Myofibrillar ATPase activity and mechanical performance of skinned fibres from rabbit psoas muscle

Orthophosphate increases the efficiency of slow muscle-myosin isoform in the presence of omecamtiv mecarbil

Omecamtiv mecarbil (OM) is a putative positive inotropic tool for treatment of systolic heart dysfunction, based on the finding that in vivo it increases the ejection fraction and in vitro it prolongs the actin-bond life time of the cardiac and slow-skeletal muscle isoforms of myosin. OM action in situ, however, is still poorly understood as the enhanced Ca²⁺-sensitivity of the myofilaments is at odds with the reduction of force and rate of force development observed at saturating Ca²⁺. Here we show, by combining fast sarcomere-level mechanics and ATPase measurements in single slow demembranated fibres from rabbit soleus, that the depressant effect of OM on the force per attached motor is reversed, without effect on the ATPase rate, by physiological concentrations of inorganic phosphate (Pi) (1-10 mM). This mechanism could underpin an energetically efficient reduction of systolic tension cost in OM-treated patients, whenever [Pi] increases with heart-beat frequency.

Omecamtiv mecarbil is a small molecule effector under clinical trial for the treatment of systolic heart failure. Here the authors define the molecular mechanisms of its inotropic action and find it can increase the efficiency of contraction in muscle fibres when the orthophosphate concentration rises with the beat frequency.

Positional Isomers of a Non-Nucleoside Substrate Differentially Affect Myosin Function

Molecular motors have evolved to transduce chemical energy from ATP into mechanical work to drive essential cellular processes, from muscle contraction to vesicular transport. Dysfunction of these motors is a root cause of many pathologies necessitating the need for intrinsic control over molecular motor function. Herein, we demonstrate that positional isomerism can be used as a simple and powerful tool to control the molecular motor of muscle, myosin. Using three isomers of a synthetic non-nucleoside triphosphate, we demonstrate that myosin's force- and motion-generating capacity can be dramatically altered at both the ensemble and single-molecule levels. By correlating our experimental results with computation, we show that each isomer exerts intrinsic control by affecting distinct steps in myosin's mechanochemical cycle. Our studies demonstrate that subtle variations in the structure of an abiotic energy source can be used to control the force and motility of myosin without altering myosin's structure.

The relation between sarcomere energetics and the rate of isometric tension relaxation in healthy and diseased cardiac muscle

Full muscle relaxation happens when [Ca²⁺] falls below the threshold for force activation. Several experimental models, from whole muscle organs and intact muscle down to skinned fibers, have been used to explore the cascade of kinetic events leading to mechanical relaxation. The use of single myofibrils together with fast solution switching techniques, has provided new information about the role of cross-bridge (CB) dissociation in the time course of isometric force decay. Myofibril’s relaxation is biphasic starting with a slow seemingly linear phase, with a rate constant, slow k_REL, followed by a fast mono-exponential phase. Sarcomeres remain isometric during the slow force decay that reflects CB detachment under isometric conditions while the final fast relaxation phase begins with a sudden give of few sarcomeres and is then dominated by intersarcomere dynamics. Based on a simple two-state model of the CB cycle, myofibril slow k_REL represents the apparent forward rate with which CBs leave force generating states (g_app) under isometric conditions and correlates with the energy cost of tension generation (ATPase/tension ratio); in short slow k_REL ~ g_app ~ tension cost. The validation of this relationship is obtained by simultaneously measuring maximal isometric force and ATP consumption in skinned myocardial strips that provide an unambiguous determination of the relation between contractile and energetic properties of the sarcomere. Thus, combining kinetic experiments in isolated myofibrils and mechanical and energetic measurements in multicellular cardiac strips, we are able to provide direct evidence for a positive linear correlation between myofibril isometric relaxation kinetics (slow k_REL) and the energy cost of force production both measured in preparations from the same cardiac sample. This correlation remains true among different types of muscles with different ATPase activities and also when CB kinetics are altered by cardiomyopathy-related mutations. Sarcomeric mutations associated to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), a primary cardiac disorder caused by mutations in genes encoding sarcomeric proteins, have been often found to accelerate CB turnover rate and increase the energy cost of myocardial contraction. Here we review data showing that faster CB detachment results in a proportional increase in the energetic cost of tension generation in heart samples from both HCM patients and mouse models of the disease.

Phosphorylation of protein kinase C sites Ser42/44 decreases Ca(2+)-sensitivity and blunts enhanced length-dependent activation in response to protein kinase A in human cardiomyocytes

Protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated phosphorylation of troponin I (cTnI) at Ser42/44 is increased in heart failure. While studies in rodents demonstrated that PKC-mediated Ser42/44 phosphorylation decreases maximal force and ATPase activity, PKC incubation of human cardiomyocytes did not affect maximal force. We investigated whether Ser42/44 pseudo-phosphorylation affects force development and ATPase activity using troponin exchange in human myocardium. Additionally, we studied if pseudo-phosphorylated Ser42/44 modulates length-dependent activation of force, which is regulated by protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated cTnI-Ser23/24 phosphorylation. Isometric force was measured in membrane-permeabilized cardiomyocytes exchanged with human recombinant wild-type troponin or troponin mutated at Ser42/44 or Ser23/24 into aspartic acid (D) or alanine (A) to mimic phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, respectively. In troponin-exchanged donor cardiomyocytes experiments were repeated after PKA incubation. ATPase activity was measured in troponin-exchanged cardiac muscle strips. Compared to wild-type, 42D/44D decreased Ca(2+)-sensitivity without affecting maximal force in failing and donor cardiomyocytes. In donor myocardium, 42D/44D did not affect maximal ATPase activity or tension cost. Interestingly, 42D/44D blunted the length-dependent increase in Ca(2+)-sensitivity induced upon PKA-mediated phosphorylation. Since the drop in Ca(2+)-sensitivity at physiological Ca(2+)-concentrations is relatively large phosphorylation of Ser42/44 may result in a decrease of force and associated ATP utilization in the human heart.

Faster cross-bridge detachment and increased tension cost in human hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with the R403Q MYH7 mutation

The first mutation associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the R403Q mutation in the gene encoding β-myosin heavy chain (β-MyHC). R403Q locates in the globular head of myosin (S1), responsible for interaction with actin, and thus motor function of myosin. Increased cross-bridge relaxation kinetics caused by the R403Q mutation might underlie increased energetic cost of tension generation; however, direct evidence is absent. Here we studied to what extent cross-bridge kinetics and energetics are related in single cardiac myofibrils and multicellular cardiac muscle strips of three HCM patients with the R403Q mutation and nine sarcomere mutation-negative HCM patients (HCMsmn). Expression of R403Q was on average 41 ± 4% of total MYH7 mRNA. Cross-bridge slow relaxation kinetics in single R403Q myofibrils was significantly higher (P < 0.0001) than in HCMsmn myofibrils (0.47 ± 0.02 and 0.30 ± 0.02 s(-1), respectively). Moreover, compared to HCMsmn, tension cost was significantly higher in the muscle strips of the three R403Q patients (2.93 ± 0.25 and 1.78 ± 0.10 μmol l(-1) s(-1) kN(-1) m(-2), respectively) which showed a positive linear correlation with relaxation kinetics in the corresponding myofibril preparations. This correlation suggests that faster cross-bridge relaxation kinetics results in an increase in energetic cost of tension generation in human HCM with the R403Q mutation compared to HCMsmn. Therefore, increased tension cost might contribute to HCM disease in patients carrying the R403Q mutation.

Gene-specific increase in the energetic cost of contraction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by thick filament mutations

AIMS

Disease mechanisms regarding hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) are largely unknown and disease onset varies. Sarcomere mutations might induce energy depletion for which until now there is no direct evidence at sarcomere level in human HCM. This study investigated if mutations in genes encoding myosin-binding protein C (MYBPC3) and myosin heavy chain (MYH7) underlie changes in the energetic cost of contraction in the development of human HCM disease.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Energetic cost of contraction was studied in vitro by measurements of force development and ATPase activity in cardiac muscle strips from 26 manifest HCM patients (11 MYBPC3mut, 9 MYH7mut, and 6 sarcomere mutation-negative, HCMsmn). In addition, in vivo, the ratio between external work (EW) and myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO2) to obtain myocardial external efficiency (MEE) was determined in 28 pre-hypertrophic mutation carriers (14 MYBPC3mut and 14 MYH7mut) and 14 healthy controls using [(11)C]-acetate positron emission tomography and cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging. Tension cost (TC), i.e. ATPase activity during force development, was higher in MYBPC3mut and MYH7mut compared with HCMsmn at saturating [Ca(2+)]. TC was also significantly higher in MYH7mut at submaximal, more physiological [Ca(2+)]. EW was significantly lower in both mutation carrier groups, while MVO2 did not differ. MEE was significantly lower in both mutation carrier groups compared with controls, showing the lowest efficiency in MYH7 mutation carriers.

CONCLUSION

We provide direct evidence that sarcomere mutations perturb the energetic cost of cardiac contraction. Gene-specific severity of cardiac abnormalities may underlie differences in disease onset and suggests that early initiation of metabolic treatment may be beneficial, in particular, in MYH7 mutation carriers.

Mechanical and energetic properties of papillary muscle from ACTC E99K transgenic mouse models of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

We compared the contractile performance of papillary muscle from a mouse model of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy [α-cardiac actin (ACTC) E99K mutation] with nontransgenic (non-TG) littermates. In isometric twitches, ACTC E99K papillary muscle produced three to four times greater force than non-TG muscle under the same conditions independent of stimulation frequency and temperature, whereas maximum isometric force in myofibrils from these muscles was not significantly different. ACTC E99K muscle relaxed slower than non-TG muscle in both papillary muscle (1.4×) and myofibrils (1.7×), whereas the rate of force development after stimulation was the same as non-TG muscle for both electrical stimulation in intact muscle and after a Ca²⁺ jump in myofibrils. The EC₅₀ for Ca²⁺ activation of force in myofibrils was 0.39 ± 0.33 μmol/l in ACTC E99K myofibrils and 0.80 ± 0.11 μmol/l in non-TG myofibrils. There were no significant differences in the amplitude and time course of the Ca²⁺ transient in myocytes from ACTC E99K and non-TG mice. We conclude that hypercontractility is caused by higher myofibrillar Ca²⁺ sensitivity in ACTC E99K muscles. Measurement of the energy (work + heat) released in actively cycling heart muscle showed that for both genotypes, the amount of energy turnover increased with work done but with decreasing efficiency as energy turnover increased. Thus, ACTC E99K mouse heart muscle produced on average 3.3-fold more work than non-TG muscle, and the cost in terms of energy turnover was disproportionately higher than in non-TG muscles. Efficiency for ACTC E99K muscle was in the range of 11-16% and for non-TG muscle was 15-18%.

High-frequency electrical stimulation reveals a p38-mTOR signaling module correlated with force-time integral

High-frequency electrical stimulation (HFES) leads to muscle hypertrophy, and attention has been drawn to the high forces involved. However, both mechanical and metabolic stresses occur simultaneously, and both stimuli influence signaling cascades related to protein synthesis. This study aimed to identify the immediate signaling correlates of contraction-induced force and metabolic stresses under the hypothesis that HFES induces growth-related signaling through mechanical stimulation. Force-time integral (FTI) signaling in mouse tibialis anterior muscle was examined by separately manipulating the time of contraction to emphasize the metabolic aspect or the force of contraction to emphasize the mechanical aspect. When FTI was manipulated by changing the total time of activation, phosphorylation of p54 JNK, ERK and p70S6k(T421/S424) was independent of FTI, while phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase and p38 correlated with FTI. When FTI was manipulated by changing the force of contraction, p54 JNK, ERK and p70S6k(T421/S424) were again independent of FTI, while phosphorylation of p38 and FAK correlated with FTI. Factor analysis identified a p38-mTOR signaling module that correlated with FTI in both experiments. The consistent link among p38, mTOR and FTI suggests that they form a connected signaling module sensitive to the mechanical aspects of FTI, separate from markers of metabolic load.

Energy economy in the actomyosin interaction: lessons from simple models

The energy economy of the actomyosin interaction in skeletal muscle is both scientifically fascinating and practically important. This chapter demonstrates how simple cross-bridge models have guided research regarding the energy economy of skeletal muscle. Parameter variation on a very simple two-state strain-dependent model shows that early events in the actomyosin interaction strongly influence energy efficiency, and late events determine maximum shortening velocity. Addition of a weakly-bound state preceding force production allows weak coupling of cross-bridge mechanics and ATP turnover, so that a simple three-state model can simulate the velocity-dependence of ATP turnover. Consideration of the limitations of this model leads to a review of recent evidence regarding the relationship between ligand binding states, conformational states, and macromolecular structures of myosin cross-bridges. Investigation of the fine structure of the actomyosin interaction during the working stroke continues to inform fundamental research regarding the energy economy of striated muscle.

Jaw-muscle fiber architecture in tufted capuchins favors generating relatively large muscle forces without compromising jaw gape

Tufted capuchins (sensu lato) are renowned for their dietary flexibility and capacity to exploit hard and tough objects. Cebus apella differs from other capuchins in displaying a suite of craniodental features that have been functionally and adaptively linked to their feeding behavior, particularly the generation and dissipation of relatively large jaw forces. We compared fiber architecture of the masseter and temporalis muscles between C. apella (n=12) and two "untufted" capuchins (C. capucinus, n=3; C. albifrons, n=5). These three species share broadly similar diets, but tufted capuchins occasionally exploit mechanically challenging tissues. We tested the hypothesis that tufted capuchins exhibit architectural properties of their jaw muscles that facilitate relatively large forces including relatively greater physiologic cross-sectional areas (PCSA), more pinnate fibers, and lower ratios of mass to tetanic tension (Mass/P(0)). Results show some evidence supporting these predictions, as C. apella has relatively greater superficial masseter and temporalis PCSAs, significantly so only for the temporalis following Bonferroni adjustment. Capuchins did not differ in pinnation angle or Mass/P(0). As an architectural trade-off between maximizing muscle force and muscle excursion/contraction velocity, we also tested the hypothesis that C. apella exhibits relatively shorter muscle fibers. Contrary to our prediction, there are no significant differences in relative fiber lengths between tufted and untufted capuchins. Therefore, we attribute the relatively greater PCSAs in tufted capuchins primarily to their larger muscle masses. These findings suggest that relatively large jaw-muscle PCSAs can be added to the suite of masticatory features that have been functionally linked to the exploitation of a more resistant diet by C. apella. By enlarging jaw-muscle mass to increase PCSA, rather than reducing fiber lengths and increasing pinnation, tufted capuchins appear to have increased jaw-muscle and bite forces without markedly compromising muscle excursion and contraction velocity. One performance advantage of this morphology is that it promotes relatively large bite forces at wide jaw gapes, which may be useful for processing large food items along the posterior dentition. We further hypothesize that this morphological pattern may have the ecological benefit of facilitating the dietary diversity seen in tufted capuchins. Lastly, the observed feeding on large objects, coupled with a jaw-muscle architecture that facilitates this behavior, raises concerns about utilizing C. apella as an extant behavioral model for hominins that might have specialized on small objects in their diets.

Time course and strain dependence of ADP release during contraction of permeabilized skeletal muscle fibers

A phosphorylated, single cysteine mutant of nucleoside diphosphate kinase, labeled with N-[2-(iodoacetamido)ethyl]-7-diethylaminocoumarin-3-carboxamide (P approximately NDPK-IDCC), was used as a fluorescence probe for time-resolved measurement of changes in [MgADP] during contraction of single permeabilized rabbit psoas fibers. The dephosphorylation of the phosphorylated protein by MgADP occurs within the lattice environment of permeabilized fibers with a second-order rate constant at 12 degrees C of 10(5) M(-1) s(-1). This dephosphorylation is accompanied by a change in coumarin fluorescence. We report the time course of P approximately NDPK-IDCC dephosphorylation during the period of active isometric force redevelopment after quick release of fiber strain at pCa(2+) of 4.5. After a rapid length decrease of 0.5% was applied to the fiber, the extra NDPK-IDCC produced during force recovery, above the value during the approximately steady state of isometric contraction, was 2.7 +/- 0.6 microM and 4.7 +/- 1.5 microM at 12 and 20 degrees C, respectively. The rates of P approximately NDPK-IDCC dephosphorylation during force recovery were 28 and 50 s(-1) at 12 and 20 degrees C, respectively. The time courses of isometric force and P approximately NDPK-IDCC dephosphorylation were simulated using a seven-state reaction scheme. Relative isometric force was modeled by changes in the occupancy of strongly bound A.M.ADP.P(i) and A.M.ADP states. A strain-sensitive A.M.ADP isomerization step was rate-limiting (3-6 s(-1)) in the cross-bridge turnover during isometric contraction. At 12 degrees C, the A.M.ADP.P(i) and the pre- and postisomerization A.M.ADP states comprised 56%, 38%, and 7% of the isometric force-bearing AM states, respectively. At 20 degrees C, the force-bearing A.M.ADP.P(i) state was a lower proportion of the total force-bearing states (37%), whereas the proportion of postisomerization A.M.ADP states was higher (19%). The simulations suggested that release of cross-bridge strain caused rapid depopulation of the preisomerization A.M.ADP state and transient accumulation of MgADP in the postisomerization A.M.ADP state. Hence, the strain-sensitive isomerization of A.M.ADP seems to explain the rate of change of P approximately NDPK-IDCC dephosphorylation during force recovery. The temperature-dependent isometric distribution of myosin states is consistent with the previous observation of a small decrease in amplitude of the P(i) transient during force recovery at 20 degrees C and the current observation of an increase in amplitude of the ADP-sensitive NDPK-IDCC transient.

Using customized rate-coding and recruitment strategies to maintain forces during repetitive activation of human muscles

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

During functional electrical stimulation (FES), clinicians typically increase stimulation intensity to offset fatigue and maintain functional levels of force production. However, recent studies have suggested that increasing the stimulation frequency is an effective strategy for overcoming fatigue during FES. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of 5 stimulation strategies on maintaining forces during repetitive isometric muscle activation.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The right quadriceps femoris muscles of 12 subjects with no history of lower-extremity orthopedic, neurological, or vascular problems were tested. The 5 stimulation strategies were: progressively increasing the frequency, progressively increasing the intensity, and 3 combination protocols that first increased the intensity and then increased the frequency. The only difference among the 3 combination protocols was the starting frequency used in each protocol (20, 30, or 40 Hz). For all protocols, the stimulation frequency or intensity was increased progressively every time the peak force declined more than 10% from a targeted force level. The specific step increases in frequency or intensity were customized for each subject. A contraction was defined as successful when its peak force exceeded 90% of the targeted force level.

RESULTS

The results showed that progressively increasing only the frequency produced 59% more successful contractions than progressively increasing only the intensity. In addition, the combination stimulation protocol that began with 30-Hz trains produced the most successful contractions (mean=1,205 contractions; 35%-74% more than the other 4 protocols tested).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results suggest that increasing the stimulation intensity and then the frequency is the best strategy to maintain muscle performance and could help clinicians design optimal stimulation protocols to use for each patient during FES.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging to detect actomyosin states in mammalian muscle sarcomeres

We investigated the use of fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) of a fluorescently labeled ATP analog (3'-O-{N-[3-(7-diethylaminocoumarin-3-carboxamido)propyl]carbamoyl}ATP) to probe in permeabilized muscle fibers the changes in the environment of the nucleotide binding pocket caused by interaction with actin. Spatial averaging of FLIM data of muscle sarcomeres reduces photon noise, permitting detailed analysis of the fluorescence decay profiles. FLIM reveals that the lifetime of the nucleotide, in its ADP form because of the low concentration of nucleotide present, changes depending on whether the nucleotide is free in solution or bound to myosin, and on whether the myosin is bound to actin in an actomyosin complex. Characterization of the fluorescence decays by a multiexponential function allowed us to resolve the lifetimes and amplitudes of each of these populations, namely, the fluorophore bound to myosin, bound to actin, in an actomyosin complex, and free in the filament lattice. This novel application of FLIM to muscle fibers shows that with spatial averaging, detailed information about the nature of nucleotide complexes can be derived.

Effects of stimulation frequency versus pulse duration modulation on muscle fatigue

During functional electrical stimulation (FES), both the frequency and intensity can be increased to increase muscle force output and counteract the effects of muscle fatigue. Most current FES systems, however, deliver a constant frequency and only vary the stimulation intensity to control muscle force. This study compared muscle performance and fatigue produced during repetitive electrical stimulation using three different strategies: (1) constant pulse-duration and stepwise increases in frequency (frequency-modulation); (2) constant frequency and stepwise increases in pulse-duration (pulse-duration-modulation); and (3) constant frequency and pulse-duration (no-modulation). Surface electrical stimulation was delivered to the quadriceps femoris muscles of 12 healthy individuals and isometric forces were recorded. Muscle performance was assessed by measuring the percent changes in the peak forces and force-time integrals between the first and the last fatiguing trains. Muscle fatigue was assessed by measuring percent declines in peak force between the 60Hz pre- and post-fatigue testing trains. The results showed that frequency-modulation showed better performance for both peak forces and force-time integrals in response to the fatiguing trains than pulse-duration-modulation, while producing similar levels of muscle fatigue. Although frequency-modulation is not commonly used during FES, clinicians should consider this strategy to improve muscle performance.

Effect of frequency and pulse duration on human muscle fatigue during repetitive electrical stimulation

Different combinations of stimulation frequency and intensity can generate a targeted force during functional electrical stimulation (FES). This study compared isometric performance and muscle fatigue during repetitive stimulation with three different combinations of frequency and pulse duration that produced the same initial peak forces: protocol 1 used long pulse duration (fixed at 600 micros) and 11.5 +/- 1.2 Hz (low frequency); protocol 2 used 30 Hz (medium frequency) and medium pulse duration (150 +/- 21 micros); and protocol 3 used 60 Hz (high frequency) and short pulse duration (131 +/- 24 micros). Twenty and 60 Hz pre- and postfatigue testing trains were delivered at the pulse duration used by the fatiguing trains and at 600 micros pulse duration. The percentage decline in peak force between the first and last fatiguing train of each protocol was the measure of muscle performance. The declines in peak force of the 60 Hz testing trains were used to measure muscle fatigue. The 20 Hz:60 Hz peak force ratio was used as a measure of low-frequency fatigue. The results showed that protocol 1 produced the least decline in peak force in response to the fatiguing trains, as well as the least muscle fatigue and low-frequency fatigue when the pulse duration was maintained at the level used by the fatiguing trains. Interestingly, protocol 2 produced the least muscle fatigue, and there were no differences in the levels of low-frequency fatigue across protocols when a comparable motor unit population was tested using 600 micros pulse duration. The results suggest that if the frequency and intensity are kept constant during FES, using the lowest frequency and longest pulse duration may maximize performance.

Inorganic phosphate affects the pCa-force relationship more than the pCa-ATPase by increasing the rate of dissociation of force generating cross-bridges in skinned fibers from both EDL and soleus muscles of the rat

The effect of inorganic phosphate (Pi) on Ca2+ -activation of actomyosin ATPase activity and force in permeabilized (skinned) single extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus muscle fibers of the rat were investigated. Increasing concentrations of Pi decreased force more than ATPase rate at all Ca2+ concentrations and this effect was more pronounced at submaximal Ca2+ -activation. Increasing Pi caused both the normalized pCa-ATPase and pCa-force relationship to be shifted to a higher Ca2+ concentration. At all Ca2+ concentrations ATPase was activated at a lower concentration of Ca2+ than force and this difference in Ca2+ concentration required for the activation of ATPase and force was greater in fast-twitch (EDL) than in slow twitch (soleus) muscle. Soleus muscle pCa-ATPase and pCa-force curves were more sensitive to Ca2+ (pCa50 = 5.97 and 5.89, respectively) than EDL (pCa50 = 5.68 and 5.54, respectively). Finally the shape of the pCa-ATPase and pCa-force curves was similar and not affected by Pi. Analysis shows that Pi increases the rate of dissociation of force generating myosin cross-bridges (ratio of ATPase/force (g(app at all Ca2+ concentration, especially at submaximal Ca2+ -activation levels. Pi effects on g(app) are discussed in terms Pi interacting with the isomerization high force AM*ADP states to form high force transitional AM*ADP*Pi* states which facilitate the dissociation of ADP from AM*ADP. Increasing Ca2+ during Ca2+ -activation of the fibers is associated with a progressive decrease in rate of dissociation of force generating myosin cross-bridges g(app).

The off rate of Ca(2+) from troponin C is regulated by force-generating cross bridges in skeletal muscle

The effects of dissociation of force-generating cross bridges on intracellular Ca(2+), pCa-force, and pCa-ATPase relationships were investigated in mouse skeletal muscle. Mechanical length perturbations were used to dissociate force-generating cross bridges in either intact or skinned fibers. In intact muscle, an impulse stretch or release, a continuous length vibration, a nonoverlap stretch, or an unloaded shortening during a twitch caused a transient increase in intracellular Ca(2+) compared with that in isometric controls and resulted in deactivation of the muscle. In skinned fibers, sinusoidal length vibrations shifted pCa-force and pCa-actomyosin ATPase rate relationships to higher Ca(2+) concentrations and caused actomyosin ATPase rate to decrease at submaximal Ca(2+) and increase at maximal Ca(2+) activation. These results suggest that dissociation of force-generating cross bridges during a twitch causes the off rate of Ca(2+) from troponin C to increase (a decrease in the Ca(2+) affinity of troponin C), thus decreasing the Ca(2+) sensitivity and resulting in the deactivation of the muscle. The results also suggest that the Fenn effect only exists at maximal but not submaximal force-activating Ca(2+) concentrations.

Metabolic costs of isometric force generation and maintenance of human skeletal muscle

During isometric contractions, no true work is performed, so the force-time integral (FTI) is often used to approximate isometric work. However, the relationship between FTI and metabolic cost is not as linear. We tested the hypothesis that this nonlinearity was due to the cost of attaining a given force being greater than that of maintaining it. The ATP consumed per contraction in the human medial gastrocnemius muscle (n = 6) was determined by use of (31)P-NMR spectroscopy during eight different electrical stimulation protocols. Each protocol consisted of 8 trains of a single frequency (20 or 80 Hz) and duration (300, 600, 1,200, or 1,800 ms) performed under ischemic conditions. The cost of force generation was determined from the ATP turnover during the short-duration trains that did not attain a steady force level. Estimates of the cost of force maintenance at each frequency were determined by subtracting the ATP turnover during the shorter-duration trains from the turnover during the long-duration trains. The force generation phase of an isometric contraction was indeed more metabolically costly than the force maintenance phase during both 20- and 80-Hz stimulation. Thus the mean rate of ATP hydrolysis appeared to decline as contraction duration increased. Interestingly, the metabolic costs of maintaining force during 20-Hz and 80-Hz stimulation were comparable, although different levels of force were produced.

Effects of sarcomere length and temperature on the rate of ATP utilisation by rabbit psoas muscle fibres

1. The steady state rate of ATP utilisation by single permeabilised fibres from rabbit psoas muscle immersed in silicone oil was measured using a linked enzyme assay that coupled ADP production to the oxidation of NADH.2. At sarcomere length 2.5 microm, at 10 degrees C, the rate of ATP utilisation in relaxing conditions was 6 +/- 1 microM s-1 (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 8 fibres); during isometric contraction it was 310 +/- 10 microM s-1 (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 11). Assuming a myosin active site concentration of 150 microM, these values correspond to rates of ATP utilisation per active site of about 0.04 and 2.1 s-1, respectively. 3. The rate of ATP utilisation in relaxing conditions was independent of sarcomere length in the range 2.5-4.0 microm. The rate of ATP utilisation during isometric contraction had a dependence on resting sarcomere length similar to that of isometric force in the range 2.5-4.0 microm, but was less strongly dependent on sarcomere length than was isometric force in the range 1.5-2.5 microm. 4. The rate of ATP utilisation in relaxing conditions had a Q10 of 2.5 in the temperature range 7-25 degrees C, but this increased to 9.7 in the range 25-35 degrees C, suggesting that some active force may have been generated in relaxing solution at temperatures above 25 degrees C. 5. The rate of ATP utilisation during isometric contraction had a Q10 of 3.6 throughout the temperature range 7-25 degrees C; this was similar to the Q10 for isometric force at low temperature (3.5 at 7-10 degrees C) but much larger than that for isometric force at higher temperature (1.3 at 20-25 degrees C). 6. Application of the NADH-linked assay to single muscle fibres in oil improves the effective sensitivity and time resolution of the method, and allows continuous measurements of the rate of ADP production during active contraction.

Human skeletal muscle fibres: molecular and functional diversity

Contractile and energetic properties of human skeletal muscle have been studied for many years in vivo in the body. It has been, however, difficult to identify the specific role of muscle fibres in modulating muscle performance. Recently it has become possible to dissect short segments of single human muscle fibres from biopsy samples and make them work in nearly physiologic conditions in vitro. At the same time, the development of molecular biology has provided a wealth of information on muscle proteins and their genes and new techniques have allowed analysis of the protein isoform composition of the same fibre segments used for functional studies. In this way the histological identification of three main human muscle fibre types (I, IIA and IIX, previously called IIB) has been followed by a precise description of molecular composition and functional and biochemical properties. It has become apparent that the expression of different protein isoforms and therefore the existence of distinct muscle fibre phenotypes is one of the main determinants of the muscle performance in vivo. The present review will first describe the mechanisms through which molecular diversity is generated and how fibre types can be identified on the basis of structural and functional characteristics. Then the molecular and functional diversity will be examined with regard to (1) the myofibrillar apparatus; (2) the sarcolemma and the sarcoplasmic reticulum; and (3) the metabolic systems devoted to producing ATP. The last section of the review will discuss the advantage that fibre diversity can offer in optimizing muscle contractile performance.

Ca(2+) activation of myofilaments from transgenic mouse hearts expressing R92Q mutant cardiac troponin T

The functional consequences of the R92Q mutation in cardiac troponin T (cTnT), linked to familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in humans, are not well understood. We have studied steady- and pre-steady-state mechanical activity of detergent-skinned fiber bundles from a transgenic (TG) mouse model in which 67% of the total cTnT in the heart was replaced by the R92Q mutant cTnT. TG fibers were more sensitive to Ca(2+) than nontransgenic (NTG) fibers [negative logarithm of half maximally activating molar Ca(2+) (pCa(50)) = 5.84 +/- 0.01 and 6.12 +/- 0.01 for NTG and TG fibers, respectively]. The shift in pCa(50) caused by increasing the sarcomere length from 1.9 to 2.3 microm was significantly higher for TG than for NTG fibers (DeltapCa(50) = 0.13 +/- 0.01 and 0.29 +/- 0.02 for NTG and TG fibers, respectively). The relationships between rate of ATP consumption and steady-state isometric tension were linear, and the slopes were the same in NTG and TG fibers. Rate of tension redevelopment was more sensitive to Ca(2+) in TG than in NTG fibers (pCa(50) = 5.71 +/- 0.02 and 6.07 +/- 0.02 for NTG and TG fibers, respectively). We concluded that overall cross-bridge cycling kinetics are not altered by the R92Q mutation but that altered troponin-tropomyosin interactions could be responsible for the increase in myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity in TG myofilaments.

ATP consumption and efficiency of human single muscle fibers with different myosin isoform composition

Chemomechanical transduction was studied in single fibers isolated from human skeletal muscle containing different myosin isoforms. Permeabilized fibers were activated by laser-pulse photolytic release of 1.5 mM ATP from p(3)-1-(2-nitrophenyl)ethylester of ATP. The ATP hydrolysis rate in the muscle fibers was determined with a fluorescently labeled phosphate-binding protein. The effects of varying load and shortening velocity during contraction were investigated. The myosin isoform composition was determined in each fiber by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. At 12 degrees C large variations (three- to fourfold) were found between slow and fast (2A and 2A-2B) fibers in their maximum shortening velocity, peak power output, velocity at which peak power is produced, isometric ATPase activity, and tension cost. Isometric tension was similar in all fiber groups. The ATP consumption rate increased during shortening in proportion to shortening velocity. At 12 degrees C the maximum efficiency was similar (0.21-0.27) for all fiber types and was reached at a higher speed of shortening for the faster fibers. In all fibers, peak efficiency increased to approximately 0.4 when the temperature was raised from 12 degrees C to 20 degrees C. The results were simulated with a kinetic scheme describing the ATPase cycle, in which the rate constant controlling ADP release is sensitive to the load on the muscle. The main difference between slow and fast fibers was reproduced by increasing the rate constant for the hydrolysis step, which was rate limiting at low loads. Simulation of the effect of increasing temperature required an increase in the force per cross-bridge and an acceleration of the rate constants in the reaction pathway.

Efficiency of skeletal and cardiac muscle

In the human physiology literature values for skeletal and cardiac mechanical efficiency are being reported that seem to be much higher than are found in isolated tissue studies. We consider some of the different efficiency definitions and explore some possible reasons for low isolated tissue values, these include the experimental protocols used, the time at which measurements are made, afterloaded versus sinusoidal contractions, the effects of varying activation levels and recovery heat uncertainty. We examine some of the mechanical and energetic differences between cardiac and skeletal muscle--the absence of shortening heat, the linear relationship between energy per beat and pressure-volume area, constant contractile efficiency, and a larger crossbridge (CB) working stroke. Some observations are made on muscle energetics and loose and tight coupling CB models.

Rate of phosphate release after photoliberation of adenosine 5'-triphosphate in slow and fast skeletal muscle fibers

Inorganic phosphate (Pi) release was determined by means of a fluorescent Pi-probe in single permeabilized rabbit soleus and psoas muscle fibers. Measurements of Pi release followed photoliberation of approximately 1.5 mM ATP by flash photolysis of NPE-caged ATP in the absence and presence of Ca2+ at 15 degrees C. In the absence of Ca2+, Pi release occurred with a slow rate of 11 +/- 3 microM . s-1 (n = 3) in soleus fibers and 23 +/- 1 microM . s-1 (n = 10) in psoas fibers. At saturating Ca2+ concentrations (pCa 4.5), photoliberation of ATP was followed by rapid force development. The initial rate of Pi release was 0.57 +/- 0.05 mM . s-1 in soleus (n = 13) and 4.7 +/- 0.2 mM . s-1 in psoas (n = 23), corresponding to a rate of Pi release per myosin head of 3.8 s-1 in soleus and 31.5 s-1 in psoas. Pi release declined at a rate of 0.48 s-1 in soleus and of 5.2 s-1 in psoas. Pi release in soleus was slightly faster in the presence of an ATP regenerating system but slower when 0.5 mM ADP was added. The reduction in the rate of Pi release results from an initial redistribution of cross-bridges over different states and a subsequent ADP-sensitive slowing of cross-bridge detachment.

Contraction with shortening during stimulation or during relaxation: how do the energetic costs compare?

White muscle fibres from dogfish were used to compare the energetic costs of shortening by fully active muscle and by relaxing muscle. The muscle preparation was tetanized for 0.6 s and shortened either during stimulation or during relaxation. The distance shortened was 1 mm (about 15% L0, the muscle length optimum for force) and the velocity was 3.5 or 7.0 mm s-1 (about 15 or 30% V0, the maximum velocity of shortening). Isometric tetani at L0 were also investigated. Mechanical work and heat production were measured, and work + heat was taken as a measure of energetic cost. Both work and the energetic cost were higher with shortening during stimulation than with shortening during relaxation. The results suggest that shortening during relaxation, which is known to occur during locomotion in vivo, may be an energy-saving strategy.

A strain-dependent ratchet model for [phosphate]- and [ATP]-dependent muscle contraction

A minimal strain-dependent ratchet model of muscle cross-bridge action is proposed which is broadly compatible with structural and kinetic constraints. Its essential features are: (1) dynamic binding of the S1-products complex to actin through a disorder-order transition coupled to the release of inorganic phosphate; (2) the absence of a force-generating rotation of the myosin head between the two force-holding states A.M.ADP and A.M; (3) strain-control of ADP release and ATP binding, giving net isometric tension and directed motility by the selective dissociation of negatively strained bound states. With a disordered pre-force state, the binding rate to state A.M.ADP need not be symmetric in x, the actin site displacement. With faster binding at positive x, the model predicts many steady-state and transient properties of striated muscle observed experimentally, including phases 2-4 of tension recovery from length changes and their dependence on excess phosphate (which enhances and accelerates phase 3) and reduced ATP (which gives a bimodal phase 2 and slows one mode). The response to large perturbations is often sensitive to the number of actin sites used, and to the inclusion of a 1 nm displacement of the neck region on release of ADP. The latter stabilizes the periodic tension behaviour produced by repeated releases.

The Frank-Starling mechanism is not mediated by changes in rate of cross-bridge detachment

We tested the hypothesis that the Frank-Starling relationship is mediated by changes in the rate of cross-bridge detachment in cardiac muscle. We simultaneously measured isometric force development and the rate of ATP consumption at various levels of Ca2+ activation in skinned rat cardiac trabecular muscles at three sarcomere lengths (2.0, 2.1, and 2.2 microns). The maximum rate of ATP consumption was 1.5 nmol.s-1.microliter fiber vol-1, which represents an estimated adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) rate of approximately 10 s-1 per myosin head at 24 degrees C. The rate of ATP consumption was tightly and linearly coupled to the level of isometric force development, and changes in sarcomere length had no effect on the slope of the force-ATPase relationships. The average slope of the force-ATPase relationships was 15.5 pmol.mN-1.mm-1. These results suggest that the mechanisms that underlie the Frank-Starling relationship in cardiac muscle do not involve changes in the kinetics of the apparent detachment step in the cross-bridge cycle.

Does Elastic Energy Enhance Work and Efficiency in the Stretch-Shortening Cycle?

This target article addresses the role of storage and reutilization of elastic energy in stretch-shortening cycles. It is argued that for discrete movements such as the vertical jump, elastic energy does not explain the work enhancement due to the prestretch. This enhancement seems to occur because the prestretch allows muscles to develop a high level of active state and force before starting to shorten. For cyclic movements in which stretch-shortening cycles occur repetitively, some authors have claimed that elastic energy enhances mechanical efficiency. In the current article it is demonstrated that this claim is often based on disputable concepts such as the efficiency of positive work or absolute work, and it is argued that elastic energy cannot affect mechanical efficiency simply because this energy is not related to the conversion of metabolic energy into mechanical energy. A comparison of work and efficiency measures obtained at different levels of organization reveals that there is in fact no decisive evidence to either support or reject the claim that the stretch-shortening cycle enhances muscle efficiency. These explorations lead to the conclusion that the body of knowledge about the mechanics and energetics of the stretch-shortening cycle is in fact quite lean. A major challenge is to bridge the gap between knowledge obtained at different levels of organization, with the ultimate purpose of understanding how the intrinsic properties of muscles manifest themselves underin-vivo-like conditions and how they are exploited in whole-body activities such as running. To achieve this purpose, a close cooperation is required between muscle physiologists and human movement scientists performing inverse and forward dynamic simulation studies of whole-body exercises.

Kinetics of nucleoside triphosphate cleavage and phosphate release steps by associated rabbit skeletal actomyosin, measured using a novel fluorescent probe for phosphate

We have measured the kinetics of inorganic phosphate (Pi) release during a single turnover of actomyosin nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) hydrolysis using a double-mixing stopped-flow spectrofluorometer, at very low ionic strength to increase the affinity of myosin-ATP and myosin-ADP-Pi to actin. Myosin subfragment 1 and a series of nucleoside triphosphates were mixed and incubated for approximately 1-10 s to allow NTP to bind to myosin and generate a steady state mixture of myosin-NTP and myosin-NDP-Pi. The steady state intermediates were then mixed with actin. The kinetics of Pi release were measured using a fluorescent probe for Pi, based on a phosphate binding protein [Brune et al. (1994) Biochemistry 33, 8262-8271]. These data are correlated with quenched-flow data, where the extent of the rapid burst of hydrolysis during the first turnover of ATP hydrolysis was followed by chemical quenching of the reaction mix at various times after rapidly mixing ATP and myosin subfragment 1. From the double-mixing actomyosin measurements, the kinetics of Pi release are biphasic. The fast phase corresponds to Pi release from the associated actomyosin-ADP-Pi complex. The slow phase measures the rate of the cleavage step on associated actomyosin. At saturating actin, there is a correlation between the amplitude of the fast phase and the size of the Pi burst observed by quenched flow in the absence of actin: the size of this phase corresponds to the amount of myosin-ADP-Pi formed during the first mix. For ATP at 20 degrees C the rate of the Pi release step is 75 (+/-5) s-1, 25-fold larger than the cleavage step, which is the rate-limiting step of actomyosin ATP hydrolysis at saturating actin. The rate constant of Pi release varies only slightly with nucleoside structure. The rate constant of the slow phase of the Pi release (measuring cleavage) is highly dependent upon the structure of the NTP substrate.

Chemo-mechanical energy transduction in relation to myosin isoform composition in skeletal muscle fibres of the rat

1. ATP consumption and force development were determined in single skinned muscle fibres of the rat at 12 degrees C. Myofibrillar ATPase consumption was measured photometrically from NADH oxidation which was coupled to ATP hydrolysis. Myosin heavy chain (MHC) and light chain (MLC) isoforms were identified by gel electrophoresis. 2. Slow fibres (n = 14) containing MHCI and fast fibres (n = 18) containing MHCIIB were compared. Maximum shortening velocity was 1.02 +/- 0.63 and 3.05 +/- 0.23 lengths s-1, maximum power was 1.47 +/- 0.22 and 9.59 +/- 0.84 W l-1, and isometric ATPase activity was 0.034 +/- 0.003 and 0.25 +/- 0.01 mM s-1 in slow and in fast fibres, respectively. 3. In fast as well as in slow fibres ATP consumption during shortening increased above isometric ATP consumption. The increase was much greater in fast fibres than in slow fibres, but became similar when expressed relative to the isometric ATPase rate. 4. Efficiency was calculated from mechanical power and free energy change associated with ATP hydrolysis. Maximum efficiency was larger in slow than in fast fibres (0.38 +/- 0.04 versus 0.28 +/- 0.03) and was reached at a lower shortening velocity. 5. Within the group of fast fibres efficiency was lower in fibres which contained more MLC3f. We conclude that both MHC and essential MLC isoforms contribute to determine efficiency of chemo-mechanical transduction.

ATPase kinetics on activation of rabbit and frog permeabilized isometric muscle fibres: a real time phosphate assay

1. The rate of appearance of inorganic phosphate (Pi) and hence the ATPase activity of rabbit psoas muscle in single permeabilized muscle fibres initially in rigor was measured following laser flash photolysis of the P3-1-(2-nitrophenyl)ethyl ester of ATP (NPE-caged ATP) in the presence and absence of Ca2+. Pi appearance was monitored from the fluorescence signal of a Pi-sensitive probe, MDCC-PBP, a coumarin-labelled A197C mutant of the phosphate-binding protein from Escherichia coli. Fibres were immersed in oil to optimize the fluorescence signal and to obviate diffusion problems. The ATPase activity was also measured under similar conditions from the rate of NADH disappearance using an NADH-linked coupled enzyme assay. 2. On photolysis of NPE-caged ATP in the presence of Ca2+ at 20 degrees C, the fluorescence increase of MDCC-PBP was non-linear with time. ATPase activity was 41 s-1 in the first turnover based on a myosin subfragment 1 concentration of 150 microM. This was calculated from a linear regression of the fluorescence signal reporting 20-150 microM of Pi release. Tension was at 67% of its isometric level by the time 150 microM Pi was released. ATPase activities were 36 and 31 s-1 for Pi released in the ranges of 150-300 microM and 300-450 microM, respectively. The ATPase activity had a Q10 value of 2.9 based on measurements at 5, 12 and 20 degrees C. 3. An NADH-linked assay showed the ATPase activity had a lower limit of 12.7 s-1 at 20 degrees C. The response to photolytic release of ADP showed that the rate of NADH disappearance was partially limited by the flux through the coupled reactions. Simulations indicated that the linked assay data were consistent with an initial ATPase activity of 40 s-1. 4. On photolysis of NPE-caged ATP in the absence of Ca2+ the ATPase activity was 0.11 s-1 at 20 degrees C with no discernible rapid transient phase of Pi release during the first turnover of the ATPase. 5. To avoid the rigor state, the ATPase rate in the presence of Ca2+ was also measured on activation from the relaxed state by photolytic release of Ca2+ from a caged Ca2+ compound, nitrophenyl-EGTA. At 5 degrees C the ATPase rate was 5.8 and 4.0 s-1 in the first and second turnovers, respectively. These rates are comparable to those when NPE-caged ATP was used. 6. The influence of ADP and Pi on the ATPase activities was measured using the MDCC-PBP and NADH-linked assays, respectively. ADP (0.5 mM) decreased the initial ATPase rate by 23%. Pi (10 mM) had no significant effect. Inhibition by ADP, formed during ATP hydrolysis, contributed to the decrease of ATPase activity with time. 7. The MDCC-PBP assay and NPE-caged ATP were used to measure the ATPase rate in single permeabilized muscle fibres of the semitendinosus muscle of the frog. At 5 degrees C in the presence of Ca2+ the ATPase activity was biphasic being 15.0 s-1 during the first turnover (based on 180 microM myosin subfragment 1). Tension was 74% of its isometric level by the time 180 microM Pi was released. During the third turnover the ATPase rate decreased to about 20% of that during the first turnover. 8. ATPase activity in isometric rabbit muscle fibres during the first few turnovers is about an order of magnitude greater than that when a steady state is reached. Possible reasons and the consequences for understanding the mechanism of muscular contraction are discussed.

Force-dependent and force-independent heat production in single slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibres from Xenopus laevis

1. The origin of labile heat production, i.e. a heat component which rapidly decays after the onset of stimulation, and of stable (maintenance) heat production was investigated in intact single fast-twitch (type 1) and slow-twitch (type 3) iliofibularis muscle fibres from Xenopus laevis, at 20 degrees C, by varying stimulation frequency and by varying sarcomere length and the concentration of 2,3-butanedione 2-monoxime (BDM) added. 2. The labile heat produced consisted of a force-independent and a force-dependent part. The average parvalbumin (PA) content found in type 1 fibre bundles (0.84 +/- 0.08 mM; mean +/- S.E.M.; n = 5) and in type 3 fibre bundles (0.12 +/- 0.02 mM; n = 5) indicates that the force-independent labile heat is explained by Ca(2+)-Mg2+ exchange on PA, and amounts to a molar enthalpy change of -78 kJ (molPA)-1. 3. Force-dependent labile heat during fused contractions was similar to the calculated heat production resulting from the formation of force-generating cross-bridges, assuming an enthalpy change associated with cross-bridge formation of -30 kJ mol-1. 4. Activation heat, i.e. the part of the total stable heat that is not related to the contractile apparatus, and of which the calcium sequestration by the sarcoplasmic reticulum is the most important contributor, determined by varying sarcomere length or BDM concentration, was identical. For fused contractions the fraction activation heat of the stable maintenance rate of heat production was 34 +/- 4% (mean +/- S.E.M.; n = 13) in type 1 fibres, and 52 +/- 4% (n = 15) in type 3 fibres. In unfused contractions this was 48 +/- 5% (n = 13) in type 1 fibres, and 35 +/- 2% (n = 11) in type 3 fibres. 5. From the force-dependent stable rate of heat production the economy of cross-bridge cycling, expressed as the force-time integral for a single myosin head per ATP molecule hydrolysed, was calculated. It followed that cross-bridge interaction in type 3 fibres is more economical than in type 1 fibres, and that fused contractions are more economical than unfused contractions.

Increase in ATP consumption during shortening in skinned fibres from rabbit psoas muscle: effects of inorganic phosphate

1. The influence of inorganic phosphate (P(i)) on the relationship between ATP consumption and mechanical performance under isometric and dynamic conditions was investigated in chemically skinned single fibres or thin bundles from rabbit psoas muscle. Myofibrillar ATPase activity was measured photometrically by enzymatic coupling of the regeneration of ATP to the oxidation of NADH. NADH absorbance at 340 nm was determined inside a miniature (4 microliters) measuring chamber. 2. ATP consumption due to isovelocity shortenings was measured in the range between 0.0625 and 1 L0 s-1(L0: fibre length previous to shortening, corresponding to a sarcomere length of 2.64 microns), in solutions without added P(i) and with 30 mM P(i). To get an estimate of the amount of ATP utilized during the shortening phase, quick releases of various amplitudes were also performed. 3. After quick releases, sufficiently large that force dropped to zero, extra ATP was hydrolysed which was largely independent of the amplitude of the release and of the period of unloaded shortening. This extra amount, above the isometric ATP turnover, corresponded to about 0.7 and 0.5 ATP molecules per myosin head at 0 and 30 mM P(i), respectively. 4. ATP turnover during the isovelocity shortenings was higher than isometric turnover and increased with increasing shortening velocity up to about 2.7 times the isometric value. At low and moderate velocities of shortening (< 0.5 L0 s-1), P(i) reduced ATP turnover during isovelocity shortening and isometric ATP turnover to a similar extent, i.e. a decrease to about 77% between 0 and 30 mM added P(i). 5. The extra ATP turnover above the isometric value, resulting from isovelocity shortenings studied at different speeds, was proportional to the power output of the preparation, both in the absence and presence of added [P(i)]. 6. The effect of shortening velocity and [P(i)] on energy turnover can be understood in a cross-bridge model that consists of a detached, a non- or low-force-producing, and a force-producing state. In this model, mass action of P(i) influences the equilibrium between the force-producing and the non-or-low-force-producing cross-bridges, and shortening enhances cross-bridge detachment from both attached states.

Effects of 2,3-butanedione monoxime on cross-bridge kinetics in rat cardiac muscle

The effects of 2,3-butanedione monoxime (BDM) on isometric force and myofibrillar adenosine 5'-triphosphatase (ATPase) activity were studied in skinned cardiac trabeculae from the rat. ATP hydrolysis was enzymatically coupled to the breakdown of reduced nicotinamide adeninedinucleotide (NADH). The NADH concentration was monitored photometrically. Measurements were performed at a sarcomere length of 2.1 microm, 20 degrees C and pH 7.0. Without BDM, isometric force was 45 +/- 3 kN/m2 and the isometric ATPase activity 0.49 +/- 0.04 mM/s (mean +/- SEM, n = 31). Force gradually decreased as a function of [BDM] to 2.8 +/- 0.4% at 100 mM BDM. ATPase activity was also depressed by BDM, but to a lesser extent than force. BDM therefore has a marked effect on myofibrillar tension cost. The rate of tension redevelopment after unloaded shortening decreased from 29 +/- 2 s-1 (n = 10) without BDM to 22 +/- 1 s-1 (n = 5) at 20 mM BDM. These results, modelled in a two- and three-state scheme of cross-bridge interaction, indicate that, in cardiac muscle, BDM not only affects cross-bridge formation but, especially at high concentrations (>/= 20 mM), also causes a marked increase in the apparent rate of cross-bridge detachment.

Myofibrillar ATPase activity in skinned human skeletal muscle fibres: fibre type and temperature dependence

1. Myofibrillar ATP consumption and isometric tension (P0) were determined in chemically skinned skeletal muscle fibres from human rectus abdominis and vastus lateralis muscle. Fibres were classified in four groups (I, IIA, IIB, IIA/B or mixed) based on myosin heavy chain composition. 2. ATP consumption (+/- S.E.M.) at 20 degrees C varied from 0.41 +/- 0.06 mmol l-1 s-1 in type IIB fibres (n = 5) to 0.10 +/- 0.01 mmol l-1 s-1 in type I fibres (n = 13). 3. The ratio between ATPase activity and P0 (tension cost) differed significantly between fast type II and slow type I fibres. At 12 degrees C tension cost was lower than the values found previously in corresponding fibre types in the rat. 4. The relative increase in ATPase activity for a 10 degrees C temperature change (Q10), determined in the range from 12 to 30 degrees C, was temperature independent and amounted to 2.60 +/- 0.06. The increase in P0 with temperature was smaller and declined when the temperature increased. 5. From these measurements, estimates were obtained for the maximum rate of isometric ATP consumption and force development at muscle temperature in vivo (35 degrees C).

BDM compared with P(i) and low Ca2+ in the cross-bridge reaction initiated by flash photolysis of caged ATP

Using flash photolysis of caged ATP in skinned muscle fibers from rat psoas, we examined the inhibitory effects of 2,3-butanedione monoxime (BDM) on the contraction kinetics and the rate of ATP hydrolysis of the cross-bridges at approximately 10 degrees C. The hydrolysis rate was estimated from the stiffness records. The effects of BDM were compared with those of orthophosphate (P(i)) and of reduction in [Ca2+] (low Ca2+), and it was found that i) BDM and low Ca2+ inhibited ATPase activity to the same extent as they inhibited the steady tension, whereas P(i) inhibited ATPase activity much less than tension; ii) BDM and P(i) decreased tension per stiffness during the steady contraction more than did low Ca2+; iii) neither BDM nor low Ca2+ affected the initial relaxation of the fiber on release of ATP, but P(i) slightly slowed it; and iv) BDM hardly influenced the rate of contraction development after relaxation, although P(i) and low Ca2+ accelerated it. We concluded that BDM inhibits the Ca(2+)-regulated attachment of the cross-bridges and force-generation of the attached cross-bridges.

Influence of inorganic phosphate and pH on ATP utilization in fast and slow skeletal muscle fibers

The influence of P(i) and pH was studied on myofibrillar ATP turnover and force development during maximally activated isometric contractions, in skinned single fibers from rabbit soleus and psoas muscle. ATP hydrolysis was coupled to the breakdown of NADH, which was monitored photometrically at 340 nm. In psoas the depression by phosphate of force is twice that of ATP turnover, but in soleus force and ATP turnover are depressed equally by P(i). Most, but not all, of the ATPase and force values observed for a combination of high P(i) and low pH could be explained by independent effects of P(i) and pH. The effects of P(i) and pH on ATP turnover can be understood by a three-state cross-bridge scheme. Mass action of phosphate on the reaction from the actomyosin(AM).ADP state to the AM.ADP.P(i) state may largely account for the phosphate dependencies of ATPase activity found. Protons affect cross-bridge detachment from the AM.ADP state and the rate of the AM.ADP.P(i)-to-AM.ADP transition. In this scheme, the effects of P(i) and pH on cross-bridge kinetics appeared to be largely independent.

Force generation and work production by covalently cross-linked actin-myosin cross-bridges in rabbit muscle fibers

To separate a fraction of the myosin cross-bridges that are attached to the thin filaments and that participate in the mechanical responses, muscle fibers were cross-linked with 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide and then immersed in high-salt relaxing solution (HSRS) of 0.6 M ionic strength for detaching the unlinked myosin heads. The mechanical properties and force-generating ability of the cross-linked cross-bridges were tested with step length changes (L-steps) and temperature jumps (T-jumps) from 6-10 degrees C to 30-40 degrees C. After partial cross-linking, when instantaneous stiffness in HSRS was 25-40% of that in rigor, the mechanical behavior of the fibers was similar to that during active contraction. The kinetics of the T-jump-induced tension transients as well as the rate of the fast phase of tension recovery after length steps were close to those in unlinked fibers during activation. Under feedback force control, the T-jump initiated fiber shortening by up to 4 nm/half-sarcomere. Work produced by a cross-linked myosin head after the T-jump was up to 30 x 10(-21) J. When the extent of cross-linking was increased and fiber stiffness in HSRS approached that in rigor, the fibers lost their viscoelastic properties and ability to generate force with a rise in temperature.

Energetics of shortening depend on stimulation frequency in single muscle fibres from Xenopus laevis at 20 degrees C

Single intact slow-twitch (type 3) muscle fibres from the iliofibularis muscle of Xenopus laevis were shortened at a constant velocity (0.4 L0/S, where L0 is the initial length at different levels of activation (40, 15, 12.5, and 10 Hz). A stimulation frequency of 40 Hz gave fused tetanic records. At this frequency the mean heat production rate during shortening (0.38 +/- 0.05 W/g dry weight) was slightly higher than the isometric heat production rate (0.33 +/- 0.03 W/g dry weight). The lower stimulation frequencies gave unfused tetanic contractions, the average isometric force of which was 40 +/- 3% of the isometric force at 40 Hz. In these unfused tetani during shortening the heat production rate (0.18 +/- 0.02 W/g dry weight) significantly decreased below the isometric heat production rate (0.25 +/- 0.02 W/g dry weight). At full activation the rate of total energy production (mechanical power plus heat production rate) during shortening was 1.88 +/- 0.32 times the isometric total energy production rate. This effect, i.e. an increase in energy turnover with shortening, is known as the Fenn effect. At sub-maximal stimulation the energy output during shortening was only 1.07 +/- 0.08 times the isometric value. These results show that the Fenn effect is dependent on the level of activation. The efficiency (ratio of mechanical power to total energy output) was independent of the stimulation frequency (0.37 +/- 0.06).

Protein kinase A does not alter economy of force maintenance in skinned rat cardiac trabeculae

Recent mechanical, biochemical, and energetic experiments have suggested that catecholamines may increase the cycling rate of cross-bridges independent of changes inn intracellular calcium. An increased rate of cross-bridge cycling is expected to result in decreased economy of force maintenance. The present study tested this hypothesis directly by measuring the rate of ATP consumption in skinned cardiac trabeculae as a function of steady state force. Rat cardiac trabeculae were skinned with Triton X-100. Resting sarcomere length was measured by laser diffraction, and ATP consumption was assessed by an enzyme-coupled optical technique. Force-[Ca2+] relations were fit to a modified Hill equation. Force dependency of the rate of ATP consumption was analyzed by multiple linear regression analysis. beta-Adrenergic stimulation was mimicked by incubation of the skinned muscle preparation with the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A (PKA). Treatment with PKA (3 micrograms/mL, 40 minutes) induced a significant (65 +/- 23%, P = .01) increase in [Ca2+] required for half-maximal steady state force, whereas the steepness of the force-[Ca2+] relation was not affected. The rate of ATP consumption was linearly correlated with steady state force, regardless of PKA treatment status (P < .001). However, neither the slope nor the intercept was affected by PKA treatment. Hence, PKA treatment did not affect either the maximum rate of ATP consumption or the economy of force maintenance. These results suggest that beta-adrenergic stimulation does not alter the rate-limiting step of cross-bridge cycling during isometric contraction in myocardium.

A new method for the time-resolved measurement of phosphate release in permeabilized muscle fibers

A new method for the measurement of phosphate release in contracting and relaxed permeabilized muscle fibers is described. The assay is based on a genetically engineered phosphate-binding protein labeled with a coumarin fluorescent probe, which binds inorganic phosphate tightly and shows a fourfold increase in fluorescence upon binding. Measurements of Pi release on the millisecond time scale with sensitivity in the 10 microM range are obtained that provide new information about the relationship between ATP hydrolysis and force production.

Strain sensitivity and turnover rate of low force cross-bridges in contracting skeletal muscle fibers in the presence of phosphate

Inorganic phosphate (Pi) decreases the isometric tension of skinned skeletal muscle fibers, presumably by increasing the relative fraction of a low force quaternary complex of actin, myosin, ADP, and Pi (A.M.ADP.Pi). At the same time, Pi gives rise to a fast relaxing mechanical component as detected by oscillations at 500 Hz. To characterize the dynamic properties of this A.M.ADP.Pi complex, the effect of Pi on the tension response to stretch was investigated with rabbit psoas fibers. A ramp stretch applied in the presence of 20 mM Pi increased tension more than in the control solution (0 mM Pi) but reduced the fast relaxing component to the control level. Thus, a stretch seems to convert the low force, fast relaxing A.M.ADP.Pi complex to a high force, slow relaxing form. However, the Pi-induced enhancement of the tension response was not observed until the fibers were stretched more than 0.4% of their length, suggesting that a critical cross-bridge extension of approximately 4 nm is required for this conversion. The rate constant of the attachment/detachment of this low force complex was estimated from the velocity dependence of the enhancement. It was approximately 10 s-1, in marked contrast to the A.M.ADP.Pi complex under low salt, relaxed conditions (approximately 10,000 s-1). The enhancement of the tension response was not observed when isometric tension was reduced by lowering free calcium, implying that calcium and Pi affect different steps in the actomyosin ATPase cycle during contraction.

Myofibrillar ATPase activity during isometric contraction and isomyosin composition in rat single skinned muscle fibres

1. Myofibrillar ATPase activity, isometric tension (Po) and unloaded shortening velocity (Vo) were determined in single skinned fibres isolated from rat hindlimb muscles during maximal calcium activation at 12 degrees C. In each fibre, myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms were identified using electrophoresis and immunocytochemistry. ATPase activity was determined spectrophotometrically from NADH oxidation in a coupled enzyme assay. 2. On the basis of their MHC isoform composition, the fibres (n = 102) were divided into five groups containing the slow isoform, I MHC, or one of the fast isoforms, IIB MHC, IIA MHC, IIX MHC, or a mixture of the latter three. ATPase activity was significantly higher in IIB than in 2X and IIA fibres (0.230 +/- 0.010, 0.178 +/- 0.023 and 0.168 +/- 0.026 nmol mm-3 s-1, respectively). Mixed fibres had intermediate values. ATPase activity in slow fibres was considerably less (0.045 +/- 0.006 nmol mm-3 s-1). 3. The ratio between ATPase activity and Po, i.e. tension cost, was found to be 2.90 +/- 0.09, 2.56 +/- 0.14, 1.89 +/- 0.22, 1.52 +/- 0.13 and 0.66 +/- 0.004 pmol ATP nM-1 mm-1 s-1 in IIB, mixed, IIX, IIA and slow fibres, respectively. All the differences were statistically significant except that between IIA and IIX fibres. 4. Within each group of fibres with the same MHC composition, ATPase activity was found to correlate with Po, but not Vo. However, ATPase activity was found to correlate with Vo when all the fibre types were pooled together. 5. In thirty-seven fast fibres the MLC ratio, i.e. the proportion of the fast alkali light chain isoform, MLC3f, to the amount of the regulatory light chain, MLC2f, was determined. IIB fibres had the highest proportion of MLC3f and IIA fibres, the lowest. 6. A multiple regression analysis, used to distinguish between the effects of MHC and MLC composition, showed that ATPase activity was insensitive to the MLC ratio, whereas it had a significant impact on Vo. 7. The results obtained in this study indicate that in rat skeletal muscle fibres: (a) ATPase activity during isometric contractions and tension cost are strongly dependent on MHC isoform composition, and (b) there is no evidence that the alkali MLC ratio is a determinant of ATPase activity.