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Ahmadpour A, Fashi M, Hemmatinafar M. Consuming Beetroot Juice Improves Slalom Performance and Reduces Muscle Soreness in Alpine Skiers under Hypoxic Conditions. Curr Dev Nutr 2024; 8:104408. [PMID: 39224139 PMCID: PMC11367456 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdnut.2024.104408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2024] [Revised: 06/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Beetroot juice (BRJ) supplementation has been shown to increase sports performance under hypoxic conditions and to improve athletes' recovery. Objectives In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effect of acute BRJ supplementation on slalom (SL) run performance and muscle soreness (MS) in Alpine skiers at moderate to high altitudes. Methods Ten male Alpine skiers received 220 mL of BRJ (8.9 mmol/L nitrate) or placebo (PLA) in 2 sessions with a 7-d wash out interval in a randomized, crossover, PLA-controlled, double-blind study. The 90-s box jump (BJ90), agility hexagonal obstacle jump (Hex Jump), and wall-sit tests were measured before on-hill SL runs in both sessions. After the functional tests, SL run performance was measured by time to complete 2 runs on the SL course; immediately after each SL run, the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was recorded. In addition, perceived MS was recorded using the visual analog scale at 12, 24, and 48 h after the SL runs. Results The data were meticulously analyzed using 2-way repeated measures analysis of variance and paired t tests with significance set at P < 0.05. The findings were significant, indicating that compared with PLA, BRJ notably improved wall-sit and BJ90 performances (P < 0.05), while a substantial reduction was observed in RPE, Hex Jump, and MS (P < 0.05). A 1.74% shorter time to complete SL runs was observed in the BRJ group compared with the PLA group; however, there were no significant differences between the PLA and BRJ groups (P > 0.05). Conclusions These results underscore the potential of BRJ supplementation to enhance sports performance and reduce MS in Alpine skiers under hypoxic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Ahmadpour
- Department of Biological Sciences in Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Fashi
- Department of Biological Sciences in Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hemmatinafar
- Department of Sport Science, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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Douglas SM, Kitchin PJ, Jackson AJ, Barrett BT, Little JA. Athletes' Perspectives of the Classification System in Para Alpine Skiing for Those With Visual Impairment. Adapt Phys Activ Q 2024; 41:402-419. [PMID: 38710491 DOI: 10.1123/apaq.2023-0076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
This study explored the classification experiences and views of Para Alpine skiers with visual impairment. Data from 11 interviews were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis to generate three themes: Suitability-The skiers questioned the suitability of the visual measurements, testing environment, and the information they received regarding classification; Exclusivity-Skiers felt certain aspects of the system remain exclusive due to the restrictions of sport classes and lack of the athlete voice; and (Dis)trust-Skiers felt distrust in those implementing the system and in other athletes due to intentional misrepresentation. Speculation surrounding this resulted in the skiers' feeling doubt in their own classification. While there is not a "one size fits all" approach to classification, understanding skiers' experiences can be a vital first step and will help to guide future research into the evolution of this sport's classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara M Douglas
- Centre for Optometry and Vision Science, Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom
| | - Paul J Kitchin
- School of Sport, Ulster University, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | | | - Brendan T Barrett
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Julie-Anne Little
- Centre for Optometry and Vision Science, Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom
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3
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Suárez-Iglesias D, Ayán C, García-Fresneda A, Villa-Vicente JG, Rodríguez-Medina J, Rodríguez-Marroyo JA. Case study: Evaluating deep-water start techniques and training demands in seated slalom waterskiing for an athlete with paraplegia. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1363544. [PMID: 38962225 PMCID: PMC11221382 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1363544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Recreational and competitive slalom waterskiing is increasingly popular among individuals with spinal cord injuries (SCI), particularly for those with paraplegia using sit-skis. A key component of slalom skiing is the deep-water start (DWS), yet little is known about the physiological and physical demands of this activity when the athlete is seated. This study aims to fill this gap by focusing on the training requirements for a seated slalom athlete. Materials and methods Focusing on a young male athlete with paraplegia, this case study evaluates the effectiveness and efficiency of traditional (TDWS) and alternative (ADWS) DWS techniques during seated slalom waterskiing sessions. It assesses internal training load (TL) through heart rate (HR) zones and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), alongside pre- and post-session handgrip strength measurements to gauge peripheral muscle fatigue. Results and conclusions Performing the ADWS, achieving a full success rate, proved more effective but slightly more time-consuming than TDWS, which had limited success. HR during DWS maneuvers ranged from 63.2 to 81.3% of maximal HR, with most sessions occurring below the ventilatory threshold, thus perceived as hard effort. A moderate yet non-significant correlation was found between HR and sRPE-based TL. A significant reduction in handgrip strength post-session underscores the activity's demands. These insights illuminate the technical, physiological, and physical challenges in mastering DWS for seated slalom athletes with SCI, providing valuable guidance for the development of tailored training programs and techniques in this sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Suárez-Iglesias
- VALFIS Research Group, Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Faculty of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Carlos Ayán
- Well-Move Research Group, Department of Special Didactics, Faculty of Education and Sport Science, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), Universidad de Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Adrián García-Fresneda
- Department of Health Sciences, Research Group in Technology Applied to High Performance and Health, TecnoCampus, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Mataró, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Gerardo Villa-Vicente
- VALFIS Research Group, Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Faculty of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Juan Rodríguez-Medina
- VALFIS Research Group, Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Faculty of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, Universidad de León, León, Spain
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Sauvé B, Haugan M, Paulsen G. Physical and Physiological Characteristics of Elite CrossFit Athletes. Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:162. [PMID: 38921856 PMCID: PMC11209587 DOI: 10.3390/sports12060162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Due to little available research on elite CrossFit athletes, the present investigation was undertaken to provide knowledge about their physical and physiological characteristics. Nineteen international level CrossFit athletes (8 men; 11 women) were tested for maximum oxygen consumption (V˙O2max), Wingate, squat 1 repetition maximum (1RM), countermovement jump (CMJ), lower body force-velocity, and body composition (DXA). To provide perspective, the results were compared to sixteen elite-level Alpinists (8 men; 8 women). There was no significant difference in absolute nor relative V˙O2max between the CrossFit and Alpinist men (p = 0.335 and p = 0.279, respectively). The CrossFit women showed similar absolute but higher relative V˙O2max than the Alpinist women (p = 0.055 and p = 0.005, respectively). Mean anaerobic power was higher in both CrossFit men and women (p = 0.021 and p = 0.008, respectively). There were no significant differences in squat 1RM and CMJ for both men and women (p > 0.05). Both CrossFit men and women showed lesser lower body force production (p = 0.043 and p = 0.034, respectively) but higher power (p = 0.009 and p = 0.003, respectively). The CrossFit men and women had a lower fat mass (p = 0.018 and p = 0.002, respectively) and fat percentage (p = 0.027 and p < 0.001, respectively). These observations show that elite CrossFit athletes possess physical and physiological characteristics comparable to world-class Alpinists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bram Sauvé
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien 220, 0863 Oslo, Norway; (M.H.); (G.P.)
| | - Magnus Haugan
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien 220, 0863 Oslo, Norway; (M.H.); (G.P.)
| | - Gøran Paulsen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien 220, 0863 Oslo, Norway; (M.H.); (G.P.)
- Norwegian Olympic Federation, Sognsveien 228, 0863 Oslo, Norway
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Penitente G, Young HA, Sands WA, McNeal JR. A Classification of Fitness Components in Elite Alpine Skiers: A Cluster Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:ijerph20105841. [PMID: 37239567 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20105841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The current study is an exploratory, secondary data analysis of a selection of physiological and biomechanical fitness components used to assess elite alpine skiers. The present study will provide new knowledge that can be used to aid training prescription and talent identification. A hierarchical cluster analysis was used to identify groups of variables that are crucial for elite alpine skiers and differences based on sex and competition level. The key findings of the study are the patterns that emerged in the generated dendrograms. Physiological and biomechanical fitness components are differentiated in the dendrograms of male and female world-cup-level alpine skiers, but not in non-world-cup athletes. Components related to the aerobic and anaerobic capacity tightly cluster in male athletes at world cup and non-world-cup level, and female world cup athletes. Lower body explosive force production appears to be more critical in male world cup athletes than female world cup athletes. More research is needed into the importance of isometric strength in the lower body. Future research should use larger sample sizes and consider other alpine ski demographics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Penitente
- Academy of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S10 2BP, UK
| | - Hayden A Young
- Academy of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S10 2BP, UK
| | | | - Jeni R McNeal
- Department of Physical Education, Health and Recreation, Eastern Washington University, Cheney, WA 99004-2431, USA
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Magelssen C, Haugen P, Reid R, Gilgien M. Is there a contextual interference effect for sub-elite alpine ski racers learning complex skills? Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:966041. [PMID: 36185422 PMCID: PMC9521505 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.966041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Scientific understanding of the contextual interference effect stems mainly from studies on unskilled participants learning artificial laboratory tasks. Although one goal of such studies is to extrapolate the findings to include real-world learning situations such as sports, this generalization is not straightforward. This study tested the contextual interference effect with 66 sub-elite, competitive alpine ski racers who learned a new movement pattern−the pumping technique to increase velocity in slalom−by practicing this skill in three different slalom courses over a 3-day training period. The interleaved group practiced all three courses each day in a semi-random order. In contrast, the blocked group practiced only one course each day, which was randomized and counterbalanced across the participants in this group. A retention test was delivered 72 h after the last practice day. In contrast to our hypothesis, the interleaved group did not display significantly better retention than the blocked group. The interleaved group’s performance was also not significantly attenuated during skill learning compared to the blocked group. Our results underscore the importance of conducting motor learning experiments in natural environments to understand the conditions that facilitate learning beyond the laboratory environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Magelssen
- Institute for Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- *Correspondence: Christian Magelssen,
| | - Per Haugen
- Institute for Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Matthias Gilgien
- Institute for Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- The Norwegian Ski Federation, Oslo, Norway
- Center of Alpine Sports Biomechanics, Engadin Health and Innovation Foundation, Samedan, Switzerland
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Alhammoud M, Girard O, Hansen C, Racinais S, Meyer F, Hautier CA, Morel B. Repeated practice runs during on-snow training do not generate any measurable neuromuscular alterations in elite alpine skiers. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:829195. [PMID: 35966108 PMCID: PMC9372580 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.829195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Alpine skiers typically train using repeated practice runs requiring high bursts of muscle activity but there is little field-based evidence characterizing neuromuscular function across successive runs. Purpose To examine the impact of repeated ski runs on electromyographic activity (EMG) of the knee extensors and flexors in elite alpine skiers. Methods Nineteen national team alpine skiers were tested during regular ski training [Slalom (SL), Giant Slalom (GS), Super Giant Slalom and Downhill (Speed)] for a total of 39 training sessions. The surface EMG of the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), vastus medialis (VM), biceps femoris (BF) and semimembranosus/semitendinosus (SMST) muscles was continuously recorded along with right knee and hip angles. The EMG root mean square signal was normalized to a maximal voluntary contraction (%MVC). The first and fourth runs of the training session were compared. Results There was no meaningful main effect of run on EMG relative activation time or mean power frequency beyond the skier's intrinsic variability. However, EMG activity of the vastii increased from the first to the fourth run in SL [VM, ~+3%MVC for IL and outside leg (OL), p = 0.035)], speed (VL, IL:+6%/OL:+11%, p = 0.015), and GS (VM, IL:0/OL:+7%, p < 0.001); the later with an interaction with leg (p < 0.001) due to a localized increase on the OL. The run time and turn time did not change from the first to the fourth run. There were no meaningful changes in angular velocities, amplitude of movement, or maximal and minimal angles. Conclusion Neuromuscular activity remains highly stable in elite skiers with low variability across four runs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Alhammoud
- Aspetar–Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
- French Ski Federation, Annecy, France
- *Correspondence: Marine Alhammoud
| | - Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Clint Hansen
- Department of Neurology, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel Medizinische Fakultat, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Frédéric Meyer
- Digital Signal Processing Group, Department of Informatics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Christophe André Hautier
- Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Baptiste Morel
- Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology (EA 7424), Savoie Mont Blanc University, Chambéry, France
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8
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Geng Y, Wu X, Zhang L. Effects of Blood Flow Restriction Training on Blood Perfusion and Work Ability of Muscles in Elite Para-alpine Skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 54:489-496. [PMID: 34669671 PMCID: PMC8830888 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Purpose The effects of short-term blood flow restriction (BFR) exercise on muscle blood flow perfusion and performance during high-intensity exercise were determined in elite para-alpine standing skiers to assess whether this would be an effective training regimen for elite athletes with disabilities. Methods Nine national-level para-alpine standing skiers (mean age, 20.67 ± 1.34 yr; four women) were recruited. Nondominant lower limbs were trained with BFR (eight in final analyses), and dominant lower limbs were trained without BFR (seven in final analyses). The 2-wk protocol included high-load resistance, local muscle endurance (circuit resistance training), and aerobic endurance (stationary cycling) training performed 4 times a week, with BFR during local muscle endurance and aerobic endurance sessions. Muscle strength was measured by maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) in the knee extensors; microcirculatory blood perfusion (MBP), by laser Doppler blood flow; and muscle strength and endurance, by the total amount of work (TW) performed during high-intensity centrifugal and concentric contractions. Results BFR significantly increased absolute and relative MVIC (P < 0.001, P = 0.001), MBP (P = 0.011, P = 0.008), and TW (P = 0.006, P = 0.007) from pretraining values, whereas only absolute MVIC increased without BFR (P = 0.047). However, the MVIC increase with BFR exercise (35.88 ± 14.83 N·m) was significantly greater (P = 0.040) than without BFR exercise (16.71 ± 17.79 N·m). Conclusions Short-term BFR exercise significantly increased strength endurance, muscle strength, and MBP in national-level para-alpine standing skiers. Our study provides new evidence that BFR exercise can improve local muscle blood perfusion during high-intensity exercise and informs BFR exercise strategies for athletes with disabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Geng
- School of Physical Education and Sport Training, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China Department of Physical Education, Jiyang College of Zhejiang A&F University, Zhejiang, China
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Nilsson R, Theos A, Lindberg AS, Ferguson RA, Malm C. Lack of Predictive Power in Commonly Used Tests for Performance in Alpine Skiing. Sports Med Int Open 2021; 5:E28-E36. [PMID: 34131582 PMCID: PMC8193913 DOI: 10.1055/a-1078-1441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Competitive alpine skiing is a complex sport that requires high physical and technical competence. Testing the physical status of athletes may be important to increase their ability to achieve elite sport-specific performance. This study aimed to investigate the predictive power of the national test battery of the Swedish Olympic Committee (Fysprofilen) and anthropometric variables in the prediction of competitive performance of elite alpine skiers, indicated by Fédération Internationale de Ski points. Data from fourteen Swedish elite female alpine skiers were analyzed using bivariate and multivariate statistical methods. Physiological test results and anthropometric data could not generate significant bivariate or multivariate models for prediction of competitive performance. Multivariate regression (R2) and prediction (Q2) models for Fédération Internationale de Ski Slalom and Giant Slalom rank reached R2=0.27 to 0.43, Q2=+− 0.8 to−0.17, indicating no valid models. The overall interpretation of these and previous findings are that future test batteries must be validated before implemented, and that test results should be treated with caution when it comes to prediction of future competitive results. Applying tests that are not validated against competitive performance risk misleading coaches and training advisors who aim to increase the sports-specific performance of the individual athlete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Nilsson
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Section of Sports Medicine, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Apostolos Theos
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Section of Sports Medicine, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Ann-Sofie Lindberg
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Section of Sports Medicine, Umeå University, Sweden.,Winternet, Winternet, Boden, Sweden
| | - Richard A Ferguson
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Christer Malm
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Section of Sports Medicine, Umeå University, Sweden
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10
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Pritchard JJ. Fitness Testing Parameters for Alpine Ski Racing. Strength Cond J 2021. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Comparing Active, Passive, and Combined Warm-Ups Among Junior Alpine Skiers in -7°C. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1140–1147. [PMID: 33588374 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Warming up in very cold climates and maintaining an elevated body temperature prior to a race is challenging for snow-sport athletes. PURPOSE To investigate the effects of active (ACT), passive (PAS), and a combination of ACT and PAS (COM) warm-ups on maximal physical performance in a subzero environment among snow-sport athletes. METHODS Ten junior alpine skiers completed 3 experimental trials in -7.2 (0.2)°C. The ACT involved 5 minutes of moderate cycling, 3 × 15-second accelerations, a 6-second sprint, 5 countermovement jumps (CMJs), and a 10-minute passive transition phase, while in PAS, participants wore a lower-body heated garment for 24 minutes. In COM, participants completed the active warm-up, then wore the heated garment during the transition phase. Two maximal CMJs and a 90-second maximal isokinetic cycling test followed the warm-up. RESULTS CMJ performance was likely (P = .150) and very likely (P = .013) greater in ACT and COM, respectively, versus PAS. Average power output during the cycling test was likely (P = .074) greater in ACT and COM versus PAS. Participants felt likely to almost certainly warmer (P < .01) and more comfortable (P = .161) during ACT and COM versus PAS. In addition, participants felt likely warmer (P = .136) and very likely more comfortable (P = .161) in COM versus ACT. CONCLUSIONS COM resulted in significantly improved CMJ performance versus PAS while both ACT and COM led to likely improved 90-second cycling performance. Participants felt significantly warmer during ACT and COM versus PAS and likely warmer in COM versus ACT. Therefore, a combined warm-up is recommended for alpine skiers performing in subzero temperatures.
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12
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The Influence of Ski Waist-Width and Fatigue on Knee-Joint Stability and Skier’s Balance. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10217766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Alpine skiing is a complex sport that demands a high level of motor control and balance. In general, skiers are prone to deterioration in the state of fatigue due to using inappropriate equipment. As a consequence, the risk of injury might increase. This study aimed to examine the influence of fatigue and ski waist-width on knee-joint stability and skier’s balance. A laboratory skiing simulation in a quasistatic ski-turning position was conducted where the lower-limb kinematics was recorded using an optical system, and the balance-determining parameters were captured using a force plate. It was demonstrated that the knee-joint kinematics and skier’s balance were hampered in the state of fatigue, as well as when using skis with a large waist-width. The results of the study suggest avoiding the fatigue state and the use of skis having a large waist-width while skiing on hard surfaces to decrease the risk of injury.
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13
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Burtscher M, Federolf PA, Nachbauer W, Kopp M. Potential Health Benefits From Downhill Skiing. Front Physiol 2019; 9:1924. [PMID: 30692936 PMCID: PMC6340074 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Downhill skiing represents one of the most popular winter sports worldwide. Whereas a plethora of studies dealt with the risk of injury and death associated with downhill skiing, data on its favorable health effects are scarce. A more comprehensive overview on such effects might emerge from a multidisciplinary perspective. Methods: A literature search has been performed to identify original articles on downhill/alpine skiing interventions or questionnaire-based evaluation of skiing effects and the assessment of health effects (cardiorespiratory, neurophysiological, musculoskeletal, psycho-social). Results and Discussion: A total of 21 original articles dealing with potentially favorable health effects resulting from downhill skiing were included in this review. Results indicate that downhill skiing, especially when performed on a regular basis, may contribute to healthy aging by its association with a healthier life style including higher levels of physical activity. Several other mechanisms suggest further favorable health effects of downhill skiing in response to specific challenges and adaptations in the musculo-skeletal and postural control systems, to exposures to cold temperatures and intermittent hypoxia, and/or emotional and social benefits from outdoor recreation. However, reliable data corroborating these mechanisms is scarce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Burtscher
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Peter A Federolf
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Werner Nachbauer
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Martin Kopp
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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14
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Gilgien M, Reid R, Raschner C, Supej M, Holmberg HC. The Training of Olympic Alpine Ski Racers. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1772. [PMID: 30622477 PMCID: PMC6308179 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpine combined was the only alpine ski racing event at the first Winter Olympic Games in 1936, but since then, slalom, giant slalom, super-G, downhill, and team events have also become Olympic events. Substantial improvements in slope preparation, design of courses, equipment, and the skills of Olympic alpine skiers have all helped this sport attain its present significance. Improved snow preparation has resulted in harder surfaces and improved equipment allows a more direct interaction between the skier and snow. At the same time, courses have become more challenging, with technical disciplines requiring more pronounced patterns of loading - unloading, with greater ground reaction forces. Athletes have adapted their training to meet these new demands, but little is presently known about these adaptations. Here, we describe how Olympic athletes from four of the major alpine ski racing nations prepared for the Olympic Games in South Korea in 2018. This overview describes their typical exercise programs with respect to physical conditioning, ski training and periodization, based on interviews with the coaching staff. Alpine ski racing requires mastery of a broad spectrum of physical, technical, mental, and social skills. We describe how athletes and teams deal with the multifactorial nature of the training required. Special emphasis is placed on sport-specific aspects, such as the combination of stimuli that interfere with training, training with chronic injury, training at altitude and in cold regions, the efficiency and effectiveness of ski training and testing, logistic challenges and their effects on fatigue, including the stress of frequent traveling. Our overall goal was to present as complete a picture of the training undertaken by Olympic alpine skiers as possible and on the basis of these findings propose how training for alpine ski racing might be improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Gilgien
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- Alpine Skiing, Norwegian Ski Federation, Oslo, Norway
| | - Robert Reid
- Alpine Skiing, Norwegian Ski Federation, Oslo, Norway
| | - Christian Raschner
- Department of Sport Science, Olympic Training Center, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Matej Supej
- Laboratory of Biomechanics, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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15
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Nilsson R, Lindberg AS, Theos A, Ferguson RA, Malm C. Aerobic Variables for Prediction of Alpine Skiing Performance - A Novel Approach. Sports Med Int Open 2018; 2:E105-E112. [PMID: 30539126 PMCID: PMC6277242 DOI: 10.1055/a-0655-7249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the predictive power of aerobic test results and anthropometric variables on FIS-ranking of junior elite alpine skiers. Results from twenty-three male and female adolescent elite alpine skiers from two seasons were included in the multivariate statistical models. Physical work capacity was determined by V̇O2peak, blood lactate concentration ([HLa]b), and heart rate (HR) during ergometer cycling. Anthropometric variables were body stature, body weight and calculated BMI. No significant correlation between competitive performance and aerobic work capacity or anthropometric data was observed neither in male nor female adolescent skiers. Pre-season physical tests and anthropometric data could therefore not predict end-season FIS-ranking. The best regression (R2) and prediction (Q2) models of FIS slalom (SL) and giant slalom (GS) rank reached R2=0.51 to 0.86, Q2=−0.73 to 0.18, indicating no valid models. This study could not establish V̇O2peak and other included variables as predictors of competitive performance. When combining results from commonly used tests for alpine skiers, and applying multivariate statistical models, investigated tests seems of limited used for athletes, coaches, and ski federations. Performance-specific pre-season tests must be developed and validated for prediction of performance and guidance of exercise training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Nilsson
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine Unit, Umea University, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Apostolos Theos
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine Unit, Umea University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Richard A Ferguson
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University School of Sport Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Christer Malm
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine Unit, Umea University, Umeå, Sweden
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16
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Vitale JA, La Torre A, Banfi G, Bonato M. Effects of an 8-Week Body-Weight Neuromuscular Training on Dynamic Balance and Vertical Jump Performances in Elite Junior Skiing Athletes: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Strength Cond Res 2018; 32:911-920. [PMID: 29401197 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Vitale, JA, La Torre, A, Banfi, G, and Bonato, M. Effects of an 8-week body-weight neuromuscular training on dynamic balance and vertical jump performances in elite junior skiing athletes: a randomized controlled trial. J Strength Cond Res 32(4): 911-920, 2018-The aim of the present randomized controlled trial was to evaluate the effects of an 8-week neuromuscular training program focused on core stability, plyometric, and body-weight strengthening exercises on dynamic postural control and vertical jump performance in elite junior skiers. Twenty-four Italian elite junior male skiers were recruited and randomized to either an experimental group (EG), performing neuromuscular warm-up exercises, (EG; n = 12; age 18 ± 1 years; body mass 66 ± 21 kg; height 1.70 ± 0.1 m) or a control group (CG) involved in a standard warm-up (CG; n = 12; age 18 ± 1 years; body mass 62 ± 14 kg; height 1.73 ± 0.1 m). lower quarter Y-Balance Test (YBT), countermovement jump (CMJ), and drop jump (DJ) at baseline (PRE) and at the end (POST) of the experimental procedures were performed. No significant differences between EG and CG were observed at baseline. Results showed that EG achieved positive effects from PRE to POST measures in the anterior, posteromedial, posterolateral directions, and composite score of YBT for both lower limbs, whereas no significant differences were detected for CG. Furthermore, 2-way analysis of variance with Bonferroni's multiple comparisons test did not reveal any significant differences in CMJ and DJ for both EG and CG. The inclusion of an 8-week neuromuscular warm-up program led to positive effects in dynamic balance ability but not in vertical jump performance in elite junior skiers. Neuromuscular training may be an effective intervention to specifically increase lower limb joint awareness and postural control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo A Vitale
- Laboratory of Biological Structure Mechanics, IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Antonio La Torre
- Laboratory of Biological Structure Mechanics, IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, Milano, Italy.,Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Banfi
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milano, Italy.,Laboratory of Experimental Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Matteo Bonato
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
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17
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Alhammoud M, Morel B, Girard O, Racinais S, Sevrez V, Germain A, Chamu T, Hautier C. Hypoxia and Fatigue Impair Rapid Torque Development of Knee Extensors in Elite Alpine Skiers. Front Physiol 2018; 9:962. [PMID: 30140231 PMCID: PMC6094991 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
This study examined the effects of acute hypoxia on maximal and explosive torque and fatigability in knee extensors of skiers. Twenty-two elite male alpine skiers performed 35 maximal, repeated isokinetic knee extensions at 180°s-1 (total exercise duration 61.25 s) in normoxia (NOR, FiO2 0.21) and normobaric hypoxia (HYP, FiO2 0.13) in a randomized, single-blind design. Peak torque and rate of torque development (RTD) from 0 to 100 ms and associated Vastus Lateralis peak EMG activity and rate of EMG rise (RER) were determined for each contraction. Relative changes in deoxyhemoglobin concentration of the VL muscle were monitored by near-infrared spectroscopy. Peak torque and peak EMG activity did not differ between conditions and decreased similarly with fatigue (p < 0.001), with peak torque decreasing continuously but EMG activity decreasing significantly after 30 contractions only. Compared to NOR, RTD, and RER values were lower in HYP during the first 12 and 9 contractions, respectively (both p < 0.05). Deoxyhemoglobin concentration during the last five contractions was higher in HYP than NOR (p = 0.050) but the delta between maximal and minimal deoxyhemoglobin for each contraction was similar in HYP and NOR suggesting a similar muscle O2 utilization. Post-exercise heart rate (138 ± 24 bpm) and blood lactate concentration (5.8 ± 3.1 mmol.l-1) did not differ between conditions. Arterial oxygen saturation was significantly lower (84 ± 4 vs. 98 ± 1%, p < 0.001) and ratings of perceived exertion higher (6 ± 1 vs. 5 ± 1, p < 0.001) in HYP than NOR. In summary, hypoxia limits RTD via a decrease in neural drive in elite alpine skiers undertaking maximal repeated isokinetic knee extensions, but the effect of hypoxic exposure is negated as fatigue develops. Isokinetic testing protocols for elite alpine skiers should incorporate RTD and RER measurements as they display a higher sensitivity than peak torque and EMG activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Alhammoud
- Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Biology (EA 7424), Claude Bernard University Lyon 1, Lyon, France.,French Ski Federation, Annecy, France
| | - Baptiste Morel
- Laboratory "Movement, Interactions, Performance" (EA 4334), Le Mans University, Le Mans, France
| | - Olivier Girard
- School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia.,Athlete Health and Performance Research Centre, Aspetar Orthopedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - Sebastien Racinais
- Athlete Health and Performance Research Centre, Aspetar Orthopedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar.,Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance, French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Violaine Sevrez
- French National Center for Scientific Research, Institute of Movement Sciences, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
| | | | - Thomas Chamu
- Orthopedic and Sports Medicine Hospital La Sauvegarde, Lyon, France
| | - Christophe Hautier
- Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Biology (EA 7424), Claude Bernard University Lyon 1, Lyon, France
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18
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Gilgien M, Kröll J, Spörri J, Crivelli P, Müller E. Application of dGNSS in Alpine Ski Racing: Basis for Evaluating Physical Demands and Safety. Front Physiol 2018; 9:145. [PMID: 29559918 PMCID: PMC5845727 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
External forces, such as ground reaction force or air drag acting on athletes' bodies in sports, determine the sport-specific demands on athletes' physical fitness. In order to establish appropriate physical conditioning regimes, which adequately prepare athletes for the loads and physical demands occurring in their sports and help reduce the risk of injury, sport-and/or discipline-specific knowledge of the external forces is needed. However, due to methodological shortcomings in biomechanical research, data comprehensively describing the external forces that occur in alpine super-G (SG) and downhill (DH) are so far lacking. Therefore, this study applied new and accurate wearable sensor-based technology to determine the external forces acting on skiers during World Cup (WC) alpine skiing competitions in the disciplines of SG and DH and to compare these with those occurring in giant slalom (GS), for which previous research knowledge exists. External forces were determined using WC forerunners carrying a differential global navigation satellite system (dGNSS). Combining the dGNSS data with a digital terrain model of the snow surface and an air drag model, the magnitudes of ground reaction forces were computed. It was found that the applied methodology may not only be used to track physical demands and loads on athletes, but also to simultaneously investigate safety aspects, such as the effectiveness of speed control through increased air drag and ski-snow friction forces in the respective disciplines. Therefore, the component of the ground reaction force in the direction of travel (ski-snow friction) and air drag force were computed. This study showed that (1) the validity of high-end dGNSS systems allows meaningful investigations such as characterization of physical demands and effectiveness of safety measures in highly dynamic sports; (2) physical demands were substantially different between GS, SG, and DH; and (3) safety-related reduction of skiing speed might be most effectively achieved by increasing the ski-snow friction force in GS and SG. For DH an increase in the ski-snow friction force might be equally as effective as an increase in air drag force.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Gilgien
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- St. Moritz Health and Innovation Foundation, Center of Alpine Sports Biomechanics, St. Moritz, Switzerland
| | - Josef Kröll
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein, Austria
| | - Jörg Spörri
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein, Austria
- Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philip Crivelli
- Group for Snowsports, WSL - Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
| | - Erich Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein, Austria
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19
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White GE, Wells GD. The effect of on-hill active recovery performed between runs on blood lactate concentration and fatigue in alpine ski racers. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 29:800-6. [PMID: 25546445 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Alpine skiing is a high-intensity intermittent sport that results in lactate accumulation and muscle acidosis, which has been shown to contribute to peripheral neuromuscular fatigue. Active recovery influences the removal of lactate from the muscle and blood by maintaining blood flow to fatigued muscles and enhancing aerobic utilization of lactate by nonfatigued tissues. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of on-hill active recovery on blood lactate concentration in alpine skiers. Fourteen highly trained alpine skiers (7 women, 7 men) completed 8 training runs in a 45-gate slalom or a 25-gate giant slalom corridor at 2,600 m above sea level. Skiers were randomized to active (ACT) or static recovery (CON) performed at the top of each run. Blood lactate concentration and perceived fatigue were recorded at the top and bottom of each run. Performance was measured by time to complete each training run and rate of incomplete runs. A significant time (p < 0.01) and interaction (p = 0.001) effect was observed for blood lactate concentration measured at the top, with ACT being associated with significantly lower values. A significant time effect (p < 0.001) was observed for blood lactate concentration measured at the bottom. Training run completion time was longer (p ≤ 0.05), and higher rate of incomplete runs were observed in the CON group, despite no between-group differences in rating of perceived fatigue. On-hill active recovery performed between runs promotes blood lactate clearance in alpine skiers and is associated with delayed fatigue as indicated by faster training runs and fewer incomplete runs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gillian E White
- 1Department of Exercise Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; 2Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and 3Physiology and Experimental Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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20
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Patterson C, Raschner C, Platzer HP. The 2.5-minute loaded repeated jump test: evaluating anaerobic capacity in alpine ski racers with loaded countermovement jumps. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 28:2611-20. [PMID: 24584044 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The purposes of this study were to test the reproducibility of the 2.5-minute loaded repeated jump test (LRJT) and to test the effectiveness of general preparation period (GPP) training on anaerobic fitness of elite alpine ski racers with the LRJT. Thirteen male volunteers completed 2 LRJTs to examine reliability. Nine male Austrian elite junior racers were tested in June and October 2009. The LRJT consisted of 60 loaded countermovement jumps (LCMJs) with a loaded barbell equivalent to 40% bodyweight. Before the LRJT, the power (P) of a single LCMJ was determined. Power was calculated from ground reaction forces. The mean P was calculated for the complete test and for each 30-second interval. The interclass correlation coefficients (between 0.88 and 0.99) for main variables of the LRJT demonstrated a high reliability. A repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated that anaerobic capacity was significantly higher in October (p ≤ 0.05). The ski racers' single LCMJ P increased from 37.0 ± 1.2 W·kg to 39.0 ± 1.4 W·kg. The mean P of the total test improved from 33.6 ± 1.2 W·kg to 35.8 ± 1.3 W·kg, but relative effect of fatigue did not change. The GPP training improved the athletes' ability to produce and maintain muscular power. The LRJT is a reliable anaerobic test suitable for all alpine ski racing events because the 60 jumps simulate the approximate number of gates in slalom and giant slalom races and the 2.5 minutes is equivalent to the duration of the longest downhill race.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carson Patterson
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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22
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Gross M, Boesch C, Bolliger CS, Norman B, Gustafsson T, Hoppeler H, Vogt M. Effects of beta-alanine supplementation and interval training on physiological determinants of severe exercise performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2013; 114:221-34. [PMID: 24213883 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-013-2767-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We aimed to manipulate physiological determinants of severe exercise performance. We hypothesized that (1) beta-alanine supplementation would increase intramuscular carnosine and buffering capacity and dampen acidosis during severe cycling, (2) that high-intensity interval training (HIT) would enhance aerobic energy contribution during severe cycling, and (3) that HIT preceded by beta-alanine supplementation would have greater benefits. METHODS Sixteen active men performed incremental cycling tests and 90-s severe (110 % peak power) cycling tests at three time points: before and after oral supplementation with either beta-alanine or placebo, and after an 11-days HIT block (9 sessions, 4 × 4 min), which followed supplementation. Carnosine was assessed via MR spectroscopy. Energy contribution during 90-s severe cycling was estimated from the O2 deficit. Biopsies from m. vastus lateralis were taken before and after the test. RESULTS Beta-alanine increased leg muscle carnosine (32 ± 13 %, d = 3.1). Buffering capacity and incremental cycling were unaffected, but during 90-s severe cycling, beta-alanine increased aerobic energy contribution (1.4 ± 1.3 %, d = 0.5), concurrent with reduced O2 deficit (-5.0 ± 5.0 %, d = 0.6) and muscle lactate accumulation (-23 ± 30 %, d = 0.9), while having no effect on pH. Beta-alanine also enhanced motivation and perceived state during the HIT block. There were no between-group differences in adaptations to the training block, namely increased buffering capacity (+7.9 ± 11.9 %, p = 0.04, d = 0.6, n = 14) and glycogen storage (+30 ± 47 %, p = 0.04, d = 0.5, n = 16). CONCLUSIONS Beta-alanine did not affect buffering considerably, but has beneficial effects on severe exercise metabolism as well as psychological parameters during intense training phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micah Gross
- Institute for Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3012, Bern, Switzerland,
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23
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Hydren JR, Volek JS, Maresh CM, Comstock BA, Kraemer WJ. Review of Strength and Conditioning for Alpine Ski Racing. Strength Cond J 2013. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0b013e31828238be] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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25
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Egginton S, White MJ. 2010 winter games themed issue. Exp Physiol 2010; 95:402-3. [PMID: 20160066 DOI: 10.1113/expphysiol.2009.047530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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