The effectiveness of biosecurity interventions in reducing the transmission of bacteria from livestock to humans at the farm level: A systematic literature review

Microbial laden mobile phones from international conference attendees pose potential risks to public health and biosecurity

INTRODUCTION

Mobile phones, contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, have the potential to act as "trojan horses". The microbial signatures present on their surfaces most probably vary across different geographical regions. As a result, mobile phones belonging to international conference attendees may serve as a model for global microbial dissemination, posing potential risks to public health and biosecurity.

AIM

This study aimed to profile the microbes present on mobile phones belonging to delegates attending an international scientific conference through use of metagenomic shotgun DNA sequencing.

METHODS

Twenty mobile phones, representing ten different geographical zones from around the world, were swabbed and pooled together into ten geographical-specific samples for high definition next-generation DNA sequencing. WONCA council members were invited to participate and provided verbal consent. Following DNA extraction, next generation sequencing, to a depth of approximately 10Gbp per sample, was undertaken on a v1.5 Illumina NovaSeq6000 system. Bioinformatic analysis was performed via the CosmosID platform.

RESULTS

A total of 2204 microbial hits were accumulated across 20 mobile phones inclusive of 882 bacteria, 1229 viruses, 88 fungi and 5 protozoa. Of particular concern was the identification of 65 distinct antibiotic resistance genes and 86 virulence genes. Plant, animal and human pathogens, including ESKAPE and HACEK bacteria were found on mobile phones.

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION

Mobile phones of international attendees are contaminated with many & varied microorganisms. Further research is required to characterize the risks these devices pose for biosecurity and public health. Development of new policies which appropriately address and prevent such risks maybe warranted.

Evaluation of raw milk samples and vendor-derived Staphylococcus aureus and Coxiella burnetii prevalence in dairy delicatessens in eastern Turkey

This study investigated the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance, and genetic diversity of Staphylococcus aureus, as well as the detection and genetic relationship of Coxiella burnetii in retail milk samples and plastic bags from 25 local dairy delicatessens. Bacteriological culture, PCR, and Sanger sequencing were performed. Eleven percent of the samples were positive for S. aureus, none of which were methicillin-resistant or enterotoxigenic. The rep-PCR analysis revealed a high similarity between strains isolated from milk and bag samples from the same source. Moreover, 14% of the milk samples were positive for C. burnetii, which matched 100% of the reference strains in the GenBank.

Associations of Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Dairy Goat Farmers in Greece with Biosecurity-Related Practices in the Farms

Given the significance of goat farming in Greece, our study aimed to explore biosecurity conditions on goat farms and refers to an investigation performed on 119 farms countrywide in Greece. The objective of the present work was to evaluate and report on potential associations between the socio-demographic characteristics of goat farmers and practices that play a role in biosecurity on farms. Data were obtained during a large cross-sectional study performed across Greece in 119 goat herds. The socio-demographic characteristics of farmers, as well as 16 variables related to biosecurity, were recorded; these were practices or events that could potentially enhance or compromise biosecurity on farms. A score based on all the biosecurity-related variables was devised by assigning a '1' or '-1' mark for each variable recorded on a farm that could enhance or compromise, respectively, biosecurity. Among variables potentially enhancing biosecurity on farms, the application of disinfections on the farm and the maintenance of isolation for sick animals were practiced more frequently; among variables potentially compromising biosecurity on farms, the presence of hunters in the area around the farm and grazing practices for animals were recorded more frequently. The median overall score for biosecurity-related practices for all farms in the study was 1 (interquartile range: 2.5; minimum: -4; maximum: 5). Among socio-demographic characteristics, the presence of working staff on a farm was associated with five individual biosecurity-related practices and the length of farming experience with three individual biosecurity-related practices. In the multivariable analysis, female farmers (p = 0.007) and the presence of working staff on the farm (p = 0.025) emerged as the two significant socio-demographic characteristics with an association with the overall biosecurity level on farms. This knowledge can be useful when developing biosecurity programs on goat farms. Recognition of locally applied farm-level practices enhancing biosecurity could form a basis for farmers to apply more rigorous and effective relevant plans.

Defining correlates of protection for mammalian livestock vaccines against high-priority viral diseases

Enhancing livestock biosecurity is critical to safeguard the livelihoods of farmers, global and local economies, and food security. Vaccination is fundamental to the control and prevention of exotic and endemic high-priority infectious livestock diseases. Successful implementation of vaccination in a biosecurity plan is underpinned by a strong understanding of correlates of protection-those elements of the immune response that can reliably predict the level of protection from viral challenge. While correlates of protection have been successfully characterized for many human viral vaccines, for many high-priority livestock viral diseases, including African swine fever and foot and mouth disease, they remain largely uncharacterized. Current literature provides insights into potential correlates of protection that should be assessed during vaccine development for these high-priority mammalian livestock viral diseases. Establishment of correlates of protection for biosecurity purposes enables immune surveillance, rationale for vaccine development, and successful implementation of livestock vaccines as part of a biosecurity strategy.

Antimicrobial Use Survey and Detection of ESBL-Escherichia coli in Commercial and Medium-/Small-Scale Poultry Farms in Selected Districts of Zambia

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among Escherichia coli from food animals is a rising problem, and heavy antimicrobial use in poultry is a contributing factor. In Zambia, studies linking poultry-associated AMR and antibiotic use (AMU) are rare. This study aimed to investigate commercial and medium-/small-scale poultry farmers' usage of antimicrobials based on a questionnaire survey in ten districts of Zambia. In addition, the study characterized extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing E. coli isolates obtained from poultry in the same districts. Data regarding knowledge and usage of antimicrobials were collected from commercial and medium-/small-scale poultry farmers using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. At the same time, cloacal samples were collected and analyzed. One hundred and fifty E. coli isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using eight antibiotic classes. The isolates were further screened for ESBL production by streaking them on cefotaxime (CTX)-supplemented MacConkey agar, then subjecting them to sequencing on a NextSeq. The questionnaire survey showed that more medium-/small-scale than commercial poultry farmers used antimicrobials (OR = 7.70, 95% CI = 2.88-20.61) but less prescriptions (OR = 0.02, 95% CI = 0.00-0.08). Susceptibility testing revealed that resistance was highest to ampicillin (128/148, 86.5%) and tetracycline (101/136, 74.3%) and that the prevalence of multidrug resistance (MDR) (28/30, 93.3%) was high. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of eight (8/30, 26.7%) isolates with CTX Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) ≥ 4 µg/mL revealed the presence of ESBL-encoding genes blaCTX-M-14, blaCTX-M-55, and blaTEM. WGS also detected other AMR genes for quinolones, aminoglycosides, phenicols, tetracycline, macrolides, and folate-pathway antagonists. Altogether, the questionnaire survey results showed a higher proportion of AMU and lower prescription usage among medium-/small-scale farmers. In addition, our results emphasize the circulation of ESBL-producing E. coli strains with associated MDR. It is critical to educate farmers about AMR risks and to encourage responsible usage of antimicrobials. Furthermore, there is a need to strengthen regulations limiting access to antimicrobials. Finally, there is a need to establish a one health system to guide public health response.

Antimicrobial Resistance Characteristics of Fecal Escherichia coli and Enterococcus Species in U.S. Goats: 2019 National Animal Health Monitoring System Enteric Study

Escherichia coli and Enterococcus species are normal bacteria of the gastrointestinal tract and serve as indicator organisms for the epidemiology and emergence of antimicrobial resistance in their hosts and the environment. Some E. coli serovars, including E. coli O157:H7, are important human pathogens, although reservoir species such as goats remain asymptomatic. We describe the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of generic E. coli, E. coli O157:H7, and Enterococcus species collected from a national surveillance study of goat feces as part of the National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) Goat 2019 study. Fecal samples were collected from 4918 goats on 332 operations across the United States. Expectedly, a high prevalence of E. coli (98.7%, 4850/4915) and Enterococcus species (94.8%, 4662/4918) was found. E. coli O157:H7 prevalence was low (0.2%; 10/4918). E. coli isolates, up to three per operation, were evaluated for antimicrobial susceptibility and 84.7% (571/674) were pansusceptible. Multidrug resistance (MDR; ≥3 classes) was uncommon among E. coli, occurring in 8.2% of isolates (55/674). Resistance toward seven antimicrobial classes was observed in a single isolate. Resistance to tetracycline alone (13.6%, 92/674) or to tetracycline, streptomycin, and sulfisoxazole (7.0% 47/674) was the most common pattern. All E. coli O157:H7 isolates were pansusceptible. Enterococcus isolates, up to four per operation, were prioritized by public health importance, including Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis and evaluated. Resistance to lincomycin (93.8%, 1232/1313) was most common, with MDR detected in 29.5% (388/1313) of isolates. The combination of ciprofloxacin, lincomycin, and quinupristin resistance (27.1%, 105/388) was the most common pattern detected. Distribution and characteristics of antimicrobial resistance in E. coli and Enterococcus in the U.S. goat population from this study can inform stewardship considerations and public health efforts surrounding goats and their products.

Epidemiology of multidrug-resistant zoonotic E. coli from beef processing and retail points in Delta State, Nigeria: Public health implications

Some sorbitol non-fermenting E. coli (SN-F E. coli) and all E. coli O157 are zoonotic. Contamination of beef with zoonotic E. coli at the processing or retail point is a significant public health problem. Despite the public health importance of these organisms, there is no published data on the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of zoonotic E. coli from Delta State, Nigeria. Consequently, this study determined the prevalence and AMR of SN-F E. coli and E. coli O157 isolates from meat contact surfaces at the processing and retail points in the study area. The isolation, biochemical and serological characterisations and AMR status of the isolates were performed following standard microbiological methods. Overall prevalence of SN-F E. coli and E. coli O157 were 13.8% (56/406) and 1.5% (6/406), respectively. Majority of the 56 SN-F E. coli (64.3%, 36/56) and all the six E. coli O157 (10.7%, 6/56) detected in this study were found at the meat processing points. Most of the SN-F E. coli were isolated at the slaughterhouse floor (31%), meat hooks (17.2%) and meat sellers' knives (17.2%). The SN-F E. coli exhibited greater AMR to ampicillin (67.9%), gentamycin (64.3%) and tetracycline (50%) than other antimicrobial agents tested. No isolate was resistant to aztreonam. All six E. coli O157 isolates were resistant to enrofloxacin. Overall, 23 AMR patterns, comprised 14 from meat processing points and nine from meat retailing points, were observed from the 56 antimicrobial-resistant SN-F E. coli isolates. All the six E. coli O157 and 73.2% (41/56) of the SN-F E. coli isolates were multidrug-resistant. An overall mean multiple antimicrobial resistance index of 0.6 was recorded. Multidrug-resistant zoonotic E. coli were detected at meat processing and retail points in Delta State, Nigeria. The findings warrant the adoption of One Health control approach, "farm to fork" principle of food safety and prudent use of antimicrobial agents in animal agriculture. These may help to limit beef contamination with multidrug-resistant zoonotic E. coli at the processing and retailing points, for public health safety.

Distribution characteristics and potential risks of bioaerosols during scattered farming

In most economically underdeveloped areas, scattered farming and human‒livestock cohabitation are common. However, production of bioaerosols and their potential harm in these areas have not been previously researched. In this study, bioaerosol characteristics were analyzed in scattered farming areas in rural Northwest China. The highest bacteria, fungi, and Enterobacteria concentrations were 125609 ± 467 CFU/m³, 25175 ± 10305 CFU/m³, and 4167 ± 592 CFU/m³, respectively. Most bioaerosols had particle sizes >3.3 μm. A total of 71 bacterial genera and 16 fungal genera of potential pathogens were identified, including zoonotic potential pathogenic genera. Moreover, our findings showed that the scattered farming pattern of human‒animal cohabitation can affect the indoor air environment in the surrounding area, leading to chronic respiratory diseases in the occupants. Therefore, relevant government departments and farmers should enhance their awareness of bioaerosol risks and consider measures that may be taken to reduce them.

A Systematized Overview of Published Reviews on Biological Hazards, Occupational Health, and Safety

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic turned biological hazards in the working environment into a global concern. This systematized review of published reviews aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the specific jobs and categories of workers exposed to biological hazards with the related prevention.

Methods

We extracted reviews published in English and French in PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. Two authors, working independently, subsequently screened the potentially relevant titles and abstracts recovered (step 1) and then examined relevant full texts (step 2). Disagreements were resolved by consensus. We built tables summarizing populations of exposed workers, types of hazards, types of outcomes (types of health issues, means of prevention), and routes of transmission.

Results

Of 1426 studies initially identified, 79 studies by authors from every continent were selected, mostly published after 2010 (n = 63, 79.7%). About half of the reviews dealt with infectious hazards alone (n = 38, 48.1%). The industrial sectors identified involved healthcare alone (n = 16), laboratories (n = 10), agriculture (including the animal, vegetable, and grain sectors, n = 32), waste (n = 10), in addition of 11 studies without specific sectors. The results also highlighted a range of hazards (infectious and non-infectious agents, endotoxins, bioaerosols, organic dust, and emerging agents).

Conclusion

This systematized overview allowed to list the populations of workers exposed to biological hazards and underlined how prevention measures in the healthcare and laboratory sectors were usually well defined and controlled, although this was not the case in the agriculture and waste sectors. Further studies are necessary to quantify these risks and implement prevention measures that can be applied in every country.

Policies to prevent zoonotic spillover: a systematic scoping review of evaluative evidence

BACKGROUND

Emerging infectious diseases of zoonotic origin present a critical threat to global population health. As accelerating globalisation makes epidemics and pandemics more difficult to contain, there is a need for effective preventive interventions that reduce the risk of zoonotic spillover events. Public policies can play a key role in preventing spillover events. The aim of this review is to identify and describe evaluations of public policies that target the determinants of zoonotic spillover. Our approach is informed by a One Health perspective, acknowledging the inter-connectedness of human, animal and environmental health.

METHODS

In this systematic scoping review, we searched Medline, SCOPUS, Web of Science and Global Health in May 2021 using search terms combining animal health and the animal-human interface, public policy, prevention and zoonoses. We screened titles and abstracts, extracted data and reported our process in line with PRISMA-ScR guidelines. We also searched relevant organisations' websites for evaluations published in the grey literature. All evaluations of public policies aiming to prevent zoonotic spillover events were eligible for inclusion. We summarised key data from each study, mapping policies along the spillover pathway.

RESULTS

Our review found 95 publications evaluating 111 policies. We identified 27 unique policy options including habitat protection; trade regulations; border control and quarantine procedures; farm and market biosecurity measures; public information campaigns; and vaccination programmes, as well as multi-component programmes. These were implemented by many sectors, highlighting the cross-sectoral nature of zoonotic spillover prevention. Reports emphasised the importance of surveillance data in both guiding prevention efforts and enabling policy evaluation, as well as the importance of industry and private sector actors in implementing many of these policies. Thoughtful engagement with stakeholders ranging from subsistence hunters and farmers to industrial animal agriculture operations is key for policy success in this area.

CONCLUSION

This review outlines the state of the evaluative evidence around policies to prevent zoonotic spillover in order to guide policy decision-making and focus research efforts. Since we found that most of the existing policy evaluations target 'downstream' determinants, additional research could focus on evaluating policies targeting 'upstream' determinants of zoonotic spillover, such as land use change, and policies impacting infection intensity and pathogen shedding in animal populations, such as those targeting animal welfare.

Salmonella Control in Fattening Pigs through the Use of Esterified Formic Acid in Drinking Water Shortly before Slaughter

The presence of Salmonella in pig feces is a major source of abattoir and carcass contamination, and one of the main sources of human salmonellosis. This study assessed whether using a form of esterified formic acid (30% formic acid) in drinking water (10 kg/1000 L) 5 days before slaughter could be a helpful strategy to mitigate this public health issue. Thus, 240 pigs from three Salmonella-positive commercial fattening farms were selected. From each farm, 40 pigs were allocated to a control group (CG) and 40 to a treatment group (TG). At the abattoir, fecal samples from both groups were collected for Salmonella detection (ISO 6579-1:2017) and quantification (ISO/TS 6579-2:2012). Salmonella was present in 35% (95% IC = 29.24-41.23) of the samples collected. The prevalence was significantly higher in the CG than in the TG (50% vs. 20%; p < 0.001). In all farms, the TG showed a lower percentage of shedders than the CG. A random-effects logistic model showed that the odds of shedding Salmonella were 5.63 times higher (95% CI = 2.92-10.8) for the CG than for the TG. Thus, the proportion of pigs shedding Salmonella that was prevented in the TG due to the use of this form of organic acid was 82.2%. In addition, a Chi-squared analysis for trends showed that the higher the Salmonella count, the higher the odds of the sample belonging to the CG. These results suggest that adding this type of acid to drinking water 5 days before slaughter could reduce the proportion of Salmonella-shedding pigs and the Salmonella loads in the guts of shedder pigs.

Effect of biosecurity-based interventions on broiler crude mortality rate at an early stage of production in the small-scale farming system in Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

Biosecurity-based interventions are important health strategies for the control of infectious disease and improve productivity in broiler. There are various reasons why broilers die at the early stages of production; however, biosecurity measures are crucial in reducing the risk of disease prevalence and can therefore affect the overall deaths in a flock for a specific period (crude mortality rate [CMR]).

OBJECTIVES

This study was designed to determine the current biosecurity situation on small-scale broiler farms in Bangladesh and its relationship to the CMR during the early stages of production.

METHODS

A cross-sectional observational study was conducted on small-scale broiler farms (N = 57) located in peri-urban areas of Chattogram and Pabna districts of Bangladesh. Descriptive and predictive statistical analyses were performed to estimate the frequency of categorical variables and their effect on CMR.

RESULTS

The findings indicated that around 80% of small-scale broiler farms lacked adequate biosecurity measures. Both on day 1 (p = 0.012) and on days 2-14 (p = 0.003), flocks with inadequate biosecurity had considerably higher median CMRs. Farms that were near the neighbourhood used wood shavings as bedding, offered tube well/shallow well or supply line water, maintained a brief empty period (≤5 days) before introducing new flocks and began using antibiotics on day 1 all had significantly higher CMR at both days 1 and 2-14.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings point to the necessity of implementing stringent biosecurity measures in broiler production in locations where there is a shortage, which can lower the burden of arbitrary antibiotic usage and will lower total production costs due to crude mortality and management-related issues.

Knowledge, attitudes and biosecurity practices among the small-scale dairy farmers in Sylhet district, Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

In the context of zoonosis, Bangladesh's small-scale dairying is yet to frame satisfactory levels due to poor biosecurity practices.

OBJECTIVES

This study intended to reveal the degree of knowledge, attitudes and biosecurity practices among Sylhet district, Bangladesh's small-scale dairy farmers. We also focused on the association between biosecurity practices and the incidence of non-specific enteritis in humans.

METHODS

A questionnaire-based survey was conducted on the farmers' KAP via personal interviews of 15 farmers from the randomly selected fifteen small-scale dairy farms. The questionnaire was developed with 6 questions for knowledge, 6 questions for attitude and 12 questions for the practice of biosecurity measures. Alongside that, data on the number of non-specific enteritis cases experienced by the farmers or their family members were also recorded. Spearman correlation was used to find out the correlation among KAP variables and between practice scores and non-specific enteritis incidences.

RESULTS

We found an insignificant (p > 0.05) influence of demographic characteristics over knowledge, attitude and biosecurity practices. Significant (p < 0.05) and strong correlations were found in knowledge-attitude (r = 0.65), knowledge-practice (r = 0.71) and attitude-practice (r = 0.64). Incidences of non-specific enteritis and biosecurity measures' practice were also strongly correlated (r = -0.9232) and statistically significant (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that increasing knowledge and developing a good attitude are necessary to increase the adaptation of biosecurity measures as three of these factors are correlated. Moreover, farm biosecurity measures are closely related to human health.

Building a predictive model for assessing the risk of Salmonella shedding at slaughter in fattening pigs

Salmonellosis continues to be a major cause of foodborne outbreaks worldwide, and pigs are one of the main sources of human infection. Salmonella pork contamination is a major concern for abattoirs and is related to the presence of Salmonella in pigs' feces at slaughter. Being able to predict the risk of Salmonella shedding in pigs arriving at the slaughterhouse could help mitigate abattoir and carcass contamination. For this purpose, 30 batches of 50 pigs each were selected from 30 different fattening units. The pigs were tagged and bled for the detection of antibodies against Salmonella approximately one month before slaughter. Pooled floor fecal samples were also collected from 10 pens per unit for Salmonella detection, and a questionnaire on biosecurity was administered to each farm. At the abattoir, colon content was collected from each tagged pig for the Salmonella shedding assessment. A predictive model for Salmonella shedding at slaughter was built with two-third of the pigs by employing random-effects logistic regression analysis, with Salmonella shedding as the dependent variable and pig serology and other farm/environmental characteristics as the independent variables. The model included farm as the grouping factor. Data from the remaining one-third of the pigs were used for model validation. Out of 1,500 pigs initially selected, 1,341 were identified at the abattoir and analyzed. Salmonella was detected in 13 (43.3%; 95%CI = 27.4-60.8) of the fattening units. The mean batch seroprevalence (cut-off OD% ≥40) among the fattening units was 31.7% (95%CI = 21.8-41.0), and a total of 316 pigs (23.6%; 95%CI = 21.4-25.9) shed Salmonella at slaughter. The model predicted reasonably well (Area under the curve = 0.76; P < 0.05) whether a pig would shed Salmonella at slaughter, with estimates of sensitivity and specificity at 71.6% and 73.6%, respectively. Serology, the percentage of Salmonella-positive pens on the farm, and the internal biosecurity score were significantly associated (P < 0.05) with Salmonella shedding at the abattoir, and several scenarios were observed by the model. The study highlighted that although serology may be helpful for identifying batches of pigs at risk of shedding Salmonella upon their arrival at the abattoir, it may not be necessary in some scenarios.

Characterising Biosecurity Initiatives Globally to Support the Development of a Progressive Management Pathway for Terrestrial Animals: A Scoping Review

While biosecurity is of increasing importance globally, there is still limited evidence of the factors or elements that support the progressive and sustainable scaling up of biosecurity along the value chains from the local to the global level. To gain insight into the current body of literature on biosecurity, a mixed-methods approach was used based on a scoping literature review and an online survey with subject matter experts. Six databases were searched for published literature, and textual information from titles and abstracts of all included records (n = 266) were analysed through inductive content analysis to build biosecurity-relevant categories and identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of existing biosecurity systems or initiatives (such as projects or programs). Most records focused on initiatives in high-income countries, traditional livestock species (pigs, poultry, and large ruminants), and the production stage and had a disease-specific focus. No records described a comprehensive or global framework to progressively scale up biosecurity. Overall, the findings highlight the need for initiatives such as the FAO Progressive Management Pathway for Terrestrial Animal Biosecurity (FAO-PMP-TAB), which is a stepwise approach for strengthening biosecurity management along value chains to enhance the health, resilience, and sustainability of animal sectors. The findings highlight important elements and provide recommendations useful for developing approaches or a global framework to progressively improve biosecurity management.

Knowledge and Practices of Cypriot Bovine Farmers towards Effective and Safe Manure Management

Manure from bovine farms is commonly used as an organic fertiliser. However, if not properly managed, it can spread significant biological and chemical hazards, threatening both human and animal health. The effectiveness of risk control hugely relies on farmers' knowledge regarding safe manure management and on the application of suitable management practices. This study aims to evaluate the knowledge and practices of Cypriot bovine farmers towards safer manure management, from its generation to its final use, in line with the One Health approach. Factors affecting farmers' knowledge and applied practices are also investigated through a questionnaire survey. The questionnaire was developed and sent to all eligible bovine farmers in Cyprus (n = 353), and 30% (n = 105) of them returned the completed questionnaire. Results revealed there are some gaps in farmers' knowledge. The use of manure for fertilising crops dominated. Only half of the farmers stored manure in appropriate facilities, with 28.5% of them using a dedicated area with cement floors and 21.5% utilising leakproof tanks. The majority (65.7%) stored manure for more than three months before its use as a fertiliser in a dried form. In multiple regression analysis, education level and farming purpose were significant determinants of farmer knowledge. In conclusion, Cypriot farmers' knowledge must be reinforced to ensure proper manure management. The results highlight the importance of providing relevant training to farmers. Although the current practices partially decrease manure pathogens, interventions to promote the use of more effective treatment methods, such as biogas transformation and composting, would be beneficial.

A cross-sectional survey for the assessment of biosecurity measures in small-scale duck farms in Qalyoubia, Egypt: Comprehensive evaluation and procedural recommendations

Background and Aim: Biosecurity implementation is fundamental to combating diseases and antibiotic resistance. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the correlation between the implementation of biosecurity measures in small-scale duck farms and the incidence of infectious diseases that threaten the duck industry. Materials and Methods: Twenty small-scale duck farms of different breeds and production stages were collected as representative samples, focused on two districts in the Qalyoubia governorate, which possesses high-density small-scale farms. A 30-point structured questionnaire was designed to assess the level of biosecurity measures implemented in the sampled farms. These farms were examined for bacterial infection by cultivation, typing, and antibiotic sensitivity tests, in addition to molecular techniques for detecting suspected viral diseases. Results: The results showed that the farms had high or low levels of biosecurity; only 25% possessed high-level biosecurity. Bacteria, including Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, and Pasteurella, were isolated from all sampled farms. High rates of antimicrobial resistance-reaching up to 100% were observed against some drugs. However, viral causative agents, including HPAI-H5N8, duck viral hepatitis, and goose parvovirus, were isolated from only five farms. Conclusion: The lack of commitment to biosecurity implementation, particularly personal hygiene, was observed in most sampled farms. Increasing the level of biosecurity reduced the incidence of mixed infections. Keywords: antibiotic resistance, bacterial agents, biosecurity, co-infections, small-scale duck farms, viral diseases.

Antimicrobial Usage by Small-Scale Commercial Poultry Farmers in Mid-Western District of Masindi Uganda: Patterns, Public Health Implications, and Antimicrobial Resistance of E. coli

Background

Poultry production in Uganda is growing at a fast rate due to increasing demand, notwithstanding, poor husbandry practices, and diseases, prompting farmers to rear healthy productive flocks with antimicrobials. The study evaluated the knowledge and practices as regards the use of antibiotics among poultry farmers in Masindi district and determined the antibiotic susceptibility profiles of E. coli strains from chickens.

Methods

A cross-sectional study using a closed-end questionnaire was conducted in 140 selected small-scale commercial poultry farms in Masindi district between June and December, 2020. Analyzed qualitative data were presented as frequencies, percentages, and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Fecal swabs from chickens were inoculated onto a MacConkey agar, and E. coli was confirmed by standard biochemical tests. Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined by the disk diffusion method for 7 antibiotics.

Results

Most farmers (74%) used antibiotics, mainly tetracycline (51.4%) and sulfonamides (28.6%), given to the chicks (45%), for both curative and prophylaxis purposes (80%), and via drinking water (67%). Farmers mainly used antibiotics recommended by the veterinarian (76.4%), more than relying on experience (10.7%), while 45% were involved in self-medicating the birds. On choosing the correct dosage, 45.7% read the instruction, and 42.9% consulted a veterinarian. Only 10.7% observed the drug withdrawal period, while 53.6% consumed eggs at home or sold eggs (35.7%) from birds under treatment. Of the 200 E. coli strains, 90 (45.0%) were resistant to one drug, 74 (37.0%) to two, and multidrug resistance to three classes of antibiotics was 36 (18.0%). Overall, E. coli resistance to tetracycline was (69.0%), ampicillin (37.0%), sulfonamides (36.0%), and to kanamycin (1.5%).

Conclusions

The small-scale poultry farmers frequently use antimicrobial drugs, mainly tetracycline and sulfonamides for curative and prophylaxis. Thus, enforcing measures against antibiotic use supported by a strong veterinary service sector and farmers' training on judicious use of antimicrobials are needed.

What is a biosecurity measure? A definition proposal for animal production and linked processing operations

While biosecurity, a central component of the One Health concept, is clearly defined, a harmonized definition of the term ´biosecurity measure´ (BSM) is missing. In turn, particularly at the farm and policy level, this leads to misunderstandings, low acceptance, poor implementation, and thus suboptimal biosecurity along the food animal production chain. Moreover, different views on BSMs affects making comparisons both at the policy level as well as in the scientific community. Therefore, as part of the One Health EJP BIOPIGEE project, a work group i) collected and discussed relevant inclusion and exclusion criteria for measures to be considered in the context of biosecurity and ii) conducted a systematic literature review for potentially existing definitions for the term BSM. This exercise confirmed the lack of a definition of BSM, underlining the importance of the topic. In the pool of articles considered relevant to defining the term BSM, specific research themes were identified. Based on these outcomes, we propose a definition of the term BSM:

“A biosecurity measure (BSM) – is the implementation of a segregation, hygiene, or management procedure (excluding medically effective feed additives and preventive/curative treatment of animals) that specifically aims at reducing the probability of the introduction, establishment, survival, or spread of any potential pathogen to, within, or from a farm, operation or geographical area.”

The definition provides a basis for policymakers to identify factual BSMs, highlights the point of implementation and supports to achieve the necessary quality standards of biosecurity in food animal production. It also enables clear, harmonized, cross-sectoral communication of best biosecurity practices to and from relevant stakeholders and thus contribute to improving biosecurity and thereby strengthen the One Health approach.

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We propose a harmonized definition for the term “biosecurity measure”.

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Policy makers can use this definition to identify factual BSMs.

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The definition promotes communication of biosecurity practices between stakeholders.

Policies to prevent zoonotic spillover: protocol for a systematic scoping review of evaluative evidence

INTRODUCTION

The increasing incidence of pathogen transmission from animals to humans (zoonotic spillover events) has been attributed to behavioural practices and ecological and socioeconomic change. As these events sometimes involve pathogens with epidemic or pandemic potential, they pose a serious threat to population health. Public policies may play a key role in preventing these events. The aim of this review is to identify evaluations of public policies that target the determinants of zoonotic spillover, examining approaches taken to evaluation, choice of outcomes measures and evidence of effectiveness. Our approach to identifying and analysing this literature will be informed by a One Health lens, acknowledging the interconnectedness of human, animal and environmental health.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A systematic scoping review methodology will be used. To identify articles, we will search Medline, SCOPUS, Web of Science and Global Health in May 2021 using search terms combining animal health and the animal-human interface, public policy, prevention and zoonoses. We will screen titles and abstracts and extract data according to published guidelines for scoping reviews. All evaluations of public policies aiming to prevent zoonotic spillover events will be eligible for inclusion. We will summarise key data from each study, mapping policies along the spillover pathway and outlining the range of policies, approaches to evaluation and outcome measures. Review findings will provide a useful reference for researchers and practitioners, outlining the state of the evaluative evidence around policies to prevent zoonotic spillover.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Formal ethical approval is not required, because the study does not involve primary data collection. The findings of this study will be disseminated through a peer-reviewed publication, presentations and summaries for key stakeholders.

RNA Viruses, Pandemics and Anticipatory Preparedness

RNA viruses are likely to cause future pandemics and therefore we must create and organize a deep knowledge of these viruses to prevent and manage this risk. Assuming prevention will fail, at least once, we must be prepared to manage a future pandemic using all resources available. We emphasize the importance of having safe vaccine candidates and safe broad-spectrum antivirals ready for rapid clinical translation. Additionally, we must have similar tools to be ready for outbreaks of RNA viruses among animals and plants. Finally, similar coordination should be accomplished for other pathogens with pandemic potential.

Antimicrobial Usage in Commercial and Domestic Poultry Farming in Two Communities in the Ashanti Region of Ghana

Poultry farming is a common practice in Ghana. Antibiotics are used, particularly in commercial poultry farming, as growth promoters and to prevent and cure infections. However, there is little information on antimicrobial usage in domestic poultry farming in Ghana. This study aimed to describe antimicrobial usage in commercial and domestic poultry farming. A cross-sectional survey was conducted within the Ashanti region of Ghana including 33 commercial farms and 130 households with domestic poultry farming. The median poultry population on commercial farms was 1500 (IQR: 300–3000) compared with 18 (IQR: 10–25) on domestic farms. The majority (97%, n = 32) of commercial farms used antimicrobials, compared with 43% (n = 56) of the domestic farms. Commercial farmers were 6.1 (CI: 3.2–11.8) times more likely to read and follow instructions on antimicrobials in comparison with domestic poultry keepers. About 11% of domestic and 34% of commercial farmers had received education on antimicrobial usage. None of the commercial farmers used herbal remedies; however, 40% (n/N = 52/130) of domestic farmers administered herbs. The misuse of antimicrobials in domestic poultry production calls for stricter regulations and training to limit the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria among poultry.

Role played by the environment in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) through the food chain

The role of food-producing environments in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in EU plant-based food production, terrestrial animals (poultry, cattle and pigs) and aquaculture was assessed. Among the various sources and transmission routes identified, fertilisers of faecal origin, irrigation and surface water for plant-based food and water for aquaculture were considered of major importance. For terrestrial animal production, potential sources consist of feed, humans, water, air/dust, soil, wildlife, rodents, arthropods and equipment. Among those, evidence was found for introduction with feed and humans, for the other sources, the importance could not be assessed. Several ARB of highest priority for public health, such as carbapenem or extended-spectrum cephalosporin and/or fluoroquinolone-resistant Enterobacterales (including Salmonella enterica), fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter spp., methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and glycopeptide-resistant Enterococcus faecium and E. faecalis were identified. Among highest priority ARGs bla CTX -M, bla VIM, bla NDM, bla OXA -48-like, bla OXA -23, mcr, armA, vanA, cfr and optrA were reported. These highest priority bacteria and genes were identified in different sources, at primary and post-harvest level, particularly faeces/manure, soil and water. For all sectors, reducing the occurrence of faecal microbial contamination of fertilisers, water, feed and the production environment and minimising persistence/recycling of ARB within animal production facilities is a priority. Proper implementation of good hygiene practices, biosecurity and food safety management systems is very important. Potential AMR-specific interventions are in the early stages of development. Many data gaps relating to sources and relevance of transmission routes, diversity of ARB and ARGs, effectiveness of mitigation measures were identified. Representative epidemiological and attribution studies on AMR and its effective control in food production environments at EU level, linked to One Health and environmental initiatives, are urgently required.