exposure of the species to the two pathogens. The higher proportion of T. gondii and HEV seropositive animals was observed in wild boars with point estimate seroprevalence of 49% (N = 331) and 15% (N = 326) respectively. Data allowed comparisons by area (pre-Alpine Vs Alpine environment) for roe deer, red deer and mouflons. Contrasts between the distributions describing the uncertainty in seroprevalence suggest roe deer, red deer and mouflons have higher probability of being seropositive to T. gondii in pre-Alps. When considering HEV, few seropositive animals were detected and contrasts were symmetrically centred to zero for roe deer and red deer; mouflons shown higher probability of being seropositive in Alpine environment. HEV seropositive animals also included chamois (P = 5.1%, N = 97) in the Alpine districts, confirming circulation of HEV in remote areas. Evidence of HEV and T. gondii co-exposure was limited except for wild boars where it was observed in 30 samples representing 60% of the overall HEV-positive samples. Seroprevalence data of single infection and co-infection are extremely useful to investigate circulation of zoonotic pathogens in wild animals and estimate the foodborne risk of human exposure, however, these type of data do not directly translate into the presence/absence of the pathogen in seropositive and seronegative animals. At benefit of future development of quantitative risk assessments aiming at estimating the risk of human infection/co-infection via consumption of game meat, we developed and made available an online application that allows estimating the probability of the pathogen(s) being present as a function of seroprevalence data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Crotta
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Department of Pathobiology and Population Science, The Royal Veterinary College, UK
| | - Luca Pellicioli
- Dipartimento Veterinario e Sicurezza Degli Alimenti di Origine Animale, Agenzia Tutela Salute Bergamo, via Gallicciolli 4, 24121, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Alessandra Gaffuri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Lombardia e Dell'emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Sezione diagnostica di Bergamo, 24125, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Tiziana Trogu
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Lombardia e Dell'emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Formenti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Lombardia e Dell'emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Vito Tranquillo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Lombardia e Dell'emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Sezione diagnostica di Bergamo, 24125, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Camilla Luzzago
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università, 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy; Coordinated Research Center ''EpiSoMI'', Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Ferrari
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università, 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy; Coordinated Research Center ''EpiSoMI'', Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy.
| | - Paolo Lanfranchi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell'Università, 6, 26900, Lodi, Italy
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Borkens Y. Toxoplasma gondii in Australian macropods ( Macropodidae) and its implication to meat consumption. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2021; 16:153-162. [PMID: 34567970 PMCID: PMC8449172 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2021.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide occurring apicomplexan parasite. Due to its high seroprevalence in livestock as well as in game animals, T. gondii is an important food-borne pathogen and can have significant health implications for humans as well as for pets. This article describes the prevalence of T. gondii in free-ranging macropods hunted for consumption. All hunted macropod species (commercial as well as non-commercial hunt) show a positive seroprevalence for T. gondii. This seroprevalence is influenced by various factors, such as sex or habitat. Furthermore, the parasite shows a high level of genetic variability in macropods. Genetically variable strains have already caused outbreaks of toxoplasmosis in the past (Canada and the US). These were attributed to undercooked game meat like venison. Despite this risk, neither Australia nor New Zealand currently have food safety checks against foodborne pathogens. These conditions scan pose a significant health risk to the population. Especially, since cases of toxoplasmosis have already been successfully traced back to insufficiently cooked kangaroo meat in the past. The kangaroo hunt is an important industry in Australia. 7 species of kangaroos and wallabies are hunted for commercial purpose (for human and pet consumption). Food security checks against foodborne pathogens (including T. gondii) are not a requirement of the Australia New Zealand Food Standard Code. The databases Medline, Web of Science, SCOPUS and Informit were used. 6 scientific publications were reviewed in this publication.
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Towards an Integrated Approach for Monitoring Toxoplasmosis in Southern Italy. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11071949. [PMID: 34208943 PMCID: PMC8300179 DOI: 10.3390/ani11071949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Toxoplasmosis is a significant public health issue worldwide, caused by the intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. It has a heteroxenous life cycle in which felines act as definitive reservoirs and a wide range of warm-blooded animals, including humans, act as intermediate hosts. Due to the complex life cycle, monitoring, prevention and control of this parasite are very difficult. A thorough analysis of the epidemiology of T. gondii in humans, animals and food as well as the risk factors associated with the infection are needed to plan adequate control strategies in a given geographical area. Based on this, an integrated approach for monitoring toxoplasmosis was developed and conducted in an endemic area of southern Italy. The main tasks of this approach were based on the following strategies: parasitological and risk factor analysis for T. gondii in livestock farms, serological and molecular monitoring in meat-producing livestock at slaughterhouses, hospital discharge records (HDRs) analysis and outreach activities. The findings of this study confirmed the spread of T. gondii infection in southern Italy with high prevalence values in ruminants and the need of valid control strategies based on comprehensive and transdisciplinary actions according to the One Health approach. Abstract Toxoplasmosis is a widespread worldwide zoonotic infection caused by the intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. This protozoan infection is considered one of the most important food-borne parasitic zoonoses globally. Beyond its impact on public health, toxoplasmosis has also important veterinary implications, because it causes miscarriage or congenital malformations in livestock with negative economic impacts. An integrated monitoring programme aimed to deepen the epidemiological data on toxoplasmosis and to identify the risk factors that may favour T. gondii infections in animals and humans was conducted in an endemic area of southern Italy. The monitoring activities were based on the following tasks: (i) parasitological analysis and risk factors for T. gondii in livestock (sheep, goat, cattle and water buffalo) farms; (ii) serological and molecular monitoring at slaughterhouse in meat-producing livestock; (iii) analysis of hospital discharge records (HDRs); (iv) outreach activities (information, dissemination and health education) to farmers, vet practitioners and school-age children. The present study confirmed a very high seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in livestock farms (e.g., up to 93.1% in sheep farms) in southern Italy and highlighted the potentially significant public health risk in this area.
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Machado DMR, de Barros LD, de Souza Lima Nino B, de Souza Pollo A, Dos Santos Silva AC, Perles L, André MR, Zacarias Machado R, Garcia JL, Lux Hoppe EG. Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from the State of São Paulo, Brazil: Serology, molecular characterization, and hunter's perception on toxoplasmosis. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2021; 23:100534. [PMID: 33678387 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2021.100534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of wild boar meat, common in many countries, became popular in Brazil after the hunting of these animals was authorized in 2013. The meat of these animals is often consumed by hunters and their social groups, and their offal is occasionally used as supplemental food in the diet of hunting dogs. Given the high frequency of foodborne diseases related to wild boar meat consumption in other countries, including toxoplasmosis, knowledge on these diseases is essential for risk assessment and elaboration of education campaigns for the exposed public. Thus, this study aimed diagnosing, isolating, and genotyping Toxoplasma gondii in hunted wild boars. For that, we obtained samples of serum and tissues (brain, tongue, diaphragm, and heart) from 26 wild boar hunted in three areas in São Paulo State, Brazil, based on convenience sampling strategy. The serum samples were submitted to the indirect immunofluorescence reaction test (IFAT) test while the tissue samples (n = 22) were used to perform a bioassay in mice to isolate the parasite. The isolated samples were genetically characterized by PCR-RFLP with SAG1, 5' and 3' SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico markers. Questionnaires were also formulated and applied to wildlife hunters to assess knowledge about toxoplasmosis. The seroprevalence of T. gondii was 76.9% (20/26), with titers ranging from 16 to 1024. Viable parasites accounted for 4.5% (1/22) of the samples. The ToxoDB #6 genotype of TgJava1 alone was detected. Most interviewed hunters, 84.2% (16/19) consume game meat and a few of them (15.7%; 3/19) prefer undercooked meat. Also, 15.7% (3/19) of the hunters reported supplementing their hunting dogs' diet with wild boar meat and/or offal. As antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 76.9% (20/26) of the studied wild boars, we concluded that infection by T. gondii is frequent in wild boars used for human and animal consumption in the studied areas. Although genotype #6 is commonly found in Brazil in domestic animals, wild animals, and humans, causing everything from mild clinical symptoms to death, this study found, for the first time, the detection of this genotype in wild boars. These results also reaffirm the importance of these animals as a possible source of T. gondii infection for humans and domestic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dália Monique Ribeiro Machado
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Daniel de Barros
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Jardim Portal de Versalhes 1, 86057-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Beatriz de Souza Lima Nino
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Jardim Portal de Versalhes 1, 86057-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Andressa de Souza Pollo
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Clécia Dos Santos Silva
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Jardim Portal de Versalhes 1, 86057-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Lívia Perles
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos Rogério André
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rosângela Zacarias Machado
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João Luis Garcia
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Jardim Portal de Versalhes 1, 86057-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Estevam Guilherme Lux Hoppe
- Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias de Jaboticabal, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução Animal e Saúde Única, Rodovia Professor Paulo Donato Castelane, s/n, Zona Rural, CEP 14887-900, Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Viscardi M, Santoro M, Cozzolino L, Borriello G, Fusco G. A type II variant of Toxoplasma gondii infects the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) in southern Italy. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:874-880. [PMID: 33527733 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis, caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, is a widespread zoonosis capable to affect a wide range of warm-blooded vertebrates. In the past two decades, T. gondii emerged as a significant aquatic pathogen with some pathogenic atypical genotypes isolated and characterized from stranded marine mammals. In contrast, no information is available for mammals in freshwater environment. Although otters are considered highly susceptible to T. gondii infection, to date molecular evidence of T. gondii in Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) does not exist. We report the first molecular evidence of T. gondii in a free-ranging Eurasian otter from southern Italy and characterized the present strain as a genotype type II variant, with all loci type II except PK1 (locus sequence corresponding to type II variant B), B1 (locus sequence corresponding to type II/X A) and C29-2 (locus with SNPs). Our results indicate circulation of a type II variant in freshwater environment which suggests potential risk of transmission to animals and humans. The finding of a potential pathogenic strain is of great concern for future conservation programmes of the critically endangered Eurasian otter in southern Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Viscardi
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Mario Santoro
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | - Loredana Cozzolino
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Giorgia Borriello
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
| | - Giovanna Fusco
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Italy
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