Thin filament Ca2+ binding properties and regulatory unit interactions alter kinetics of tension development and relaxation in rabbit skeletal muscle

Danicamtiv Increases Myosin Recruitment and Alters Cross-Bridge Cycling in Cardiac Muscle

BACKGROUND

Modulating myosin function is a novel therapeutic approach in patients with cardiomyopathy. Danicamtiv is a novel myosin activator with promising preclinical data that is currently in clinical trials. While it is known that danicamtiv increases force and cardiomyocyte contractility without affecting calcium levels, detailed mechanistic studies regarding its mode of action are lacking.

METHODS

Permeabilized porcine cardiac tissue and myofibrils were used for X-ray diffraction and mechanical measurements. A mouse model of genetic dilated cardiomyopathy was used to evaluate the ability of danicamtiv to correct the contractile deficit.

RESULTS

Danicamtiv increased force and calcium sensitivity via increasing the number of myosins in the ON state and slowing cross-bridge turnover. Our detailed analysis showed that inhibition of ADP release results in decreased cross-bridge turnover with cross bridges staying attached longer and prolonging myofibril relaxation. Danicamtiv corrected decreased calcium sensitivity in demembranated tissue, abnormal twitch magnitude and kinetics in intact cardiac tissue, and reduced ejection fraction in the whole organ.

CONCLUSIONS

As demonstrated by the detailed studies of Danicamtiv, increasing myosin recruitment and altering cross-bridge cycling are 2 mechanisms to increase force and calcium sensitivity in cardiac muscle. Myosin activators such as Danicamtiv can treat the causative hypocontractile phenotype in genetic dilated cardiomyopathy.

Danicamtiv increases myosin recruitment and alters the chemomechanical cross bridge cycle in cardiac muscle

Modulating myosin function is a novel therapeutic approach in patients with cardiomyopathy. Detailed mechanism of action of these agents can help predict potential unwanted affects and identify patient populations that can benefit most from them. Danicamtiv is a novel myosin activator with promising preclinical data that is currently in clinical trials. While it is known danicamtiv increases force and cardiomyocyte contractility without affecting calcium levels, detailed mechanistic studies regarding its mode of action are lacking. Using porcine cardiac tissue and myofibrils we demonstrate that Danicamtiv increases force and calcium sensitivity via increasing the number of myosin in the "on" state and slowing cross bridge turnover. Our detailed analysis shows that inhibition of ADP release results in decreased cross bridge turnover with cross bridges staying on longer and prolonging myofibril relaxation. Using a mouse model of genetic dilated cardiomyopathy, we demonstrated that Danicamtiv corrected calcium sensitivity in demembranated and abnormal twitch magnitude and kinetics in intact cardiac tissue.

Significance Statement

Directly augmenting sarcomere function has potential to overcome limitations of currently used inotropic agents to improve cardiac contractility. Myosin modulation is a novel mechanism for increased contraction in cardiomyopathies. Danicamtiv is a myosin activator that is currently under investigation for use in cardiomyopathy patients. Our study is the first detailed mechanism of how Danicamtiv increases force and alters kinetics of cardiac activation and relaxation. This new understanding of the mechanism of action of Danicamtiv can be used to help identify patients that could benefit most from this treatment.

The force of the myosin motor sets cooperativity in thin filament activation of skeletal muscles

Contraction of striated muscle is regulated by a dual mechanism involving both thin, actin-containing filament and thick, myosin-containing filament. Thin filament is activated by Ca2+ binding to troponin, leading to tropomyosin displacement that exposes actin sites for interaction with myosin motors, extending from the neighbouring stress-activated thick filaments. Motor attachment to actin contributes to spreading activation along the thin filament, through a cooperative mechanism, still unclear, that determines the slope of the sigmoidal relation between isometric force and pCa (−log[Ca2+]), estimated by Hill coefficient nH. We use sarcomere-level mechanics in demembranated fibres of rabbit skeletal muscle activated by Ca2+ at different temperatures (12–35 °C) to show that nH depends on the motor force at constant number of attached motors. The definition of the role of motor force provides fundamental constraints for modelling the dynamics of thin filament activation and defining the action of small molecules as possible therapeutic tools.

The Sliding Filament Theory Since Andrew Huxley: Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Muscle Research

Two groundbreaking papers published in 1954 laid out the theory of the mechanism of muscle contraction based on force-generating interactions between myofilaments in the sarcomere that cause filaments to slide past one another during muscle contraction. The succeeding decades of research in muscle physiology have revealed a unifying interest: to understand the multiscale processes-from atom to organ-that govern muscle function. Such an understanding would have profound consequences for a vast array of applications, from developing new biomimetic technologies to treating heart disease. However, connecting structural and functional properties that are relevant at one spatiotemporal scale to those that are relevant at other scales remains a great challenge. Through a lens of multiscale dynamics, we review in this article current and historical research in muscle physiology sparked by the sliding filament theory.

The relation between sarcomere energetics and the rate of isometric tension relaxation in healthy and diseased cardiac muscle

Full muscle relaxation happens when [Ca²⁺] falls below the threshold for force activation. Several experimental models, from whole muscle organs and intact muscle down to skinned fibers, have been used to explore the cascade of kinetic events leading to mechanical relaxation. The use of single myofibrils together with fast solution switching techniques, has provided new information about the role of cross-bridge (CB) dissociation in the time course of isometric force decay. Myofibril’s relaxation is biphasic starting with a slow seemingly linear phase, with a rate constant, slow k_REL, followed by a fast mono-exponential phase. Sarcomeres remain isometric during the slow force decay that reflects CB detachment under isometric conditions while the final fast relaxation phase begins with a sudden give of few sarcomeres and is then dominated by intersarcomere dynamics. Based on a simple two-state model of the CB cycle, myofibril slow k_REL represents the apparent forward rate with which CBs leave force generating states (g_app) under isometric conditions and correlates with the energy cost of tension generation (ATPase/tension ratio); in short slow k_REL ~ g_app ~ tension cost. The validation of this relationship is obtained by simultaneously measuring maximal isometric force and ATP consumption in skinned myocardial strips that provide an unambiguous determination of the relation between contractile and energetic properties of the sarcomere. Thus, combining kinetic experiments in isolated myofibrils and mechanical and energetic measurements in multicellular cardiac strips, we are able to provide direct evidence for a positive linear correlation between myofibril isometric relaxation kinetics (slow k_REL) and the energy cost of force production both measured in preparations from the same cardiac sample. This correlation remains true among different types of muscles with different ATPase activities and also when CB kinetics are altered by cardiomyopathy-related mutations. Sarcomeric mutations associated to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), a primary cardiac disorder caused by mutations in genes encoding sarcomeric proteins, have been often found to accelerate CB turnover rate and increase the energy cost of myocardial contraction. Here we review data showing that faster CB detachment results in a proportional increase in the energetic cost of tension generation in heart samples from both HCM patients and mouse models of the disease.

New insights provided by myofibril mechanics in inherited cardiomyopathies

Cardiomyopathies represent a heterogeneous group of cardiac disorders that perturb cardiac contraction and/or relaxation, and can result in arrhythmias, heart failure, and sudden cardiac death. Based on morphological and functional differences, cardiomyopathies have been classified into hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM). It has been well documented that mutations in genes encoding sarcomeric proteins are associated with the onset of inherited cardiomyopathies. However, correlating patient genotype to the clinical phenotype has been challenging because of the complex genetic backgrounds, environmental influences, and lifestyles of individuals. Thus, "scaling down" the focus to the basic contractile unit of heart muscle using isolated single myofibril function techniques is of great importance and may be used to understand the molecular basis of disease-causing sarcomeric mutations. Single myofibril bundles harvested from diseased human or experimental animal hearts, as well as cultured adult cardiomyocytes or human cardiomyocytes derived from induced pluripotent stem cells, can be used, thereby providing an ideal multi-level, cross-species platform to dissect sarcomeric function in cardiomyopathies. Here, we will review the myofibril function technique, and discuss alterations in myofibril mechanics, which are known to occur in sarcomeric genetic mutations linked to inherited HCM, DCM, and RCM, and describe the therapeutic potential for future target identification.

The Ca2+ sensitizer CK-2066260 increases myofibrillar Ca2+ sensitivity and submaximal force selectively in fast skeletal muscle

Key points

We report that the small molecule CK‐2066260 selectively slows the off‐rate of Ca²⁺ from fast skeletal muscle troponin, leading to increased myofibrillar Ca²⁺ sensitivity in fast skeletal muscle.

Rodents dosed with CK‐2066260 show increased hindlimb muscle force and power in response to submaximal rates of nerve stimulation in situ.

CK‐2066260 has no effect on free cytosolic [Ca²⁺] during contractions of isolated muscle fibres.

We conclude that fast skeletal muscle troponin sensitizers constitute a potential therapy to address an unmet need of improving muscle function in conditions of weakness and premature muscle fatigue.

Abstract

Skeletal muscle dysfunction occurs in many diseases and can lead to muscle weakness and premature muscle fatigue. Here we show that the fast skeletal troponin activator, CK‐2066260, counteracts muscle weakness by increasing troponin Ca²⁺ affinity, thereby increasing myofibrillar Ca²⁺ sensitivity. Exposure to CK‐2066260 resulted in a concentration‐dependent increase in the Ca²⁺ sensitivity of ATPase activity in isolated myofibrils and reconstituted hybrid sarcomeres containing fast skeletal muscle troponin C. Stopped‐flow experiments revealed a ∼2.7‐fold decrease in the Ca²⁺ off‐rate of isolated troponin complexes in the presence of CK‐2066260 (6 vs. 17 s⁻¹ under control conditions). Isolated mouse flexor digitorum brevis fibres showed a rapidly developing, reversible and concentration‐dependent force increase at submaximal stimulation frequencies. This force increase was not accompanied by any changes in the free cytosolic [Ca²⁺] or its kinetics. CK‐2066260 induced a slowing of relaxation, which was markedly larger at 26°C than at 31°C and could be linked to the decreased Ca²⁺ off‐rate of troponin C. Rats dosed with CK‐2066260 showed increased hindlimb isometric and isokinetic force in response to submaximal rates of nerve stimulation in situ producing significantly higher absolute forces at low isokinetic velocities, whereas there was no difference in force at the highest velocities. Overall muscle power was increased and the findings are consistent with a lack of effect on crossbridge kinetics. In conclusion, CK‐2066260 acts as a fast skeletal troponin activator that may be used to increase muscle force and power in conditions of muscle weakness.

We report that the small molecule CK‐2066260 selectively slows the off‐rate of Ca²⁺ from fast skeletal muscle troponin, leading to increased myofibrillar Ca²⁺ sensitivity in fast skeletal muscle.

Rodents dosed with CK‐2066260 show increased hindlimb muscle force and power in response to submaximal rates of nerve stimulation in situ.

CK‐2066260 has no effect on free cytosolic [Ca²⁺] during contractions of isolated muscle fibres.

We conclude that fast skeletal muscle troponin sensitizers constitute a potential therapy to address an unmet need of improving muscle function in conditions of weakness and premature muscle fatigue.

Effects of Cardiac Troponin I Mutation P83S on Contractile Properties and the Modulation by PKA-Mediated Phosphorylation

cTnI(P82S) (cTnI(P83S) in rodents) resides at the I-T arm of cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and was initially identified as a disease-causing mutation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). However, later studies suggested this may not be true. We recently reported that introduction of an HCM-associated mutation in either inhibitory-peptide (cTnI(R146G)) or cardiac-specific N-terminus (cTnI(R21C)) of cTnI blunts the PKA-mediated modulation on myofibril activation/relaxation kinetics by prohibiting formation of intrasubunit contacts between these regions. Here, we tested whether this also occurs for cTnI(P83S). cTnI(P83S) increased both Ca(2+) binding affinity to cTn (KCa) and affinity of cTnC for cTnI (KC-I), and eliminated the reduction of KCa and KC-I observed for phosphorylated-cTnI(WT). In isolated myofibrils, cTnI(P83S) maintained maximal tension (TMAX) and Ca(2+) sensitivity of tension (pCa50). For cTnI(WT) myofibrils, PKA-mediated phosphorylation decreased pCa50 and sped up the slow-phase relaxation (especially for those Ca(2+) conditions that heart performs in vivo). Those effects were blunted for cTnI(P83S) myofibrils. Molecular-dynamics simulations suggested cTnI(P83S) moderately inhibited an intrasubunit interaction formation between inhibitory-peptide and N-terminus, but this "blunting" effect was weaker than that with cTnI(R146G) or cTnI(R21C). In summary, cTnI(P83S) has similar effects as other HCM-associated cTnI mutations on troponin and myofibril function even though it is in the I-T arm of cTnI.

Structural determinants of muscle thin filament cooperativity

End-to-end connections between adjacent tropomyosin molecules along the muscle thin filament allow long-range conformational rearrangement of the multicomponent filament structure. This process is influenced by Ca(2+) and the troponin regulatory complexes, as well as by myosin crossbridge heads that bind to and activate the filament. Access of myosin crossbridges onto actin is gated by tropomyosin, and in the case of striated muscle filaments, troponin acts as a gatekeeper. The resulting tropomyosin-troponin-myosin on-off switching mechanism that controls muscle contractility is a complex cooperative and dynamic system with highly nonlinear behavior. Here, we review key information that leads us to view tropomyosin as central to the communication pathway that coordinates the multifaceted effectors that modulate and tune striated muscle contraction. We posit that an understanding of this communication pathway provides a framework for more in-depth mechanistic characterization of myopathy-associated mutational perturbations currently under investigation by many research groups.

2-Deoxyadenosine triphosphate restores the contractile function of cardiac myofibril from adult dogs with naturally occurring dilated cardiomyopathy

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a major type of heart failure resulting from loss of systolic function. Naturally occurring canine DCM is a widely accepted experimental paradigm for studying human DCM. 2-Deoxyadenosine triphosphate (dATP) can be used by myosin and is a superior energy substrate over ATP for cross-bridge formation and increased systolic function. The objective of this study was to evaluate the beneficial effect of dATP on contractile function of cardiac myofibrils from dogs with naturally occurring DCM. We measured actomyosin NTPase activity and contraction/relaxation properties of isolated myofibrils from nonfailing (NF) and DCM canine hearts. NTPase assays indicated replacement of ATP with dATP significantly increased myofilament activity in both NF and DCM samples. dATP significantly improved maximal tension of DCM myofibrils to the NF sample level. dATP also restored Ca(2+) sensitivity of tension that was reduced in DCM samples. Similarly, dATP increased the kinetics of contractile activation (kACT), with no impact on the rate of cross-bridge tension redevelopment (kTR). Thus, the activation kinetics (kACT/kTR) that were reduced in DCM samples were restored for dATP to NF sample levels. dATP had little effect on relaxation. The rate of early slow-phase relaxation was slightly reduced with dATP, but its duration was not, nor was the fast-phase relaxation or times to 50 and 90% relaxation. Our findings suggest that myosin utilization of dATP improves cardiac myofibril contractile properties of naturally occurring DCM canine samples, restoring them to NF levels, without compromising relaxation. This suggests elevation of cardiac dATP is a promising approach for the treatment of DCM.

Contractile properties of developing human fetal cardiac muscle

KEY POINTS

The contractile properties of human fetal cardiac muscle have not been previously studied. Small-scale approaches such as isolated myofibril and isolated contractile protein biomechanical assays allow study of activation and relaxation kinetics of human fetal cardiac muscle under well-controlled conditions. We have examined the contractile properties of human fetal cardiac myofibrils and myosin across gestational age 59-134 days. Human fetal cardiac myofibrils have low force and slow kinetics of activation and relaxation that increase during the time period studied, and kinetic changes may result from structural maturation and changes in protein isoform expression. Understanding the time course of human fetal cardiac muscle structure and contractile maturation can provide a framework to study development of contractile dysfunction with disease and evaluate the maturation state of cultured stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes.

ABSTRACT

Little is known about the contractile properties of human fetal cardiac muscle during development. Understanding these contractile properties, and how they change throughout development, can provide valuable insight into human heart development, and provide a framework to study the early stages of cardiac diseases that develop in utero. We characterized the contractile properties of isolated human fetal cardiac myofibrils across 8-19 weeks of gestation. Mechanical measurements revealed that in early stages of gestation there is low specific force and slow rates of force development and relaxation, with increases in force and the rates of activation and relaxation as gestation progresses. The duration and slope of the initial, slow phase of relaxation, related to myosin detachment and thin filament deactivation rates, decreased with gestation age. F-actin sliding on human fetal cardiac myosin-coated surfaces slowed significantly from 108 to 130 days of gestation. Electron micrographs showed human fetal muscle myofibrils elongate and widen with age, but features such as the M-line and Z-band are apparent even as early as day 52. Protein isoform analysis revealed that β-myosin is predominantly expressed even at the earliest time point studied, but there is a progressive increase in expression of cardiac troponin I (TnI), with a concurrent decrease in slow skeletal TnI. Together, our results suggest that cardiac myofibril force production and kinetics of activation and relaxation change significantly with gestation age and are influenced by the structural maturation of the sarcomere and changes in contractile filament protein isoforms.

The increase in non-cross-bridge forces after stretch of activated striated muscle is related to titin isoforms

Skeletal muscles present a non-cross-bridge increase in sarcomere stiffness and tension on Ca(2+) activation, referred to as static stiffness and static tension, respectively. It has been hypothesized that this increase in tension is caused by Ca(2+)-dependent changes in the properties of titin molecules. To verify this hypothesis, we investigated the static tension in muscles containing different titin isoforms. Permeabilized myofibrils were isolated from the psoas, soleus, and heart ventricle from the rabbit, and tested in pCa 9.0 and pCa 4.5, before and after extraction of troponin C, thin filaments, and treatment with the actomyosin inhibitor blebbistatin. The myofibrils were tested with stretches of different amplitudes in sarcomere lengths varying between 1.93 and 3.37 μm for the psoas, 2.68 and 4.21 μm for the soleus, and 1.51 and 2.86 μm for the ventricle. Using gel electrophoresis, we confirmed that the three muscles tested have different titin isoforms. The static tension was present in psoas and soleus myofibrils, but not in ventricle myofibrils, and higher in psoas myofibrils than in soleus myofibrils. These results suggest that the increase in the static tension is directly associated with Ca(2+)-dependent change in titin properties and not associated with changes in titin-actin interactions.

Troponin I Mutations R146G and R21C Alter Cardiac Troponin Function, Contractile Properties, and Modulation by Protein Kinase A (PKA)-mediated Phosphorylation

Two hypertrophic cardiomyopathy-associated cardiac troponin I (cTnI) mutations, R146G and R21C, are located in different regions of cTnI, the inhibitory peptide and the cardiac-specific N terminus. We recently reported that these regions may interact when Ser-23/Ser-24 are phosphorylated, weakening the interaction of cTnI with cardiac TnC. Little is known about how these mutations influence the affinity of cardiac TnC for cTnI (KC-I) or contractile kinetics during β-adrenergic stimulation. Here, we tested how cTnI(R146G) or cTnI(R21C) influences contractile activation and relaxation and their response to protein kinase A (PKA). Both mutations significantly increased Ca(2+) binding affinity to cTn (KCa) and KC-I. PKA phosphorylation resulted in a similar reduction of KCa for all complexes, but KC-I was reduced only with cTnI(WT). cTnI(WT), cTnI(R146G), and cTnI(R21C) were complexed into cardiac troponin and exchanged into rat ventricular myofibrils, and contraction/relaxation kinetics were measured ± PKA phosphorylation. Maximal tension (Tmax) was maintained for cTnI(R146G)- and cTnI(R21C)-exchanged myofibrils, and Ca(2+) sensitivity of tension (pCa50) was increased. PKA phosphorylation decreased pCa50 for cTnI(WT)-exchanged myofibrils but not for either mutation. PKA phosphorylation accelerated the early slow phase relaxation for cTnI(WT) myofibrils, especially at Ca(2+) levels that the heart operates in vivo. Importantly, this effect was blunted for cTnI(R146G)- and cTnI(R21C)-exchanged myofibrils. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest both mutations inhibit formation of intra-subunit contacts between the N terminus and the inhibitory peptide of cTnI that is normally seen with WT-cTn upon PKA phosphorylation. Together, our results suggest that cTnI(R146G) and cTnI(R21C) blunt PKA modulation of activation and relaxation kinetics by prohibiting cardiac-specific N-terminal interaction with the cTnI inhibitory peptide.

PKA phosphorylation of cardiac troponin I modulates activation and relaxation kinetics of ventricular myofibrils

Protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylation of myofibril proteins constitutes an important pathway for β-adrenergic modulation of cardiac contractility and relaxation. PKA targets the N-terminus (Ser-23/24) of cardiac troponin I (cTnI), cardiac myosin-binding protein C (cMyBP-C) and titin. The effect of PKA-mediated phosphorylation on the magnitude of contraction has been studied in some detail, but little is known about how it modulates the kinetics of thin filament activation and myofibril relaxation as Ca(2+) levels vary. Troponin C (cTnC) interaction with cTnI (C-I interaction) is a critical step in contractile activation that can be modulated by cTnI phosphorylation. We tested the hypothesis that altering C-I interactions by PKA, or by cTnI phosphomimetic mutations (S23D/S24D-cTnI), directly affects thin filament activation and myofilament relaxation kinetics. Rat ventricular myofibrils were isolated and endogenous cTn was exchanged with either wild-type cTnI, or S23D/S24D-cTnI recombinant cTn. Contractile mechanics were monitored at maximum and submaximal Ca(2+) concentrations. PKA treatment of wild-type cTn or exchange of cTn containing S23D/S24D-cTnI resulted in an increase in the rate of early, slow phase of relaxation (kREL,slow) and a decrease in its duration (tREL,slow). These effects were greater for submaximal Ca(2+) activated contractions. PKA treatment also reduced the rate of contractile activation (kACT) at maximal, but not submaximal Ca(2+), and reduced the Ca(2+) sensitivity of contraction. Using a fluorescent probe coupled to cTnC (C35S-IANBD), the Ca(2+)-cTn binding affinity and C-I interaction were monitored. Ca(2+) binding to cTn (pCa50) was significantly decreased when cTnI was phosphorylated by PKA (ΔpCa50 = 0.31). PKA phosphorylation of cTnI also weakened C-I interaction in the presence of Ca(2+). These data suggest that weakened C-I interaction, via PKA phosphorylation of cTnI, may slow thin filament activation and result in increased myofilament relaxation kinetics, the latter of which could enhance early phase diastolic relaxation during β-adrenergic stimulation.

The embryonic myosin R672C mutation that underlies Freeman-Sheldon syndrome impairs cross-bridge detachment and cycling in adult skeletal muscle

Distal arthrogryposis is the most common known heritable cause of congenital contractures (e.g. clubfoot) and results from mutations in genes that encode proteins of the contractile complex of skeletal muscle cells. Mutations are most frequently found in MYH3 and are predicted to impair the function of embryonic myosin. We measured the contractile properties of individual skeletal muscle cells and the activation and relaxation kinetics of isolated myofibrils from two adult individuals with an R672C substitution in embryonic myosin and distal arthrogryposis syndrome 2A (DA2A) or Freeman-Sheldon syndrome. In R672C-containing muscle cells, we observed reduced specific force, a prolonged time to relaxation and incomplete relaxation (elevated residual force). In R672C-containing muscle myofibrils, the initial, slower phase of relaxation had a longer duration and slower rate, and time to complete relaxation was greatly prolonged. These observations can be collectively explained by a small subpopulation of myosin cross-bridges with greatly reduced detachment kinetics, resulting in a slower and less complete deactivation of thin filaments at the end of contractions. These findings have important implications for selecting and testing directed therapeutic options for persons with DA2A and perhaps congenital contractures in general.

2-Deoxy adenosine triphosphate improves contraction in human end-stage heart failure

We are developing a novel treatment for heart failure by increasing myocardial 2 deoxy-ATP (dATP). Our studies in rodent models have shown that substitution of dATP for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as the energy substrate in vitro or elevation of dATP in vivo increases myocardial contraction and that small increases in the native dATP pool of heart muscle are sufficient to improve cardiac function. Here we report, for the first time, the effect of dATP on human adult cardiac muscle contraction. We measured the contractile properties of chemically-demembranated multicellular ventricular wall preparations and isolated myofibrils from human subjects with end-stage heart failure. Isometric force was increased at both saturating and physiologic Ca(2+) concentrations with dATP compared to ATP. This resulted in an increase in the Ca(2+) sensitivity of force (pCa50) by 0.06 pCa units. The rate of force redevelopment (ktr) in demembranated wall muscle was also increased, as was the rate of contractile activation (kACT) in isolated myofibrils, indicating increased cross-bridge binding and cycling compared with ATP in failing human myocardium. These data suggest that dATP could increase dP/dT and end systolic pressure in failing human myocardium. Importantly, even though the magnitude and rate of force development were increased, there was no increase in the time to 50% and 90% myofibril relaxation. These data, along with our previous studies in rodent models, show the promise of elevating myocardial dATP to enhance contraction and restore cardiac pump function. These data also support further pre-clinical evaluation of this new approach for treating heart failure.

Impact of tropomyosin isoform composition on fast skeletal muscle thin filament regulation and force development

Tropomyosin (Tm) plays a central role in the regulation of muscle contraction and is present in three main isoforms in skeletal and cardiac muscles. In the present work we studied the functional role of α- and βTm on force development by modifying the isoform composition of rabbit psoas skeletal muscle myofibrils and of regulated thin filaments for in vitro motility measurements. Skeletal myofibril regulatory proteins were extracted (78%) and replaced (98%) with Tm isoforms as homogenous ααTm or ββTm dimers and the functional effects were measured. Maximal Ca(2+) activated force was the same in ααTm versus ββTm myofibrils, but ββTm myofibrils showed a marked slowing of relaxation and an impairment of regulation under resting conditions compared to ααTm and controls. ββTm myofibrils also showed a significantly shorter slack sarcomere length and a marked increase in resting tension. Both these mechanical features were almost completely abolished by 10 mM 2,3-butanedione 2-monoxime, suggesting the presence of a significant degree of Ca(2+)-independent cross-bridge formation in ββTm myofibrils. Finally, in motility assay experiments in the absence of Ca(2+) (pCa 9.0), complete regulation of thin filaments required greater ββTm versus ααTm concentrations, while at full activation (pCa 5.0) no effect was observed on maximal thin filament motility speed. We infer from these observations that high contents of ββTm in skeletal muscle result in partial Ca(2+)-independent activation of thin filaments at rest, and longer-lasting and less complete tension relaxation following Ca(2+) removal.

Fatigue effects on the electromechanical delay components during the relaxation phase after isometric contraction

AIM

By a combined electromyographic (EMG), mechanomyographic (MMG) and force (F) analysis, the electromechanical delay during muscle relaxation (R-DelayTOT ) was partitioned into electrochemical and mechanical components. The study aimed to evaluate the effects of fatigue on R-DelayTOT components and to assess their intersession and interday reliability Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC).

METHODS

During tetanic stimulations, EMG, MMG and F were recorded from the human gastrocnemius medialis muscle before and after fatigue. The latency between EMG and MMG ripple cessations (R-Δt EMG-MMGR , electrochemical R-DelayTOT component); between MMG ripple cessation and F decay onset (R-Δt MMGR -F, first R-DelayTOT mechanical component); and between F decay onset and maximum MMG negative peak (R-Δt F-MMGp-p , second R-DelayTOT mechanical component) was calculated.

RESULTS

Before fatigue, R-Δt F-MMGp-p was the major contributor (61.9 ± 1.7 ms, 75%) to R-DelayTOT (82.7 ± 1.0 ms), while R-Δt EMG-MMGR and R-Δt MMGR -F accounted for 16% (13.3 ± 1.2 ms) and 9% (7.5 ± 1.0 ms) respectively. After fatigue, R-DelayTOT , R-Δt EMG-MMGR and R-Δt MMGR -F increased by 11, 41 and 67%, respectively (P < 0.05), whereas R-Δt F-MMGp-p did not change. Consequently, the relative contribution of R-Δt EMG-MMGR , R-Δt MMGR -F and R-Δt F-MMGp-p , to R-DelayTOT changed to 20 ± 2, 12 ± 1 and 68 ± 2% respectively. Measurement reliability was always from high to very high (ICC 0.705-0.959).

CONCLUSION

Fatigue altered the processes between neuromuscular activation cessation and force decay onset, but not the second mechanical component (cross-bridges detachment rate and series elastic components release). This combined approach provided reliable measurement of the different R-DelayTOT components and it may represent a valid tool to get more insights on muscle electromechanical behaviour.

Variation in isometric force after active shortening and lengthening and their mechanisms: a review

Introduction The isometric force history dependence of skeletal muscle has been studied along the last one hundred years. Several theories have been formulated to explain and establish the causes of the phenomenon, but not successfully, as they have not been fully accepted and demonstrated, and much controversy on such a subject still remains. Objective To present a systematic literature review on the dynamics of the mechanisms of force depression and force enhancement after active shortening and lengthening, respectively, identifying the key variables involved in the phenomenon, and to date to present the main theories and hypothesis developed trying to explaining it. Method The procedure of literature searching complied the major databases, including articles either, those which directly investigated the phenomena of force depression and force enhancement or those which presented possible causes and mechanisms associated with their respective events, from the earliest studies published until the year of 2010. Results 97 references were found according to the criteria used. Conclusion Based on this review, it is suggested that the theory of stress inhibition of actin-myosin cross-bridges is that better explain the phenomenon of force depression. Whereas regarding the force enhancement phenomenon, one theory have been well accepted, the increased number of actin-myosin cross-bridges in strong binding state influenced by the recruitment of passive elastic components, which hole is attributed to the titin filament.

Contractility and kinetics of human fetal and human adult skeletal muscle

Little is known about the contraction and relaxation properties of fetal skeletal muscle, and measurements thus far have been made with non-human mammalian muscle. Data on human fetal skeletal muscle contraction are lacking, and there are no published reports on the kinetics of either fetal or adult human skeletal muscle myofibrils. Understanding the contractile properties of human fetal muscle would be valuable in understanding muscle development and a variety of muscle diseases that are associated with mutations in fetal muscle sarcomere proteins. Therefore, we characterised the contractile properties of developing human fetal skeletal muscle and compared them to adult human skeletal muscle and rabbit psoas muscle. Electron micrographs showed human fetal muscle sarcomeres are not fully formed but myofibril formation is visible. Isolated myofibril mechanical measurements revealed much lower specific force, and slower rates of isometric force development, slow phase relaxation, and fast phase relaxation in human fetal when compared to human adult skeletal muscle. The duration of slow phase relaxation was also significantly longer compared to both adult groups, but was similarly affected by elevated ADP. F-actin sliding on human fetal skeletal myosin coated surfaces in in vitro motility (IVM) assays was much slower compared with adult rabbit skeletal myosin, though the Km(app) (apparent (fitted) Michaelis-Menten constant) of F-actin speed with ATP titration suggests a greater affinity of human fetal myosin for nucleotide binding. Replacing ATP with 2 deoxy-ATP (dATP) increased F-actin speed for both groups by a similar amount. Titrations of ADP into IVM assays produced a similar inhibitory affect for both groups, suggesting ADP binding may be similar, at least under low load. Together, our results suggest slower but similar mechanisms of myosin chemomechanical transduction for human fetal muscle that may also be limited by immature myofilament structure.

Molecular, cellular, and muscle strip mechanics of the mdx mouse diaphragm

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal disorder caused by defects in the dystrophin gene, which leads to respiratory or cardiac muscle failure. Lack of dystrophin predisposes the muscle cell sarcolemmal membrane to mechanical damage. However, the role of myosin in this muscle weakness has been poorly addressed. In the current study, in addition to measuring the velocity of actin filament propulsion (υmax) of mdx myosin molecules purified from 3- and 12-mo-old control (C57Bl/10) and mdx (C57Bl/10mdx) mouse diaphragms, we also measured myosin force production. Furthermore, we measured cellular and muscle strip force production at three mo of age. Stress (force/cross-sectional area) was smaller for mdx than control at the muscle strip level but was not different at the single fiber level. υmax of mdx myosin was not different from control at either 3 or 12 mo nor was their relative myosin force. The type I and IIb myosin heavy chain composition was not different between control and mdx diaphragms at 3 or 12 mo. These results suggest that the myosin function, as well as the single fiber mechanics, do not underlie the weakness of the mdx diaphragm. This weakness was only observed at the level of the intact muscle bundle and could not be narrowed down to a specific mechanical impairment of its individual fibers or myosin molecules.

Kinetic mechanism of Ca²⁺-controlled changes of skeletal troponin I in psoas myofibrils

Conformational changes in the skeletal troponin complex (sTn) induced by rapidly increasing or decreasing the [Ca(2+)] were probed by 5-iodoacetamidofluorescein covalently bound to Cys-133 of skeletal troponin I (sTnI). Kinetics of conformational changes was determined for the isolated complex and after incorporating the complex into rabbit psoas myofibrils. Isolated and incorporated sTn exhibited biphasic Ca(2+)-activation kinetics. Whereas the fast phase (k(obs)∼1000 s(-1)) is only observed in this study, where kinetics were induced by Ca(2+), the slower phase resembles the monophasic kinetics of sTnI switching observed in another study (Brenner and Chalovich. 1999. Biophys. J. 77:2692-2708) that investigated the sTnI switching induced by releasing the feedback of force-generating cross-bridges on thin filament activation. Therefore, the slower conformational change likely reflects the sTnI switch that regulates force development. Modeling reveals that the fast conformational change can occur after the first Ca(2+) ion binds to skeletal troponin C (sTnC), whereas the slower change requires Ca(2+) binding to both regulatory sites of sTnC. Incorporating sTn into myofibrils increased the off-rate and lowered the Ca(2+) sensitivity of sTnI switching. Comparison of switch-off kinetics with myofibril force relaxation kinetics measured in a mechanical setup indicates that sTnI switching might limit the rate of fast skeletal muscle relaxation.

Tropomyosin Ser-283 pseudo-phosphorylation slows myofibril relaxation

Tropomyosin (Tm) is a central protein in the Ca(2+) regulation of striated muscle. The αTm isoform undergoes phosphorylation at serine residue 283. While the biochemical and steady-state muscle function of muscle purified Tm phosphorylation have been explored, the effects of Tm phosphorylation on the dynamic properties of muscle contraction and relaxation are unknown. To investigate the kinetic regulatory role of αTm phosphorylation we expressed and purified native N-terminal acetylated Ser-283 wild-type, S283A phosphorylation null and S283D pseudo-phosphorylation Tm mutants in insect cells. Purified Tm's regulate thin filaments similar to that reported for muscle purified Tm. Steady-state Ca(2+) binding to troponin C (TnC) in reconstituted thin filaments did not differ between the 3 Tm's, however disassociation of Ca(2+) from filaments containing pseudo-phosphorylated Tm was slowed compared to wild-type Tm. Replacement of pseudo-phosphorylated Tm into myofibrils similarly prolonged the slow phase of relaxation and decreased the rate of the fast phase without altering activation kinetics. These data demonstrate that Tm pseudo-phosphorylation slows deactivation of the thin filament and muscle force relaxation dynamics in the absence of dynamic and steady-state effects on muscle activation. This supports a role for Tm as a key protein in the regulation of muscle relaxation dynamics.

Congenital myopathy-causing tropomyosin mutations induce thin filament dysfunction via distinct physiological mechanisms

In humans, congenital myopathy-linked tropomyosin mutations lead to skeletal muscle dysfunction, but the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying such dysfunction remain obscure. Recent studies have suggested a unifying mechanism by which tropomyosin mutations partially inhibit thin filament activation and prevent proper formation and cycling of myosin cross-bridges, inducing force deficits at the fiber and whole-muscle levels. Here, we aimed to verify this mechanism using single membrane-permeabilized fibers from patients with three tropomyosin mutations (TPM2-null, TPM3-R167H and TPM2-E181K) and measuring a broad range of parameters. Interestingly, we identified two divergent, mutation-specific pathophysiological mechanisms. (i) The TPM2-null and TPM3-R167H mutations both decreased cooperative thin filament activation in combination with reductions in the myosin cross-bridge number and force production. The TPM3-R167H mutation also induced a concomitant reduction in thin filament length. (ii) In contrast, the TPM2-E181K mutation increased thin filament activation, cross-bridge binding and force generation. In the former mechanism, modulating thin filament activation by administering troponin activators (CK-1909178 and EMD 57033) to single membrane-permeabilized fibers carrying tropomyosin mutations rescued the thin filament activation defect associated with the pathophysiology. Therefore, administration of troponin activators may constitute a promising therapeutic approach in the future.

Filament compliance influences cooperative activation of thin filaments and the dynamics of force production in skeletal muscle

Striated muscle contraction is a highly cooperative process initiated by Ca²⁺ binding to the troponin complex, which leads to tropomyosin movement and myosin cross-bridge (XB) formation along thin filaments. Experimental and computational studies suggest skeletal muscle fiber activation is greatly augmented by cooperative interactions between neighboring thin filament regulatory units (RU-RU cooperativity; 1 RU = 7 actin monomers+1 troponin complex+1 tropomyosin molecule). XB binding can also amplify thin filament activation through interactions with RUs (XB-RU cooperativity). Because these interactions occur with a temporal order, they can be considered kinetic forms of cooperativity. Our previous spatially-explicit models illustrated that mechanical forms of cooperativity also exist, arising from XB-induced XB binding (XB-XB cooperativity). These mechanical and kinetic forms of cooperativity are likely coordinated during muscle contraction, but the relative contribution from each of these mechanisms is difficult to separate experimentally. To investigate these contributions we built a multi-filament model of the half sarcomere, allowing RU activation kinetics to vary with the state of neighboring RUs or XBs. Simulations suggest Ca²⁺ binding to troponin activates a thin filament distance spanning 9 to 11 actins and coupled RU-RU interactions dominate the cooperative force response in skeletal muscle, consistent with measurements from rabbit psoas fibers. XB binding was critical for stabilizing thin filament activation, particularly at submaximal Ca²⁺ levels, even though XB-RU cooperativity amplified force less than RU-RU cooperativity. Similar to previous studies, XB-XB cooperativity scaled inversely with lattice stiffness, leading to slower rates of force development as stiffness decreased. Including RU-RU and XB-RU cooperativity in this model resulted in the novel prediction that the force-[Ca²⁺] relationship can vary due to filament and XB compliance. Simulations also suggest kinetic forms of cooperativity occur rapidly and dominate early to get activation, while mechanical forms of cooperativity act more slowly, augmenting XB binding as force continues to develop.

In striated muscle myosin binds to actin and converts chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis into force, work, and power. Myosin cross-bridge binding is regulated by Ca²⁺ and the thin filament proteins troponin and tropomyosin. Cooperative interactions between actin, myosin, troponin, and tropomyosin greatly influence spatial and kinetic properties of thin filament activation, thereby affecting muscle mechanics and contractility. Such cooperative interactions are complex and individual contributions from the different contractile and regulatory proteins are difficult to separate experimentally. However, a few theoretical models have explored interactions between the spatial, kinetic, and mechanical processes that affect cooperative cross-bridge binding to actin. Building on our prior spatially-explicit computational models, we investigated the relative contributions of thin filament regulatory proteins and cross-bridges to cooperatively amplify skeletal muscle force production. We find that Ca²⁺-dependent contraction in skeletal muscle is dominated by neighboring regulatory protein interactions along the thin filament, while cross-bridge binding is critical for maintaining or stabilizing thin filament activation as force develops. Moreover, we reveal that variations in filament and cross-bridge stiffness can alter Ca²⁺-sensitivity and cooperativity of skeletal muscle force production. In conclusion, these simulations show that multiple cooperative mechanisms combine to produce physiological force responses measured from muscle cells.

Transcription factor CHF1/Hey2 regulates EC coupling and heart failure in mice through regulation of FKBP12.6

Heart failure is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Western society. The cardiovascular transcription factor CHF1/Hey2 has been linked to experimental heart failure in mice, but the mechanisms by which it regulates myocardial function remain incompletely understood. The objective of this study was to determine how CHF1/Hey2 affects development of heart failure through examination of contractility in a myocardial knockout mouse model. We generated myocardial-specific knockout mice. At baseline, cardiac function was normal, but, after aortic banding, the conditional knockout mice demonstrated a greater increase in ventricular weight-to-body weight ratio compared with control mice (5.526 vs. 4.664 mg/g) and a significantly decreased ejection fraction (47.8 vs. 72.0% control). Isolated cardiac myocytes from these mice showed decreased calcium transients and fractional shortening after electrical stimulation. To determine the molecular basis for these alterations in excitation-contraction coupling, we first measured total sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium stores and calcium-dependent force generation in isolated muscle fibers, which were normal, suggesting a defect in calcium cycling. Analysis of gene expression demonstrated normal expression of most genes known to be involved in myocardial calcium cycling, with the exception of the ryanodine receptor binding protein FKBP12.6, which was expressed at increased levels in the conditional knockout hearts. Treatment of the isolated knockout myocytes with FK506, which inhibits the association of FKBP12.6 with the ryanodine receptor, restored contractile function. These findings demonstrate that conditional deletion of CHF1/Hey2 in the myocardium leads to abnormalities in calcium handling mediated by FKBP12.6 that predispose to pressure overload-induced heart failure.

Measurement of calcium dissociation rates from troponin C in rigor skeletal myofibrils

Ca2+ dissociation from the regulatory domain of troponin C may influence the rate of striated muscle relaxation. However, Ca²⁺ dissociation from troponin C has not been measured within the geometric and stoichiometric constraints of the muscle fiber. Here we report the rates of Ca²⁺ dissociation from the N-terminal regulatory and C-terminal structural domains of fluorescent troponin C constructs reconstituted into rabbit rigor psoas myofibrils using stopped-flow technology. Chicken skeletal troponin C fluorescently labeled at Cys 101, troponin C^IAEDANS, reported Ca²⁺ dissociation exclusively from the structural domain of troponin C at ∼0.37, 0.06, and 0.07/s in isolation, in the presence of troponin I and in myofibrils at 15°C, respectively. Ca²⁺ dissociation from the regulatory domain was observed utilizing fluorescently labeled troponin C containing the T54C and C101S mutations. Troponin CMIANST54C,C101S reported Ca²⁺ dissociation exclusively from the regulatory domain of troponin C at >1000, 8.8, and 15/s in isolation, in the presence of troponin I and in myofibrils at 15°C, respectively. Interestingly, troponin CIAANST54C,C101S reported a biphasic fluorescence change upon Ca²⁺ dissociation from the N- and C-terminal domains of troponin C with rates that were similar to those reported by troponin CMIANST54C,C101S and troponin C^IAEDANS at all levels of the troponin C systems. Furthermore, the rate of Ca²⁺ dissociation from troponin C in the myofibrils was similar to the rate of Ca²⁺ dissociation measured from the troponin C-troponin I complexes. Since the rate of Ca²⁺ dissociation from the regulatory domain of TnC in myofibrils is similar to the rate of skeletal muscle relaxation, Ca²⁺ dissociation from troponin C may influence relaxation.

Force relaxation and thin filament protein phosphorylation during acute myocardial ischemia

Ischemia impairs myocardial function and may contribute to the progression of heart failure. In this study, rats subjected to acute ischemia demonstrated reduced Ca(2+) -activated force as well as a decrease in myosin-binding protein-C, titin, and Ser23/24 phosphorylation of troponin I (TnI). All three proteins have been demonstrated to be downstream targets of β-adrenergic receptor activation (β-AR), leading to the hypothesis that decreased β-AR signaling during ischemia leads to reduced protein phosphorylation and reduced rate constants of force relaxation. To test this hypothesis, force relaxation transients were recorded from permeabilized perfused and ischemic rat heart fibers following photolysis of the caged chelator diazo-2. Relaxation transients were best fit by double exponential functions whereby the majority (>70%) of the force decline was described by the fast rate constant, which was ∼5 times faster than the slow rate constant. However, rate constants of relaxation between perfused and ischemic fibers were not different, despite significant decreases in sarcomeric protein phosphorylation in ischemic fibers. Treatment of perfused fibers with a cAMP analog increased Ser23/24 phosphorylation of TnI, yet the rate constants of relaxation remained unchanged. Interestingly, similar treatment of ischemic fibers did not impact TnI phosphorylation or force relaxation transients. Therefore, acute ischemia does not influence the rate constants of relaxation of permeabilized fibers. These results also suggest that the physiological level of sarcomeric protein phosphorylation is unlikely to be the primary driver of relaxation kinetics in permeabilized cardiac muscle fibers.

Calcium binding kinetics of troponin C strongly modulate cooperative activation and tension kinetics in cardiac muscle

Tension development and relaxation in cardiac muscle are regulated at the thin filament via Ca(2+) binding to cardiac troponin C (cTnC) and strong cross-bridge binding. However, the influence of cTnC Ca(2+)-binding properties on these processes in the organized structure of cardiac sarcomeres is not well-understood and likely differs from skeletal muscle. To study this we generated single amino acid variants of cTnC with altered Ca(2+) dissociation rates (k(off)), as measured in whole troponin (cTn) complex by stopped-flow spectroscopy (I61Q cTn>WT cTn>L48Q cTn), and exchanged them into cardiac myofibrils and demembranated trabeculae. In myofibrils at saturating Ca(2+), L48Q cTnC did not affect maximum tension (T(max)), thin filament activation (k(ACT)) and tension development (k(TR)) rates, or the rates of relaxation, but increased duration of slow phase relaxation. In contrast, I61Q cTnC reduced T(max), k(ACT) and k(TR) by 40-65% with little change in relaxation. Interestingly, k(ACT) was less than k(TR) with I61Q cTnC, and this difference increased with addition of inorganic phosphate, suggesting that reduced cTnC Ca(2+)-affinity can limit thin filament activation kinetics. Trabeculae exchanged with I61Q cTn had reduced T(max), Ca(2+) sensitivity of tension (pCa(50)), and slope (n(H)) of tension-pCa, while L48Q cTn increased pCa(50) and reduced n(H). Increased cross-bridge cycling with 2-deoxy-ATP increased pCa(50) with WT or L48Q cTn, but not I61Q cTn. We discuss the implications of these results for understanding the role of cTn Ca(2+)-binding properties on the magnitude and rate of tension development and relaxation in cardiac muscle.

Effect of Ca2+ binding properties of troponin C on rate of skeletal muscle force redevelopment

To investigate effects of altering troponin (Tn)C Ca(2+) binding properties on rate of skeletal muscle contraction, we generated three mutant TnCs with increased or decreased Ca(2+) sensitivities. Ca(2+) binding properties of the regulatory domain of TnC within the Tn complex were characterized by following the fluorescence of an IAANS probe attached onto the endogenous Cys(99) residue of TnC. Compared with IAANS-labeled wild-type Tn complex, V43QTnC, T70DTnC, and I60QTnC exhibited ∼1.9-fold higher, ∼5.0-fold lower, and ∼52-fold lower Ca(2+) sensitivity, respectively, and ∼3.6-fold slower, ∼5.7-fold faster, and ∼21-fold faster Ca(2+) dissociation rate (k(off)), respectively. On the basis of K(d) and k(off), these results suggest that the Ca(2+) association rate to the Tn complex decreased ∼2-fold for I60QTnC and V43QTnC. Constructs were reconstituted into single-skinned rabbit psoas fibers to assess Ca(2+) dependence of force development and rate of force redevelopment (k(tr)) at 15°C, resulting in sensitization of both force and k(tr) to Ca(2+) for V43QTnC, whereas T70DTnC and I60QTnC desensitized force and k(tr) to Ca(2+), I60QTnC causing a greater desensitization. In addition, T70DTnC and I60QTnC depressed both maximal force (F(max)) and maximal k(tr). Although V43QTnC and I60QTnC had drastically different effects on Ca(2+) binding properties of TnC, they both exhibited decreases in cooperativity of force production and elevated k(tr) at force levels <30%F(max) vs. wild-type TnC. However, at matched force levels >30%F(max) k(tr) was similar for all TnC constructs. These results suggest that the TnC mutants primarily affected k(tr) through modulating the level of thin filament activation and not by altering intrinsic cross-bridge cycling properties. To corroborate this, NEM-S1, a non-force-generating cross-bridge analog that activates the thin filament, fully recovered maximal k(tr) for I60QTnC at low Ca(2+) concentration. Thus TnC mutants with altered Ca(2+) binding properties can control the rate of contraction by modulating thin filament activation without directly affecting intrinsic cross-bridge cycling rates.

Predicting cardiomyopathic phenotypes by altering Ca2+ affinity of cardiac troponin C

Cardiac diseases associated with mutations in troponin subunits include hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM). Altered calcium handling in these diseases is evidenced by changes in the Ca(2+) sensitivity of contraction. Mutations in the Ca(2+) sensor, troponin C (TnC), were generated to increase/decrease the Ca(2+) sensitivity of cardiac skinned fibers to create the characteristic effects of DCM, HCM, and RCM. We also used a reconstituted assay to determine the mutation effects on ATPase activation and inhibition. One mutant (A23Q) was found with HCM-like properties (increased Ca(2+) sensitivity of force and normal levels of ATPase inhibition). Three mutants (S37G, V44Q, and L48Q) were identified with RCM-like properties (a large increase in Ca(2+) sensitivity, partial loss of ATPase inhibition, and increased basal force). Two mutations were identified (E40A and I61Q) with DCM properties (decreased Ca(2+) sensitivity, maximal force recovery, and activation of the ATPase at high [Ca(2+)]). Steady-state fluorescence was utilized to assess Ca(2+) affinity in isolated cardiac (c)TnCs containing F27W and did not necessarily mirror the fiber Ca(2+) sensitivity. Circular dichroism of mutant cTnCs revealed a trend where increased alpha-helical content correlated with increased Ca(2+) sensitivity in skinned fibers and vice versa. The main findings from this study were as follows: 1) cTnC mutants demonstrated distinct functional phenotypes reminiscent of bona fide HCM, RCM, and DCM mutations; 2) a region in cTnC associated with increased Ca(2+) sensitivity in skinned fibers was identified; and 3) the F27W reporter mutation affected Ca(2+) sensitivity, maximal force, and ATPase activation of some mutants.

Length dependence of force generation exhibit similarities between rat cardiac myocytes and skeletal muscle fibres

According to the Frank-Starling relationship, increased ventricular volume increases cardiac output, which helps match cardiac output to peripheral circulatory demand. The cellular basis for this relationship is in large part the myofilament length-tension relationship. Length-tension relationships in maximally calcium activated preparations are relatively shallow and similar between cardiac myocytes and skeletal muscle fibres. During twitch activations length-tension relationships become steeper in both cardiac and skeletal muscle; however, it remains unclear whether length dependence of tension differs between striated muscle cell types during submaximal activations. The purpose of this study was to compare sarcomere length-tension relationships and the sarcomere length dependence of force development between rat skinned left ventricular cardiac myocytes and fast-twitch and slow-twitch skeletal muscle fibres. Muscle cell preparations were calcium activated to yield 50% maximal force, after which isometric force and rate constants (k(tr)) of force development were measured over a range of sarcomere lengths. Myofilament length-tension relationships were considerably steeper in fast-twitch fibres compared to slow-twitch fibres. Interestingly, cardiac myocyte preparations exhibited two populations of length-tension relationships, one steeper than fast-twitch fibres and the other similar to slow-twitch fibres. Moreover, myocytes with shallow length-tension relationships were converted to steeper length-tension relationships by protein kinase A (PKA)-induced myofilament phosphorylation. Sarcomere length-k(tr) relationships were distinct between all three cell types and exhibited patterns markedly different from Ca(2+) activation-dependent k(tr) relationships. Overall, these findings indicate cardiac myocytes exhibit varied length-tension relationships and sarcomere length appears a dominant modulator of force development rates. Importantly, cardiac myocyte length-tension relationships appear able to switch between slow-twitch-like and fast-twitch-like by PKA-mediated myofibrillar phosphorylation, which implicates a novel means for controlling Frank-Starling relationships.

Myofilament length dependent activation

The Frank-Starling law of the heart describes the interrelationship between end-diastolic volume and cardiac ejection volume, a regulatory system that operates on a beat-to-beat basis. The main cellular mechanism that underlies this phenomenon is an increase in the responsiveness of cardiac myofilaments to activating Ca(2+) ions at a longer sarcomere length, commonly referred to as myofilament length-dependent activation. This review focuses on what molecular mechanisms may underlie myofilament length dependency. Specifically, the roles of inter-filament spacing, thick and thin filament based regulation, as well as sarcomeric regulatory proteins are discussed. Although the "Frank-Starling law of the heart" constitutes a fundamental cardiac property that has been appreciated for well over a century, it is still not known in muscle how the contractile apparatus transduces the information concerning sarcomere length to modulate ventricular pressure development.

Extraction and replacement of the tropomyosin-troponin complex in isolated myofibrils

Tropomyosin (Tm) is an essential component in the regulation of striated muscle contraction. Questions about Tm functional role have been difficult to study because sarcomere Tm content is not as easily manipulated as Troponin (Tn). Here we describe the method we recently developed to replace Tm-Tn of skeletal and cardiac myofibrils from animals and humans to generate an experimental model of homogeneous Tm composition and giving the possibility to measure a wide range of mechanical parameters of contraction (e.g. maximal force and kinetics of force generation). The success of the exchange was determined by SDS-PAGE and by mechanical measurements of calcium dependent force activation on the reconstituted myofibrils. In skeletal and cardiac myofibrils, the percentage of Tm replacement was higher than 90%. Maximal isometric tension was 30-35% lower in the reconstituted myofibrils than in control myofibrils but the rate of force activation (k(ACT)) and that of force redevelopment (k(TR)) were not significantly changed. Preliminary results show the effectiveness of Tm replacement in human cardiac myofibrils. This approach can be used to test the functional impact of Tm mutations responsible for human cardiomyopathies.

Insights into the kinetics of Ca2+-regulated contraction and relaxation from myofibril studies

Muscle contraction results from force-generating interactions between myosin cross-bridges on the thick filament and actin on the thin filament. The force-generating interactions are regulated by Ca(2+) via specialised proteins of the thin filament. It is controversial how the contractile and regulatory systems dynamically interact to determine the time course of muscle contraction and relaxation. Whereas kinetics of Ca(2+)-induced thin-filament regulation is often investigated with isolated proteins, force kinetics is usually studied in muscle fibres. The gap between studies on isolated proteins and structured fibres is now bridged by recent techniques that analyse the chemical and mechanical kinetics of small components of a muscle fibre, subcellular myofibrils isolated from skeletal and cardiac muscle. Formed of serially arranged repeating units called sarcomeres, myofibrils have a complete fully structured ensemble of contractile and Ca(2+) regulatory proteins. The small diameter of myofibrils (few micrometres) facilitates analysis of the kinetics of sarcomere contraction and relaxation induced by rapid changes of [ATP] or [Ca(2+)]. Among the processes studied on myofibrils are: (1) the Ca(2+)-regulated switch on/off of the troponin complex, (2) the chemical steps in the cross-bridge adenosine triphosphatase cycle, (3) the mechanics of force generation and (4) the length dynamics of individual sarcomeres. These studies give new insights into the kinetics of thin-filament regulation and of cross-bridge turnover, how cross-bridges transform chemical energy into mechanical work, and suggest that the cross-bridge ensembles of each half-sarcomere cooperate with each other across the half-sarcomere borders. Additionally, we now have a better understanding of muscle relaxation and its impairment in certain muscle diseases.