Pharmacokinetics of the novel nicotinic receptor antagonist N,N'-dodecane-1,12-diyl-bis-3-picolinium dibromide in the rat

Scientific overview: 2013 BBC plenary symposium on tobacco addiction

Nicotine dependence plays a critical role in addiction to tobacco products, and thus contributes to a variety of devastating tobacco-related diseases (SGR 2014). Annual costs associated with smoking in the US are estimated to be between $289 and $333 billion. Effective interventions for nicotine dependence, especially in smokers, are a critical barrier to the eradication of tobacco-related diseases. This overview highlights research presented at the Plenary Symposium of Behavior, Biology and Chemistry: Translational Research in Addiction Conference (BBC), hosted by the UT Health Science Center San Antonio, on March 9-10, 2013. The Plenary Symposium focused on tobacco addiction, and covered topics ranging from basic science to national policy. As in previous years, the meeting brought together globally-renowned scientists, graduate student recruits, and young scientists from underrepresented populations in Texas and other states with the goal of fostering interest in drug addiction research in young generations.

Nicotinic receptor antagonists as treatments for nicotine abuse

Despite the proven efficacy of current pharmacotherapies for tobacco dependence, relapse rates continue to be high, indicating that novel medications are needed. Currently, several smoking cessation agents are available, including varenicline (Chantix®), bupropion (Zyban®), and cytisine (Tabex®). Varenicline and cytisine are partial agonists at the α4β2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Bupropion is an antidepressant but is also an antagonist at α3β2* ganglionic nAChRs. The rewarding effects of nicotine are mediated, in part, by nicotine-evoked dopamine (DA) release leading to sensitization, which is associated with repeated nicotine administration and nicotine addiction. Receptor antagonists that selectivity target central nAChR subtypes mediating nicotine-evoked DA release should have efficacy as tobacco use cessation agents with the therapeutic advantage of a limited side-effect profile. While α-conotoxin MII (α-CtxMII)-insensitive nAChRs (e.g., α4β2*) contribute to nicotine-evoked DA release, these nAChRs are widely distributed in the brain, and inhibition of these receptors may lead to nonselective and untoward effects. In contrast, α-CtxMII-sensitive nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked DA release offer an advantage as targets for smoking cessation, due to their more restricted localization primarily to dopaminergic neurons. Small drug-like molecules that are selective antagonists at α-CtxMII-sensitive nAChR subtypes that contain α6 and β2 subunits have now been identified. Early research identified a variety of quaternary ammonium analogs that were potent and selective antagonists at nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked DA release. More recent data have shown that novel, nonquaternary bis-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine analogs potently inhibit (IC50<1nM) nicotine-evoked DA release in vitro by acting as antagonists at α-CtxMII-sensitive nAChR subtypes; these compounds also decrease NIC self-administration in rats.

Novel bis-, tris-, and tetrakis-tertiary amino analogs as antagonists at neuronal nicotinic receptors that mediate nicotine-evoked dopamine release

A series of tertiary amine analogs derived from lead azaaromatic quaternary ammonium salts has been designed and synthesized. The preliminary structure-activity relationships of these new analogs suggest that such tertiary amine analogs, which potently inhibit nicotine-evoked dopamine release from rat striatum, represent drug-like inhibitors of α6-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The bis-tertiary amine analog 7 exhibited an IC(50) of 0.95 nM, while the tris-tertiary amine analog 19 had an IC(50) of 0.35 nM at nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked dopamine release.

Bis-azaaromatic quaternary ammonium salts as ligands for the blood-brain barrier choline transporter

A series of bis-azaaromatic quaternary ammonium compounds containing flexible polymethylenic linkers as well as conformationally restricted linkers were evaluated for their affinity for the blood-brain barrier choline transporter (BBB-ChT). The preliminary structure-activity relationships obtained from this study suggest that incorporating a linear, conformationally restricted linker into the molecule improves affinity for the BBB-ChT.

Repeated nicotine administration robustly increases bPiDDB inhibitory potency at alpha6beta2-containing nicotinic receptors mediating nicotine-evoked dopamine release

The novel nicotinic receptor (nAChR) antagonist, N,N'-dodecane-1,12-diyl-bis-3-picolinium dibromide (bPiDDB), and its chemically reduced analog, r-bPiDDB, potently inhibit nicotine-evoked dopamine (DA) release from rat striatal slices. Since tobacco smokers self-administer nicotine repeatedly, animal models incorporating repeated nicotine treatment allow for mechanistic evaluation of therapeutic candidates following neuroadaptive changes. The current study determined the ability of bPiDDB, r-bPiDDB and alpha-conotoxin MII (alpha-CtxMII), a peptide antagonist selective for alpha6beta2-containing nAChRs, to inhibit nicotine-evoked [(3)H]DA release from striatal slices from rats repeatedly administered nicotine (0.4mg/kg for 10 days) or saline (control). Concomitant exposure to maximally effective concentrations of r-bPiDDB (1nM) and alpha-CtxMII (1nM) resulted in inhibition of nicotine-evoked [(3)H]DA release no greater than that produced by either antagonist alone, suggesting that r-bPiDDB inhibits alpha6beta2-containing nAChRs. Repeated nicotine treatment increased locomotor activity, demonstrating behavioral sensitization. Concentration-response curves for nicotine-evoked [(3)H]DA release were not different between nicotine-treated and control groups. Maximal inhibition for alpha-CtxMII was greater following repeated nicotine compared to control (I(max)=90% vs. 62%), with no change in potency. bPiDDB was 3-orders of magnitude more potent in inhibiting nicotine-evoked [(3)H]DA release in nicotine-treated rats compared to control rats (IC(50)=5pM vs. 6nM), with no change in maximal inhibition. Neither a shift to the left in the concentration response nor a change in maximal inhibition was observed for r-bPiDDB following repeated nicotine. Thus, repeated nicotine treatment may differentially regulate the stoichiometry, conformation and/or composition of alpha6beta2-containing nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked striatal DA release. Therefore, bPiDDB and r-bPiDDB appear to target different alpha6beta2-containing nAChR subtypes.

Predictive screening model for potential vector-mediated transport of cationic substrates at the blood-brain barrier choline transporter

A set of semi-rigid cyclic and acyclic bis-quaternary ammonium analogs, which were part of a drug discovery program aimed at identifying antagonists at neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, were investigated to determine structural requirements for affinity at the blood-brain barrier choline transporter (BBB CHT). This transporter may have utility as a drug delivery vector for cationic molecules to access the central nervous system. In the current study, a virtual screening model was developed to aid in rational drug design/ADME of cationic nicotinic antagonists as BBB CHT ligands. Four 3D-QSAR comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) models were built which could predict the BBB CHT affinity for a test set with an r(2) <0.5 and cross-validated q(2) of 0.60, suggesting good predictive capability for these models. These models will allow the rapid in silico screening of binding affinity at the BBB CHT of both known nicotinic receptor antagonists and virtual compound libraries with the goal of informing the design of brain bioavailable quaternary ammonium analogs that are high affinity selective nicotinic receptor antagonists.

Novel bis-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine (bis-TMP) and bis-mecamylamine antagonists at neuronal nicotinic receptors mediating nicotine-evoked dopamine release

By linking two or three mecamylamine or 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine (TMP) molecules together via a linear lipophilic bis-methylene linker or a specially designed conformationally restricted tris-linker, a series of bis- and tris-tertiary amine analogs has been synthesized and evaluated as potent antagonists at nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked [3H]dopamine release from rat striatal slices. Compounds 7e, 14b and 16 demonstrated high potency in decreasing nicotine-evoked [3H]dopamine release (IC50=2.2, 46, and 107 nM, respectively). The preliminary structure-activity data obtained with these new analogs suggest the importance of the length of the methylene linker in the bis-analog series. Such bis-tertiary amino analogs may provide a new strategy for the design of drugable ligands that have high inhibitory potency against nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked dopamine release in striatum, which have been suggested to be target receptors of interest in the development of potential smoking cessation therapies.

Nicotinic receptor-based therapeutics and candidates for smoking cessation

Tobacco dependence is the most preventable cause of death and is a chronic, relapsing disorder in which compulsive tobacco use persists despite known negative health consequences. All currently available cessation agents (nicotine, varenicline and bupropion) have limited efficacy and are associated with high relapse rates, revealing a need for more efficacious, alternative pharmacotherapies. The major alkaloid in tobacco, nicotine, activates nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) which increase brain extracellular dopamine producing nicotine reward leading to addiction. nAChRs are located primarily presynaptically and modulate synaptic activity by regulating neurotransmitter release. Subtype-selective nAChR antagonists that block reward-relevant mesocorticolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine release induced by nicotine may offer advantages over current therapies. An innovative approach is to provide pharmacotherapies which are antagonists at nAChR subtypes mediating nicotine evoked dopamine release. In addition, providing multiple medications with a wider array of targets and mechanisms should provide more treatment options for individuals who are not responsive to the currently available pharmacotherapies. This review summarizes the currently available smoking cessation therapies and discusses emerging potential therapeutic approaches employing pharmacological agents which act as antagonists at nicotinic receptors.

The novel nicotinic receptor antagonist, N,N'-dodecane-1,12-diyl-bis-3-picolinium dibromide (bPiDDB), inhibits nicotine-evoked [(3)H]norepinephrine overflow from rat hippocampal slices

Smoking is a significant health concern and strongly correlated with clinical depression. Depression is associated with decreased extracellular NE concentrations in brain. Smokers may be self-medicating and alleviating their depression through nicotine stimulated norepinephrine (NE) release. Several antidepressants inhibit NE transporter (NET) function, thereby augmenting extracellular NE concentrations. Antidepressants, such as bupropion, also inhibit nicotinic receptor (nAChR) function. The current study determined if a recently discovered novel nAChR antagonist, N,N'-dodecane-1,12-diyl-bis-3-picolinium dibromide (bPiDDB), inhibits nicotine-evoked NE release from superfused rat hippocampal slices. Previous studies determined that bPiDDB potently (IC(50)=2 nM) inhibits nicotine-evoked striatal [(3)H]dopamine (DA) release in vitro, nicotine-evoked DA release in nucleus accumbens in vivo, and nicotine self-administration in rats. In the current study, nicotine stimulated [(3)H]NE release from rat hippocampal slices (EC(50)=50 microM). bPiDDB inhibited (IC(50)=430 nM; I(max)=90%) [(3)H]NE release evoked by 30 microM nicotine. For comparison, the nonselective nAChR antagonist, mecamylamine, and the alpha7 antagonist, methyllycaconitine, also inhibited nicotine-evoked [(3)H]NE release (IC(50)=31 and 275 nM, respectively; I(max)=91% and 72%, respectively). Inhibition by bPiDDB and mecamylamine was not overcome by increasing nicotine concentrations; Schild regression slope was different from unity, consistent with allosteric inhibition. Thus, bPiDDB was 200-fold more potent inhibiting nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked [(3)H]DA release from striatum than those mediating nicotine-evoked [(3)H]NE release from hippocampus.

QSAR study on maximal inhibition (Imax) of quaternary ammonium antagonists for S-(-)-nicotine-evoked dopamine release from dopaminergic nerve terminals in rat striatum

Maximal inhibition (I(max)) of the agonist effect is an important pharmacological property of inhibitors that interact with multiple receptor subtypes that are activated by the same agonist and which elicit the same functional response. This report represents the first QSAR study on a set of 66 mono- and bis-quaternary ammonium salts that act as antagonists at neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors mediating nicotine-evoked dopamine release, conducted using multi-linear regression (MLR) and neural network (NN) analysis with the maximal inhibition (I(max)) values of the antagonists as target values. The statistical results for the generated MLR model were: r(2)=0.89, rmsd=9.01, q(2)=0.83 and loormsd=11.1; the statistical results for the generated NN model were: r(2)=0.89, rmsd=8.98, q(2)=0.83 and loormsd=11.2. The maximal inhibition values of the compounds exhibited a good correlation with the predictions made by the QSAR models developed, which provide a basis for rationalizing selection of compounds for synthesis in the discovery of effective and selective second generation inhibitors of nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked dopamine release.

The novel nicotinic receptor antagonist N,N'-dodecane-1,12-diyl-bis-3-picolinium dibromide decreases nicotine-induced dopamine metabolism in rat nucleus accumbens

The current study examined the effect of the novel nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, N,N'-dodecane-1,12-diyl-bis-3-picolinium dibromide (bPiDDB), on nicotine-induced dopamine metabolism in rat nucleus accumbens, striatum and medial prefrontal cortex. Acute nicotine (0.5 mg/kg, s.c.) produced an increase in the content of dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in nucleus accumbens, but not in striatum or medial prefrontal cortex. Pretreatment with bPiDDB (1 or 3 mg/kg, s.c.) dose-dependently inhibited the nicotine-induced increase in DOPAC content in nucleus accumbens. These results indicate that bPiDDB inhibits the nicotine-induced increase in DOPAC in reward-relevant brain region targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.