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Hunter SK, Senefeld JW. Sex differences in human performance. J Physiol 2024; 602:4129-4156. [PMID: 39106346 DOI: 10.1113/jp284198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 08/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Sex as a biological variable is an underappreciated aspect of biomedical research, with its importance emerging in more recent years. This review assesses the current understanding of sex differences in human physical performance. Males outperform females in many physical capacities because they are faster, stronger and more powerful, particularly after male puberty. This review highlights key sex differences in physiological and anatomical systems (generally conferred via sex steroids and puberty) that contribute to these sex differences in human physical performance. Specifically, we address the effects of the primary sex steroids that affect human physical development, discuss insight gained from an observational study of 'real-world data' and elite athletes, and highlight the key physiological mechanisms that contribute to sex differences in several aspects of physical performance. Physiological mechanisms discussed include those for the varying magnitude of the sex differences in performance involving: (1) absolute muscular strength and power; (2) fatigability of limb muscles as a measure of relative performance; and (3) maximal aerobic power and endurance. The profound sex-based differences in human performance involving strength, power, speed and endurance, and that are largely attributable to the direct and indirect effects of sex-steroid hormones, sex chromosomes and epigenetics, provide a scientific rationale and framework for policy decisions on sex-based categories in sports during puberty and adulthood. Finally, we highlight the sex bias and problem in human performance research of insufficient studies and information on females across many areas of biology and physiology, creating knowledge gaps and opportunities for high-impact studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra K Hunter
- Movement Science Program, School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Jonathon W Senefeld
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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Venckunas T, Satas A, Brazaitis M, Eimantas N, Sipaviciene S, Kamandulis S. Near-InfraRed Spectroscopy Provides a Reproducible Estimate of Muscle Aerobic Capacity, but Not Whole-Body Aerobic Power. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2277. [PMID: 38610488 PMCID: PMC11014184 DOI: 10.3390/s24072277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/30/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) during repeated limb occlusions is a noninvasive tool for assessing muscle oxidative capacity. However, the method's reliability and validity remain under investigation. This study aimed to determine the reliability of the NIRS-derived mitochondrial power of the musculus vastus lateralis and its correlation with whole-body (cycling) aerobic power (V̇O2 peak). Eleven healthy active men (28 ± 10 y) twice (2 days apart) underwent repeated arterial occlusions to induce changes in muscle oxygen delivery after 15 s of electrical muscle stimulation. The muscle oxygen consumption (mV̇O2) recovery time and rate (k) constants were calculated from the NIRS O2Hb signal. We assessed the reliability (coefficient of variation and intraclass coefficient of correlation [ICC]) and equivalency (t-test) between visits. The results showed high reproducibility for the mV̇O2 recovery time constant (ICC = 0.859) and moderate reproducibility for the k value (ICC = 0.674), with no significant differences between visits (p > 0.05). NIRS-derived k did not correlate with the V̇O2 peak relative to body mass (r = 0.441, p = 0.17) or the absolute V̇O2 peak (r = 0.366, p = 0.26). In conclusion, NIRS provides a reproducible estimate of muscle mitochondrial power, which, however, was not correlated with whole-body aerobic capacity in the current study, suggesting that even if somewhat overlapping, not the same set of factors underpin these distinct indices of aerobic capacity at the different (peripheral and whole-body systemic) levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Venckunas
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, 44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Andrius Satas
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, 44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Marius Brazaitis
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, 44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Nerijus Eimantas
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, 44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Saule Sipaviciene
- Department of Health Promotion and Rehabilitation, Lithuanian Sports University, 44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Sigitas Kamandulis
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, 44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
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Xu Y, Liu X, Tsuji K, Hamaoka T, Tabata I. Oxygen uptake during the last bouts of exercise incorporated into high-intensity intermittent cross-exercise exceeds the V˙ O 2max of the same exercise mode. SPORTS MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2024; 6:63-69. [PMID: 38463671 PMCID: PMC10918347 DOI: 10.1016/j.smhs.2024.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Oxygen uptake (V ˙ O2) was measured during a non-exhaustive high-intensity intermittent cross-exercise (HIICE) protocol consisting of four alternating bouts of 20 s running (R) and three bouts of bicycle exercise (BE) at ∼160% and ∼170% maximal oxygen uptake (V ˙ O2max), respectively, with 10 s between-bout rests (sequence R-BE-R-BE-R-BE-R). The V ˙ O2 during the last BE ([52.2 ± 5.0] mL·kg-1·min-1) was significantly higher than the V ˙ O2max of the BE ([48.0 ± 5.4] mL·kg-1·min-1, n = 30) and similar to that of running. For clarifying the underlying mechanisms, a corresponding HIICE-protocol with BE and arm cranking ergometer exercise (AC) was used (sequence AC-AC-BE-AC-BE-AC-AC-BE). In some experiments, thigh blood flow was occluded by a cuff around the upper thigh. Without occlusion, the V ˙ O2 during the AC ([39.2 ± 7.1] mL·kg-1·min-1 [6th bout]) was significantly higher than the V ˙ O2max of AC ([30.2 ± 4.4] mL·kg-1·min-1, n = 7). With occlusion, the corresponding V ˙ O2 ([29.8 ± 3.9] mL·kg-1·min-1) was reduced to that of the V ˙ O2max of AC and significantly less than the V ˙ O2 without occlusion. These findings suggest that during the last bouts of HIICE may exceed the of the specific exercise, probably because it is a summation of the V ˙ O2 for the ongoing exercise plus excess post-oxygen consumption (EPOC) produced by the previous exercise with a higher V ˙ O2max.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhong Xu
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Xin Liu
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Katsunori Tsuji
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Takafumi Hamaoka
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Izumi Tabata
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
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del-Cuerpo I, Jerez-Mayorga D, Chirosa-Ríos LJ, Morenas-Aguilar MD, Mariscal-Arcas M, López-Moro A, Delgado-Floody P. Males Have a Higher Energy Expenditure than Females during Squat Training. Nutrients 2023; 15:3455. [PMID: 37571392 PMCID: PMC10421381 DOI: 10.3390/nu15153455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to determine the differences in energy expenditure (EE) according to sex during and after two different squat training protocols in a group of healthy young adults. Twenty-nine Sports Sciences students volunteered to participate in this study. They attended the laboratory on four different days and completed four sessions: two sessions with 3 sets of 12 repetitions at 75% of their one-repetition maximum (RM) and two sessions with 3 sets of 30 repetitions at 50% of their 1RM. Energy expenditure was evaluated using an indirect calorimeter. Males consistently demonstrated higher EE in all sessions and intensities. The linear regression model identified a significant association between sex, BMI, and total EE across all sessions and intensities. In conclusion, males exhibited higher EE in both protocols (50% and 75% of 1RM) throughout all sessions. Furthermore, sex and BMI were found to influence EE in healthy young adults. Therefore, coaches should consider sex when assessing EE, as the metabolic response differs between males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indya del-Cuerpo
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (I.d.-C.); (D.J.-M.); (L.J.C.-R.); (M.D.M.-A.)
- Strength & Conditioning Laboratory, CTS-642 Research Group, Department Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Daniel Jerez-Mayorga
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (I.d.-C.); (D.J.-M.); (L.J.C.-R.); (M.D.M.-A.)
- Strength & Conditioning Laboratory, CTS-642 Research Group, Department Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, School of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 7591538, Chile
| | - Luis Javier Chirosa-Ríos
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (I.d.-C.); (D.J.-M.); (L.J.C.-R.); (M.D.M.-A.)
- Strength & Conditioning Laboratory, CTS-642 Research Group, Department Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - María Dolores Morenas-Aguilar
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (I.d.-C.); (D.J.-M.); (L.J.C.-R.); (M.D.M.-A.)
- Strength & Conditioning Laboratory, CTS-642 Research Group, Department Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel Mariscal-Arcas
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (M.M.-A.); (A.L.-M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs. GRANADA), 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Alejandro López-Moro
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (M.M.-A.); (A.L.-M.)
| | - Pedro Delgado-Floody
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (I.d.-C.); (D.J.-M.); (L.J.C.-R.); (M.D.M.-A.)
- Department of Physical Education, Sports and Recreation, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
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Cherouveim ED, Miliotis PG, Koskolou MD, Dipla K, Vrabas IS, Geladas ND. The Effect of Skeletal Muscle Oxygenation on Hemodynamics, Cerebral Oxygenation and Activation, and Exercise Performance during Incremental Exercise to Exhaustion in Male Cyclists. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:981. [PMID: 37508410 PMCID: PMC10376807 DOI: 10.3390/biology12070981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to elucidate whether muscle blood flow restriction during maximal exercise is associated with alterations in hemodynamics, cerebral oxygenation, cerebral activation, and deterioration of exercise performance in male participants. Thirteen healthy males, cyclists (age 33 ± 2 yrs., body mass: 78.6 ± 2.5 kg, and body mass index: 25.57 ± 0.91 kg·m-1), performed a maximal incremental exercise test on a bicycle ergometer in two experimental conditions: (a) with muscle blood flow restriction through the application of thigh cuffs inflated at 120 mmHg (with cuffs, WC) and (b) without restriction (no cuffs, NC). Exercise performance significantly deteriorated with muscle blood flow restriction, as evidenced by the reductions in V˙O2max (-17 ± 2%, p < 0.001), peak power output (-28 ± 2%, p < 0.001), and time to exhaustion (-28 ± 2%, p < 0.001). Muscle oxygenated hemoglobin (Δ[O2Hb]) during exercise declined more in the NC condition (p < 0.01); however, at exhaustion, the magnitude of muscle oxygenation and muscle deoxygenation were similar between conditions (p > 0.05). At maximal effort, lower cerebral deoxygenated hemoglobin (Δ[HHb]) and cerebral total hemoglobin (Δ[THb]) were observed in WC (p < 0.001), accompanied by a lower cardiac output, heart rate, and stroke volume vs. the NC condition (p < 0.01), whereas systolic blood pressure, rating of perceived exertion, and cerebral activation (as assessed by electroencephalography (EEG) activity) were similar (p > 0.05) between conditions at task failure, despite marked differences in exercise duration, maximal aerobic power output, and V˙O2max. In conclusion, in trained cyclists, muscle blood flow restriction during an incremental cycling exercise test significantly limited exercise performance. Exercise intolerance with muscle blood flow restriction was mainly associated with attenuated cardiac responses, despite cerebral activation reaching similar maximal levels as without muscle blood flow restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgenia D Cherouveim
- Division of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece
| | - Panagiotis G Miliotis
- Division of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece
| | - Maria D Koskolou
- Division of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantina Dipla
- Laboratory of Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry, School of Physical Education and Sports Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62122 Serres, Greece
| | - Ioannis S Vrabas
- Laboratory of Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry, School of Physical Education and Sports Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62122 Serres, Greece
| | - Nickos D Geladas
- Division of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece
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Festa RR, Monsalves-Álvarez M, Cancino J, Jannas-Vela S. Prescription of High-intensity Aerobic Interval Training Based on Oxygen Uptake Kinetics. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:159-168. [PMID: 35995143 DOI: 10.1055/a-1929-0295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Endurance training results in diverse adaptations that lead to increased performance and health benefits. A commonly measured training response is the analysis of oxygen uptake kinetics, representing the demand of a determined load (speed/work) on the cardiovascular, respiratory, and metabolic systems, providing useful information for the prescription of constant load or interval-type aerobic exercise. There is evidence that during high-intensity aerobic exercise some interventions prescribe brief interval times (<1-min), which may lead to a dissociation between the load prescribed and the oxygen uptake demanded, potentially affecting training outcomes. Therefore, this review explored the time to achieve a close association between the speed/work prescribed and the oxygen uptake demanded after the onset of high-intensity aerobic exercise. The evidence assessed revealed that at least 80% of the oxygen uptake amplitude is reached when phase II of oxygen uptake kinetics is completed (1 to 2 minutes after the onset of exercise, depending on the training status). We propose that the minimum work-time during high-intensity aerobic interval training sessions should be at least 1 minute for athletes and 2 minutes for non-athletes. This suggestion could be used by coaches, physical trainers, clinicians and sports or health scientists for the prescription of high-intensity aerobic interval training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl Ricardo Festa
- Laboratorio de Fisiología del Ejercicio y Metabolismo, Escuela de Kinesiología, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Jorge Cancino
- Laboratorio de Fisiología del Ejercicio y Metabolismo, Escuela de Kinesiología, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
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Raine LB, Erickson KI, Grove G, Watrous JNH, McDonald K, Kang C, Jakicic JM, Forman DE, Kramer AF, Burns JM, Vidoni ED, McAuley E, Hillman CH. Cardiorespiratory fitness levels and body mass index of pre-adolescent children and older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Front Public Health 2023; 10:1052389. [PMID: 36733279 PMCID: PMC9888666 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1052389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The social and behavioral effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have impacted the health and physiology of most people, including those never diagnosed with COVID-19. While the impact of the pandemic has been felt across the lifespan, its effects on cardiorespiratory fitness (commonly considered a reflection of total body health) of older adults and children may be particularly profound due to social distancing and stay-at-home advisories, as well as the closure of sport facilities and non-essential businesses. The objective of this investigation was to leverage baseline data from two ongoing clinical trials to determine if cardiorespiratory fitness and body mass index were different during COVID-19 relative to before COVID-19 in older adults and children. Methods Healthy older individuals (N = 593; 65-80 years) and 200 typically developing children (8-10 years) completed a graded maximal exercise test and had their height and weight measured. Results Results revealed that older adults and children tested during COVID-19 had significantly lower cardiorespiratory fitness levels than those tested before COVID-19 shutdowns (older adults: 30% lower; children: 53% lower; p's ≤ 0.001). In addition, older adults and children tested during COVID-19 had significantly higher BMI (older adults: 31.34 ± 0.57 kg/m2, p = 0.004; children: 19.27 ± 0.44 kg/m2, p = 0.05) than those tested before COVID-19 shutdowns (older adults: 29.51 ± 0.26 kg/m2, children: 18.13 ± 0.35 kg/m2). However, these differences in BMI did not remain significant when controlling for cardiorespiratory fitness. Discussion Results from this investigation indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic, and behavior changes taken to reduce potential exposure, may have led to lower cardiorespiratory fitness levels in older adults and children, as well as higher body mass index. These findings provide relevant public health information as lower cardiorespiratory fitness levels and higher body mass indexes recorded during the pandemic could have far-reaching and protracted health consequences. Public health guidance is needed to encourage physical activity to maintain cardiorespiratory fitness and healthy body composition. Clinical trial registration Older adults: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02875301, identifier: NCT02875301; Children: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03592238, identifier: NCT03592238.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B. Raine
- Department of Physical Therapy, Movement, and Rehabilitation Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kirk I. Erickson
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- PROFITH “PROmoting FITness and Health Through Physical Activity” Research Group, Department of Physical and Sports Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Sport and Health University Research Institute (iMUDS), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- Research Institute, AdventHealth, Orlando, FL, United States
| | - George Grove
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | | | - Katherine McDonald
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Chaeryon Kang
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - John M. Jakicic
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Daniel E. Forman
- Department of Medicine and Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Geriatrics, Research, Education and Clinical Care (GRECC), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Arthur F. Kramer
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
- Beckman Institute, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Jeffrey M. Burns
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center Fairway, Fairway, KS, United States
| | - Eric D. Vidoni
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center Fairway, Fairway, KS, United States
| | - Edward McAuley
- Beckman Institute, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, United States
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, Champaign, IL, United States
| | - Charles H. Hillman
- Department of Physical Therapy, Movement, and Rehabilitation Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
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Heidorn CE, Elmer SJ, Wehmanen KW, Martin JC, McDaniel J. Single-leg cycling to maintain and improve function in healthy and clinical populations. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1105772. [PMID: 37187959 PMCID: PMC10175616 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1105772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Exercise with reduced muscle mass facilitates greater muscle-specific adaptations than training with larger muscle mass. The smaller active muscle mass can demand a greater portion of cardiac output which allows muscle(s) to perform greater work and subsequently elicit robust physiological adaptations that improve health and fitness. One reduced active muscle mass exercise that can promote greater positive physiological adaptations is single-leg cycling (SLC). Specifically, SLC confines the cycling exercise to a smaller muscle mass resulting in greater limb specific blood flow (i.e., blood flow is no longer "shared" by both legs) which allows the individual to exercise at a greater limb specific intensity or for a longer duration. Numerous reports describing the use of SLC have established cardiovascular and/or metabolic benefits of this exercise modality for healthy adults, athletes, and individuals living with chronic diseases. SLC has served as a valuable research tool for understanding central and peripheral factors to phenomena such as oxygen uptake and exercise tolerance (i.e., V̇O2peak and V̇O2 slow component). Together, these examples highlight the breadth of applications of SLC to promote, maintain, and study health. Accordingly, the purpose of this review was to describe: 1) acute physiological responses to SLC, 2) long-term adaptations to SLC in populations ranging from endurance athletes to middle aged adults, to individuals living with chronic disease (COPD, heart failure, organ transplant), and 3) various methods utilized to safely perform SLC. A discussion is also included on clinical application and exercise prescription of SLC for the maintenance and/or improvement of health.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Eric Heidorn
- Vascular Health Lab, Exercise Physiology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
- Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
- *Correspondence: C. Eric Heidorn,
| | - Steven J. Elmer
- Department of Kinesiology and Integrative Physiology, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, United States
- Health Research Institute, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, United States
| | - Kyle W. Wehmanen
- Department of Kinesiology and Integrative Physiology, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, United States
- Health Research Institute, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, United States
| | - James C. Martin
- Department of Nutrition and Integrative Physiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - John McDaniel
- Vascular Health Lab, Exercise Physiology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
- Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
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Sex Differences in VO 2max and the Impact on Endurance-Exercise Performance. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19094946. [PMID: 35564339 PMCID: PMC9105160 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19094946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
It was not until 1984 that women were permitted to compete in the Olympic marathon. Today, more women than men participate in road racing in all distances except the marathon where participation is near equal. From the period of 1985 to 2004, the women’s marathon record improved at a rate three times greater than men’s. This has led many to question whether women are capable of surpassing men despite the fact that there remains a 10–12% performance gap in all distance events. The progressive developments in sports performance research and training, beginning with A.V. Hill’s establishment of the concept of VO2max, have allowed endurance athletes to continue performance feats previously thought to be impossible. However, even today women are significantly underrepresented in sports performance research. By focusing more research on the female physiology and sex differences between men and women, we can better define how women differ from men in adapting to training and potentially use this information to improve endurance-exercise performance in women. The male advantage in endurance-exercise performance has commonly been attributed to their higher VO2max, even when expressed as mL/kg/min. It is widely known that oxygen delivery is the primary limiting factor in elite athletes when it comes to improving VO2max, but little research has explored the sex differences in oxygen delivery. Thus, the purpose of this review is to highlight what is known about the sex differences in the physiological factors contributing to VO2max, more specifically oxygen delivery, and the impacts on performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek Ball
- Institute of Education in Medicine and Dental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
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