Hepatobiliary excretion of berberine

Research progress on pharmacological effects and bioavailability of berberine

Berberine (BBR), a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid obtained from natural medicines such as coptidis rhizoma, has a wide range of pharmacological activities such as protecting the nervous system, protecting the cardiovascular system, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antitumor, antibacterial, and antidiarrheal. However, factors such as poor solubility, low permeability, P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux, and hepatic-intestinal metabolism result in BBR having a low bioavailability (< 1%), which restricts its application in clinical settings. Therefore, improving its bioavailability is a prerequisite for its clinical applications. This review summarizes the various pharmacological effects of BBR and analyzes the main reasons for its poor bioavailability. It introduces methods to improve the bioavailability of BBR through the use of absorption enhancers and P-gp inhibitors, structural modification of BBR, and preparation of BBR salts and cocrystals as well as the development of new formulations and focuses on the bioavailability study of the new formulations of BBR. The research of BBR was also prospected in order to provide reference for the further research of BBR.

Applications and advancements of nanoparticle-based drug delivery in alleviating lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Lung cancer (LC) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are among the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Cigarette smoking is among the main aetiologic factors for both ailments. These diseases share common pathogenetic mechanisms including inflammation, oxidative stress, and tissue remodelling. Current therapeutic approaches are limited by low efficacy and adverse effects. Consequentially, LC has a 5-year survival of < 20%, while COPD is incurable, underlining the necessity for innovative treatment strategies. Two promising emerging classes of therapy against these diseases include plant-derived molecules (phytoceuticals) and nucleic acid-based therapies. The clinical application of both is limited by issues including poor solubility, poor permeability, and, in the case of nucleic acids, susceptibility to enzymatic degradation, large size, and electrostatic charge density. Nanoparticle-based advanced drug delivery systems are currently being explored as flexible systems allowing to overcome these limitations. In this review, an updated summary of the most recent studies using nanoparticle-based advanced drug delivery systems to improve the delivery of nucleic acids and phytoceuticals for the treatment of LC and COPD is provided. This review highlights the enormous relevance of these delivery systems as tools that are set to facilitate the clinical application of novel categories of therapeutics with poor pharmacokinetic properties.

Berberine Improves Cancer-Derived Myocardial Impairment in Experimental Cachexia Models by Targeting High-Mobility Group Box-1

Cardiac disorders in cancer patients pose significant challenges to disease prognosis. While it has been established that these disorders are linked to cancer cells, the precise underlying mechanisms remain elusive. In this study, we investigated the impact of cancerous ascites from the rat colonic carcinoma cell line RCN9 on H9c2 cardiomyoblast cells. We found that the ascites reduced mitochondrial volume, increased oxidative stress, and decreased membrane potential in the cardiomyoblast cells, leading to apoptosis and autophagy. Although the ascites fluid contained a substantial amount of high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), we observed that neutralizing HMGB1 with a specific antibody mitigated the damage inflicted on myocardial cells. Our mechanistic investigations revealed that HMGB1 activated both nuclear factor κB and phosphoinositide 3-kinases-AKT signals through HMGB1 receptors, namely the receptor for advanced glycation end products and toll-like receptor-4, thereby promoting apoptosis and autophagy. In contrast, treatment with berberine (BBR) induced the expression of miR-181c-5p and miR-340-5p while suppressing HMGB1 expression in RCN9 cells. Furthermore, BBR reduced HMGB1 receptor expression in cardiomyocytes, consequently mitigating HMGB1-induced damage. We validated the myocardial protective effects of BBR in a cachectic rat model. These findings underscore the strong association between HMGB1 and cancer cachexia, highlighting BBR as a promising therapeutic agent for myocardial protection through HMGB1 suppression and modulation of the signaling system.

Neuroprotective potentials of Lead phytochemicals against Alzheimer's disease with focus on oxidative stress-mediated signaling pathways: Pharmacokinetic challenges, target specificity, clinical trials and future perspectives

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's diseases (AD) and dementia are among the highly prevalent neurological disorders characterized by deposition of beta amyloid (Aβ) plaques, dense deposits of highly phosphorylated tau proteins, insufficiency of acetylcholine (ACh) and imbalance in glutamatergic system. Patients typically experience cognitive, behavioral alterations and are unable to perform their routine activities. Evidence also suggests that inflammatory processes including excessive microglia activation, high expression of inflammatory cytokines and release of free radicals. Thus, targeting inflammatory pathways beside other targets might be the key factors to control- disease symptoms and progression.

PURPOSE

This review is aimed to highlight the mechanisms and pathways involved in the neuroprotective potentials of lead phytochemicals. Further to provide updates regarding challenges associated with their use and their progress into clinical trials as potential lead compounds.

METHODS

Most recent scientific literature on pre-clinical and clinical data published in quality journals especially on the lead phytochemicals including curcumin, catechins, quercetin, resveratrol, genistein and apigenin was collected using SciFinder, PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, JSTOR, EBSCO, Scopus and other related web sources.

RESULTS

Literature review indicated that the drug discovery against AD is insufficient and only few drugs are clinically approved which have limited efficacy. Among the therapeutic options, natural products have got tremendous attraction owing to their molecular diversity, their safety and efficacy. Research suggest that natural products can delay the disease onset, reduce its progression and regenerate the damage via their anti-amyloid, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potentials. These agents regulate the pathways involved in the release of neurotrophins which are implicated in neuronal survival and function. Highly potential lead phytochemicals including curcumin, catechins, quercetin, resveratrol, genistein and apigenin regulate neuroprotective signaling pathways implicated in neurotrophins-mediated activation of tropomyosin receptor kinase (Trk) and p75 neurotrophins receptor (p75NTR) family receptors.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytochemicals especially phenolic compounds were identified as highly potential molecules which ameliorate oxidative stress induced neurodegeneration, reduce Aβ load and inhibit vital enzymes. Yet their clinical efficacy and bioavailability are the major challenges which need further interventions for more effective therapeutic outcomes.

Berberine: Pharmacological Features in Health, Disease and Aging

BACKGROUND

Berberine is the main active compound of different herbs and is defined as an isoquinoline quaternary botanical alkaloid found in barks and roots of numerous plants. It exhibits a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as anti-obesity and antidiabetic effects. Berberine has antibacterial activity against a variety of microbiota, including many bacterial species, protozoa, plasmodia, fungi, and trypanosomes.

OBJECTIVE

This review describes the role of berberine and its metabolic effects. It also discusses how it plays a role in glucose metabolism, fat metabolism, weight loss, how it modulates the gut microbiota, and what are its antimicrobial properties along with its potential side effects with maximal tolerable dosage.

METHODS

Representative studies were considered and analyzed from different scientific databases, including PubMed and Web of Science, for the years 1982-2022.

RESULTS

Literature analysis shows that berberine affects many biochemical and pharmacological pathways that theoretically yield a positive effect on health and disease. Berberine exhibits neuroprotective properties in various neurodegenerative and neuropsychological ailments. Despite its low bioavailability after oral administration, berberine is a promising tool for several disorders. A possible hypothesis would be the modulation of the gut microbiome. While the evidence concerning the aging process in humans is more limited, preliminary studies have shown positive effects in several models.

CONCLUSION

Berberine could serve as a potential candidate for the treatment of several diseases. Previous literature has provided a basis for scientists to establish clinical trials in humans. However, for obesity, the evidence appears to be sufficient for hands-on use.

Characterization and Pharmacokinetic Assessment of a New Berberine Formulation with Enhanced Absorption In Vitro and in Human Volunteers

Berberine is a plant-origin quaternary isoquinoline alkaloid with a vast array of biological activities, including antioxidant and blood-glucose- and blood-lipid-lowering effects. However, its therapeutic potential is largely limited by its poor oral bioavailability. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro solubility and Caco-2 cell permeability followed by pharmacokinetic profiling in healthy volunteers of a new food-grade berberine delivery system (i.e., Berberine LipoMicel®). X-ray diffractometry (XRD), in vitro solubility, and Caco-2 cell permeability indicated higher bioavailability of LipoMicel Berberine (LMB) compared to the standard formulation. Increased aqueous solubility (up to 1.4-fold), as well as improved Caco-2 cell permeability of LMB (7.18 × 10-5 ± 7.89 × 10-6 cm/s), were observed when compared to standard/unformulated berberine (4.93 × 10-6 ± 4.28 × 10-7 cm/s). Demonstrating better uptake, LMB achieved significant increases in AUC0-24 and Cmax compared to the standard formulation (AUC: 78.2 ± 14.4 ng h/mL vs. 13.4 ± 1.97 ng h/mL, respectively; p < 0.05; Cmax: 15.8 ± 2.6 ng/mL vs. 1.67 ± 0.41 ng/mL) in a pilot study of healthy volunteers (n = 10). No adverse reactions were reported during the study period. In conclusion, LMB presents a highly bioavailable formula with superior absorption (up to six-fold) compared to standard berberine formulation and may, therefore, have the potential to improve the therapeutic efficacy of berberine. The study has been registered on ClinicalTrials.gov with Identifier NCT05370261.

Berberine-loaded engineered nanoparticles attenuate TGF-β-induced remodelling in human bronchial epithelial cells

Airway remodelling occurs in chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It is characterized by aberrant activation of epithelial reparation, excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and airway obstruction. The master regulator is Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β), which activates tissue repair, release of growth factors, EMT, increased cell proliferation, and reduced nitric oxide (NO) secretion. Due to its fundamental role in remodelling, TGF-β is an emerging target in the treatment of CRDs. Berberine is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fibrotic activities whose clinical application is hampered by poor permeability. To overcome these limitations, in this study, berberine was encapsulated in monoolein-based liquid crystalline nanoparticles (BM-LCNs). The potential of BM-LCNs in inhibiting TGF-β-induced remodelling features in human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) was tested. BM-LCNs significantly inhibited TGF-β-induced migration, reducing the levels of proteins upregulated by TGF-β including endoglin, thrombospondin-1, basic fibroblast growth factor, vascular-endothelial growth factor, and myeloperoxidase, and increasing the levels of cystatin C, a protein whose expression was downregulated by TGF-β. Furthermore, BM-LCNs restored baseline NO levels downregulated by TGF-β. The results prove the in vitro therapeutic efficacy of BM-LCNs in counteracting TGF-β-induced remodelling features. This study supports the suitability of berberine-loaded drug delivery systems to counteract airway remodelling, with potential application as a treatment strategy against CRDs.

A Review of Fibraurea tinctoria and Its Component, Berberine, as an Antidiabetic and Antioxidant

Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia caused by resistance to insulin action, inadequate insulin secretion, or excessive glucagon production. Numerous studies have linked diabetes mellitus and oxidative stress. People with diabetes usually exhibit high oxidative stress due to persistent and chronic hyperglycemia, which impairs the activity of the antioxidant defense system and promotes the formation of free radicals. Recently, several studies have focused on exploring natural antioxidants to improve diabetes mellitus. Fibraurea tinctoria has long been known as the native Borneo used in traditional medicine to treat diabetes. Taxonomically, this plant is part of the Menispermaceae family, widely known for producing various alkaloids. Among them are protoberberine alkaloids such as berberine. Berberine is an isoquinoline alkaloid with many pharmacological activities. Berberine is receiving considerable interest because of its antidiabetic and antioxidant activities, which are based on many biochemical pathways. Therefore, this review explores the pharmacological effects of Fibraurea tinctoria and its active constituent, berberine, against oxidative stress and diabetes, emphasizing its mechanistic aspects. This review also summarizes the pharmacokinetics and toxicity of berberine and in silico studies of berberine in several diseases and its protein targets.

Nutraceutical Approaches to Dyslipidaemia: The Main Formulative Issues Preventing Efficacy

Currently, the nutraceutical approach to treat dyslipidaemia is increasing in use, and in many cases is used by physicians as the first choice in the treatment of patients with borderline values. Nutraceuticals represent an excellent opportunity to treat the preliminary conditions not yet showing the pathological signs of dyslipidaemia. Their general safety, the patient's confidence, the convincing proof of efficacy and the reasonable costs prompted the market of new preparations. Despite this premise, many nutraceutical products are poorly formulated and do not meet the minimum requirements to ensure efficacy in normalizing blood lipid profiles, promoting cardiovascular protection, and normalizing disorders of glycemic metabolism. In this context, bioaccessibility and bioavailability of the active compounds is a crucial issue. Little attention is paid to the proper formulations needed to improve the overall bioavailability of the active molecules. According to these data, many products prove to be insufficient to ensure full enteric absorption. The present review analysed the literature in the field of nutraceuticals for the treatment of dyslipidemia, focusing on resveratrol, red yeast rice, berberine, and plant sterols, which are among the nutraceuticals with the greatest formulation problems, highlighting bioavailability and the most suitable formulations.

Pharmacokinetic of berberine, the main constituent of Berberis vulgaris L.: A comprehensive review

Barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) is a medicinal plant and its main constituent is an isoquinoline alkaloid named berberine that has multiple pharmacological effects such as antioxidant, anti-microbial, antiinflammatory, anticancer, anti-diabetes, anti-dyslipidemia, and anti-obesity. However, it has restricted clinical uses due to its very poor solubility and bioavailability (less than 1%). It undergoes demethylenation, reduction, and cleavage of the dioxymethylene group in the first phase of metabolism. Its phase two reactions include glucuronidation, sulfation, and methylation. The liver is the main site for berberine distribution. Berberine could excrete in feces, urine, and bile. Fecal excretion of berberine (11-23%) is higher than urinary and biliary excretion routes. However, a major berberine metabolite is excreted in urine greater than in feces. Concomitant administration of berberine with other drugs such as metformin, cyclosporine A, digoxin, etc. may result in important interactions. Thus, in this review, we gathered and dissected any related animal and human research articles regarding the pharmacokinetic parameters of berberine including bioavailability, metabolism, distribution, excretion, and drug-drug interactions. Also, we discussed and gathered various animal and human studies regarding the developed products of berberine with better bioavailability and consequently, better therapeutic effects.

The role of selected nutraceuticals in management of prediabetes and diabetes: An updated review of the literature

Dysglycemia is a disease state preceding the onset of diabetes and includes impaired fasting glycemia and impaired glucose tolerance. This review aimed to collect and analyze the literature reporting the results of clinical trials evaluating the effects of selected nutraceuticals on glycemia in humans. The results of the analyzed trials, generally, showed the positive effects of the nutraceuticals studied alone or in association with other supplements on fasting plasma glucose and post-prandial plasma glucose as primary outcomes, and their efficacy in improving insulin resistance as a secondary outcome. Some evidences, obtained from clinical trials, suggest a role for some nutraceuticals, and in particular Berberis, Banaba, Curcumin, and Guar gum, in the management of prediabetes and diabetes. However, contradictory results were found on the hypoglycemic effects of Morus, Ilex paraguariensis, Omega-3, Allium cepa, and Trigonella faenum graecum, whereby rigorous long-term clinical trials are needed to confirm these data. More studies are also needed for Eugenia jambolana, as well as for Ascophyllum nodosum and Fucus vesiculosus which glucose-lowering effects were observed when administered in combination, but not alone. Further trials are also needed for quercetin.

Emulsification by vitamin E TPGS or Quillaja extract enhanced absorption of berberine without affecting its metabolism in humans

Berberine is widely used for the prevention of cancers and diabetes.

Modulation of Long Non-Coding RNAs by Different Classes of Secondary Metabolites from Plants: A Mini-Review on Antitumor Effects

The broad pharmacological spectrum of plants is related to their secondary metabolism, which is responsible for the synthesis of different compounds that have multiple effects on cellular physiology. Among the biological effects presented by phytochemicals, their use for the prevention and treatment of cancer can be highlighted. This occurs due to several mechanisms of antitumor action demonstrated by these compounds, including regulation of the cell signaling pathways and inhibition of tumor growth. In this way, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) appear to be promising targets for the treatment of cancer. Their deregulation has already been related to a variety of clinical-pathological parameters. However, the effects of secondary metabolites on lncRNAs are still restricted. For this reason, the present review aimed to gather data on phytochemicals with action on lncRNAs in order to confirm their possible antitumor potential. According to the literature, terpenoid and flavonoid are the main examples of secondary metabolites involved with lncRNAs activity. In addition, the lncRNAs H19, CASC2, HOTAIR, NKILA, CCAT1, MALAT1, AFAP1-AS1, MEG3, and CDKN2B-AS1 can be highlighted as important targets in the search for new anti-tumor agents since they act as modulating pathways related to cell proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, cell migration and invasion. Finally, challenges for the use of natural products as a commercial drug were also discussed. The low yield, selectivity index and undesirable pharmacokinetic parameters were emphasized as a difficulty for obtaining these compounds on a large scale and for improving the potency of its biological effect. However, the synthesis and/or development of formulations were suggested as a possible approach to solve these problems. All of these data together confirm the potential of secondary metabolites as a source of new anti-tumor agents acting on lncRNAs.

Evaluating the spectrum-effect profiling and pharmacokinetics of Tieshuang Anshen Prescription with better sedative-hypnotic effect based on Fe2+ than Hg2

Although Zhusha Anshen Pill (ZSASP) is a commonly used traditional prescription for insomnia, the safety of cinnabar in the formula has always been controversial since its initial application in medical fields. Here, we developed a new prescription, Tieshuang Anshen Prescription (TSASP), by improving ZSASP with Fe²⁺ instead of Hg²⁺. Besides, TSASP was further optimized by establishing and testing the HPLC fingerprint and its sedative-hypnotic effect of formulas with different compatibility ratios and performing correlation spectrum analysis. The safety of TSASP was also evaluated by HE staining of liver and kidney. In addition, a validated and robust UHPLC-MS/MS method was established to demonstrate the pharmacokinetic characteristics of berberine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, ligustilide, catalpol, loganin, liquiritin and liquiritigenin after oral administration of TSASP. Our study originally provides a new non-toxic prescription, TSASP, with better sedative-hypnotic effect in comparison with ZSASP, revealing that Fe²⁺ could replace Hg²⁺ to eliminate its toxicity and play a sedative role. Meanwhile, we believe that our pharmacokinetics results may contribute valuable reference to both TSASP's specific mechanism of action and its further clinical efficacy and effectiveness research.

Preclinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Coptidis Preparation in Combination with Lovastatin in High-Fat Diet-Induced Hyperlipidemic Rats

Lovastatin is a standard therapy for dyslipidemia. Alternatively, some ethnomedicines, such as Coptidis preparation, have been used for the treatment of dyslipidemia. Statins and complementary and alternative medicines may possess individual mechanisms of action against dyslipidemia. We hypothesize that the combination of Coptidis preparation and lovastatin may have synergistic effects for the treatment of dyslipidemia. To investigate this hypothesis, we developed a validated ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method to monitor lovastatin and its metabolites for pharmacokinetic studies in rats. This study was divided into four groups: lovastatin (10 mg/kg, p.o.) alone and lovastatin (10 mg/kg, p.o.) + Coptidis preparation (0.3, 1, or 3 g/kg, p.o.) for five consecutive days. In pharmacodynamic studies, a high-fat diet (HFD) was used to induce dyslipidemia in experimental rat models. The HFD rats were divided into four groups: treatment with HFD, HFD + lovastatin (100 mg/kg, p.o.), HFD + Coptidis preparation (1 g/kg, p.o.), and HFD + lovastatin (50 mg/kg, p.o.) + Coptidis preparation (1 g/kg, p.o.) for 28 consecutive days. The pharmacokinetic results demonstrated that Coptidis preparation significantly augmented the conversion of lovastatin into its main metabolite lovastatin acid in vivo. The pharmacodynamic results revealed that the Coptidis preparation and half-dose lovastatin group reduced the body weight, liver weight, and visceral fat in HFD rats. These findings provide constructive preclinical pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic applications of Coptidis preparation on the benefit of hyperlipidemia.

Molecular updates on berberine in liver diseases: Bench to bedside

Liver diseases are life-threatening illnesses and are the major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. These may include liver fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, and drug-induced liver toxicity. Liver diseases have a wide prevalence globally and the fifth most common cause of death among all gastrointestinal disorders. Several novel therapeutic approaches have emerged for the therapy of liver diseases that may provide better clinical outcomes with improved safety. The use of phytochemicals for the amelioration of liver diseases has gained considerable popularity. Berberine (BBR), an isoquinoline alkaloid of the protoberberine type, has emerged as a promising molecule for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Accumulating studies have proved the hepatoprotective effects of BBR. BBR has been shown to modulate multiple signaling pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of liver diseases including Akt/FoxO2, PPAR-γ, Nrf2, insulin, AMPK, mTOR, and epigenetic pathways. In the present review, we have emphasized the important pharmacological activities and mechanisms of BBR in liver diseases. Further, we have reviewed various pharmacokinetic and toxicological barriers of this promising phytoconstituent. Finally, formulation-based novel approaches are also summarized to overcome the clinical hurdles for BBR.

Nanoformulation and Evaluation of Oral Berberine-Loaded Liposomes

Berberine (BBR) is a poorly water-soluble quaternary isoquinoline alkaloid of plant origin with potential uses in the drug therapy of hypercholesterolemia. To tackle the limitations associated with the oral therapeutic use of BBR (such as a first-pass metabolism and poor absorption), BBR-loaded liposomes were fabricated by ethanol-injection and thin-film hydration methods. The size and size distribution, polydispersity index (PDI), solid-state properties, entrapment efficiency (EE) and in vitro drug release of liposomes were investigated. The BBR-loaded liposomes prepared by ethanol-injection and thin-film hydration methods presented an average liposome size ranging from 50 nm to 244 nm and from 111 nm to 449 nm, respectively. The PDI values for the liposomes were less than 0.3, suggesting a narrow size distribution. The EE of liposomes ranged from 56% to 92%. Poorly water-soluble BBR was found to accumulate in the bi-layered phospholipid membrane of the liposomes prepared by the thin-film hydration method. The BBR-loaded liposomes generated by both nanofabrication methods presented extended drug release behavior in vitro. In conclusion, both ethanol-injection and thin-film hydration nanofabrication methods are feasible for generating BBR-loaded oral liposomes with a uniform size, high EE and modified drug release behavior in vitro.

The Herbal Constituents in An-Gong-Niu-Huang Wan (AGNH) Protect against Cinnabar- and Realgar-Induced Hepatorenal Toxicity and Accumulations of Mercury and Arsenic in Mice

An-Gong-Niu-Huang Wan (AGNH) has been a well-known cinnabar- and realgar-containing compound recipe for cerebral diseases. Unfortunately, its clinical practice is often restrained by the specific hepatorenal toxicity of cinnabar and realgar (C + R). In previous research studies, we have found that the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of its herbal constituents could mitigate the risks from the toxicity. The underlying detoxification mechanisms are still unsolved. The present study investigated the protective effects of AGNH's herbal constituents on hepatorenal injury induced by C + R. For the mice treated with C + R, the increased expression levels of sensitive biomarkers of metal exposure and hepatorenal toxicity, including metallothionein (MT) in both hepatorenal tissues and kidney induced molecule-1 (KIM-1) in the kidney, were simultaneously reduced when C + R coadministered with other herbal medicines. In addition, the contents of trivalent As (As^III), pentavalent As (As^v), and mercury (Hg) in hepatorenal tissues of mice were also significantly reduced benefiting from the herbal constituents in AGNH. Further mechanism studies showed that the herbal constituents in AGNH could downregulate the expressions of uptake transporters (AQP9 and OAT1) and upregulate the expressions of efflux transporters (P-gp, MRP2, and MRP4) in mice intoxicated by C + R. Our results suggested that AGNH's herbal constituents protect the body against C + R-induced hepatorenal toxicity and accumulations of Hg and As, which could be associated with the reestablishment of heavy metal homeostasis and the detoxification system.

Tracking evidences of Coptis chinensis for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease from pharmacological, pharmacokinetic to clinical studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Coptis chinensis (C. chinensis, Huanglian in Chinese), a famous traditional herbal medicine used for clearing heat and detoxification since thousands of years ago, is widely and traditionally used for clinical treatment of stomach inflammation, duodenum and digestive tract ulcers alone or through combing with other herbs in compound formulations.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

Through literature reviews of C. chinensis and berberine (one of the most important bioactive compounds derived from this plant) for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), this review aims to provide beneficial information for further exploration of the potent bioactive constituents from C. chinensis, deep investigation on the molecular mechanisms for the treatment of IBD, as well as further research and development of brand new products from C. chinensis for clinical therapy of IBD.

METHODS

"C. chinensis" and "IBD" were selected as the main keywords, and various online search engines, such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure database (CNKI) and other publication resources, were used for searching literatures.

RESULTS

To present, C. chinensis together with other herbs are involved in plenty of Chinese herbal prescriptions for the treatment of IBD, but little research focused on the single therapeutic effects of C. chinensis or extracts from this herb for the treatment of this disease. Berberine, one of important and representative bioactive compound isolated from C. chinensis, was reported to treat IBD effectively at a big arising speed in recent years. However, systematically and comprehensively reviews on the research of C. chinensis and berberine for the treatment of IBD from the aspects of chemical constituents, pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetics as well as clinical studies are seldom accomplished by researchers. Bioactive components from C. chinensis exert therapeutic effects for the treatment of IBD mainly through the inhibition of oxidative stress, antinociception, protection of intestinal mucosal epithelial barrier, regulation of T helper cells, as well as antibacterial activity. Although numerous studies on bioactive compounds from C. chinense have been performed by clinical investigators in recent years, most of them should be performed in a more strict and standard way to ensure the safety and efficacy of these compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

Berberine is considered as the representative and effective component from C. chinensis, but many other chemical components isolated from C. chinensis also have therapeutic effects for the treatment of IBD, which need deep research and further exploration. To accelerate research and development of C. chinensis and its bioactive components for the treatment of IBD, clinical trials are needed to clarify the effectiveness and safety of these chemical components from C. chinensis, as well as their molecular mechanisms for IBD treatment in vitro and in vivo. It is believed that continuous research and exploration on C. chinensis together with its bioactive compounds will bring great hope to the treatment of IBD.

Synergistic Mechanisms of Constituents in Herbal Extracts during Intestinal Absorption: Focus on Natural Occurring Nanoparticles

The systematic separation strategy has long and widely been applied in the research and development of herbal medicines. However, the pharmacological effects of many bioactive constituents are much weaker than those of the corresponding herbal extracts. Thus, there is a consensus that purer herbal extracts are sometimes less effective. Pharmacological loss of purified constituents is closely associated with their significantly reduced intestinal absorption after oral administration. In this review, pharmacokinetic synergies among constituents in herbal extracts during intestinal absorption were systematically summarized to broaden the general understanding of the pharmaceutical nature of herbal medicines. Briefly, some coexisting constituents including plant-produced primary and secondary metabolites, promote the intestinal absorption of active constituents by improving solubility, inhibiting first-pass elimination mediated by drug-metabolizing enzymes or drug transporters, increasing the membrane permeability of enterocytes, and reversibly opening the paracellular tight junction between enterocytes. Moreover, some coexisting constituents change the forms of bioactive constituents via mechanisms including the formation of natural nanoparticles. This review will focus on explaining this new synergistic mechanism. Thus, herbal extracts can be considered mixtures of bioactive compounds and pharmacokinetic synergists. This review may provide ideas and strategies for further research and development of herbal medicines.

Rapid Identification of Berberine Metabolites in Rat Plasma by UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS

In this study, a reliable and rapid method based on ultra high performance liquid chromatography combined with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS) technology and MetabolitePilot^MT software was developed for berberine metabolites identification in rat plasma. The chemical structures of the metabolites and their product ions were tentatively characterized or identified according to the molecular weights detected and MS/MS data. In all, nine metabolites, including M1 (demethyleneberberine, C₁₉H₁₈NO₄, m/z 324), M2 (glucuronic acid-conjugated demethyleneberberine, C₂₅H₂₆NO₁₀, m/z 500), M3 (diglucuronide-conjugated demethyleneberberine, C₃₁H₃₄NO₁₆, m/z 676), M4 (glucuronic acid-conjugated jatrorrhizine or glucuronic acid-conjugated columbamine, C₂₆H₂₈NO₁₀, m/z 514), M5 (berberrubine or thalifendine, C₁₉H₁₆NO₄, m/z 322), M6 (glucuronic acid-conjugated berberrubine or glucuronic acid-conjugated thalifendine, C₂₅H₂₄NO₁₀, m/z 498), M7 (sulfite-conjugated berberrubine or sulfite-conjugated thalifendine, C₁₉H₁₆NO₇S, m/z 402), M8 (dihydroxy berberrubine or dihydroxy thalifendine, C₁₉H₁₆NO₆, m/z 354) and M9 (dihydroxy berberine, C₂₀H₁₈NO₆, m/z 368) were tentatively characterized or identified. Several new deposition patterns and three new metabolites (M7, M8 and M9) are reported in this paper for the first time. This work not only provides significant insights into the understanding of the metabolic pathways of berberine, but also contributes in identifying potential active drug candidates from the metabolites.

Liver-target nanotechnology facilitates berberine to ameliorate cardio-metabolic diseases

Cardiovascular and metabolic disease (CMD) remains a main cause of premature death worldwide. Berberine (BBR), a lipid-lowering botanic compound with diversified potency against metabolic disorders, is a promising candidate for ameliorating CMD. The liver is the target of BBR so that liver-site accumulation could be important for fulfilling its therapeutic effect. In this study a rational designed micelle (CTA-Mic) consisting of α-tocopheryl hydrophobic core and on-site detachable polyethylene glycol-thiol shell is developed for effective liver deposition of BBR. The bio-distribution analysis proves that the accumulation of BBR in liver is increased by 248.8% assisted by micelles. Up-regulation of a range of energy-related genes is detectable in the HepG2 cells and in vivo. In the high fat diet-fed mice, BBR-CTA-Mic intervention remarkably improves metabolic profiles and reduces the formation of aortic arch plaque. Our results provide proof-of-concept for a liver-targeting strategy to ameliorate CMD using natural medicines facilitated by Nano-technology.

Mitochondrial membrane potential played crucial roles in the accumulation of berberine in HepG2 cells

Berberine is a natural alkaloid that has antineoplastic effects. However, in hepatoma cells like HepG2, the expressions of uptake transporters are minimal but efflux transporters are relatively high. Hence, how berberine enters and reaches a cytocidal concentration remains to be elucidated. In the present study, we revealed the accumulation mechanism of berberine in HepG2 cells. Cell organelles were isolated based on differential centrifugation; berberine concentration was measured using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass chromatography method or flow cytometry. Subcellular distribution of berberine was observed using a laser scanning confocal microscopy. The results showed that berberine was concentration-, temperature-, and time-dependently taken up and accumulated in HepG2 cells. Membrane drug transporters and cell membrane potential had limited effects in berberine uptake. However, qualitative and quantitative studies showed that berberine was enriched in the mitochondria; inhibition of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) by carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) significantly decreased the intracellular berberine by up to 70%. More importantly, MMP not only significantly enhanced berberine uptake driven by cell membrane potential (P<0.01) but also inhibited p-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated berberine efflux (P<0.01). In brief, our results for the first time showed that MMP played crucial roles in berberine accumulation in HepG2 cells.

Berberrubine and its analog, hydroxypropyl-berberrubine, regulate LDLR and PCSK9 expression via the ERK signal pathway to exert cholesterol-lowering effects in human hepatoma HepG2 cells

Berberine (BBR), the major isoquinoline alkaloid in Chinese herb Rhizoma coptidis, has significant lipid-lowering effect by upregulating hepatic low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) expression. In a previous study, we have indicated that berberrubine (M3), a major metabolite of BBR in vivo, displays the most potential hypolipidemic effects via upregulating LDLR expression in human hepatoma (HepG2) cells compared with BBR and 3 other metabolites. Accordingly, 9 M3 analogs (A1-A9) were modified at the C9 position. We aimed to find a new promising agent by evaluating the cholesterol-lowering effect and clarifying the related molecular mechanism. In the current study, the cellular cholesterol content was assayed with a commercial cholesterol assay kit. Real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot assay were used to explore the molecular mechanism of M3 and its analogs on the hypolipidemic effect. Among M3 and its analogs, hydroxypropyl-berberrubine (A8) exhibited the highest potential effects on the upregulation of LDLR expression, which was accompanied by a steady decline of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) messenger RNA and protein levels. Furthermore, inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity with PD98059 prevented the upregulation of LDLR and downregulation of PCSK9 induced by A8. The current study revealed that M3 and its structurally modified analog, A8, could regulate hepatic LDLR and PCSK9 expression to exert lipid-lowering effects via the ERK signal pathway, while A8 showed a stronger effect and might be a promising drug candidate against hyperlipidemia.

Preparation and Evaluation of Antidiabetic Agents of Berberine Organic Acid Salts for Enhancing the Bioavailability

Berberine has many pharmacological effects, such as antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant, but the question remains on how its low oral bioavailability has greatly limited its clinical application. As a safer hypoglycemic agent, we must evaluate the bioavailability of berberine organic acid salts (BOAs) to ensure that the bioavailability of berberine is not negatively affected. It has been proven that the bioavailability of BOAs is higher than that of BH (berberine hydrochloride); especially BF (berberine fumarate) and BS (berberine succinate), which are improved by 1.278-fold and 1.313-fold, respectively. After 1 h of oral administration, berberine mainly acted on the stomach of mice, it also influenced the liver, kidney, lungs, and intestines after 4 h. The accumulation of BF in the lung is more evident than BH. Our analysis shows that these results are closely related to the regulation of organic acids and berberine in the intestinal tract, they also indicate the influence of intestinal flora on berberine metabolism.

Anti-influenza activity of berberine improves prognosis by reducing viral replication in mice

Berberine, a natural isoquinoline alkaloid isolated from the berberis species, has a wide array of biological properties such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, and antihelminthic effects. We evaluated the antiviral effect of berberine against influenza A/FM1/1/47 (H1N1) in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that berberine strongly suppressed viral replication in A549 cells and in mouse lungs. Meanwhile, berberine relieved pulmonary inflammation and reduced necrosis, inflammatory cell infiltration, and pulmonary edema induced by viral infection in mice when compared with vehicle-treated mice. Berberine suppressed the viral infection-induced up-regulation of TLR7 signaling pathway, such as TLR7, MyD88, and NF-κB (p65), at both the mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, berberine significantly inhibited the viral infection-induced increase in Th1/Th2 and Th17/Treg ratios as well as the production of inflammatory cytokines. Our data provide new insight into the potential of berberine as a therapeutic agent for viral infection via its antiviral activity.

A Compositive Strategy to Study the Pharmacokinetics of TCMs: Taking Coptidis Rhizoma, and Coptidis Rhizoma-Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma as Examples

Pharmacokinetic studies are crucial for elucidating the effective constituents and formula compatibility of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). However, studies have usually been limited to single dosages and detection of systemic blood concentrations. To obtain comprehensive pharmacokinetic information, here we propose a multi-dosage and multi-sampling (blood from portal vein or systemic circulation, and liver) strategy to comparatively study the pharmacokinetics of multi-form TCMs, i.e., pure constituents, TCMs, or TCM formula extracts. Based on this strategy, we studied the pharmacokinetics of pure berberine, berberine in Coptidis Rhizoma (CRE), and berberine in Coptidis Rhizoma-Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma extracts (CR-GRE). After simple calculation and comparison of the obtained area under the curve (AUC) values, the results revealed the drastically different pharmacokinetic properties of pure berberine compared to CRE and CR-GRE. The results contribute to explaining the pharmacological loss of berberine activity after purification and the compatibility of the CR-GR drug pair. The results also innovatively showed that it was intestinal absorption that differentiated the pharmacokinetics of CRE and pure berberine, and CRE and CR-GRE. In conclusion, we propose a composite strategy to comparatively study the pharmacokinetics of TCMs, which could provide sufficient information to obtain a comprehensive view, before follow-up mechanism-of-action studies.

Achyranthis bidentatae radix enhanced articular distribution and anti-inflammatory effect of berberine in Sanmiao Wan using an acute gouty arthritis rat model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sanmiao Wan (SMW) has been a basic prescription employed for the treatment for gout in the clinic since Yuan dynasty. Achyranthis bidentatae radix (ABR) is designed as a lower-guiding drug in SMW to augment the articular accumulation of active ingredients and improve the anti-inflammatory effect.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Present study was undertaken to investigate the dose-response relationship of berberine in SMW between the articular concentration and anti-inflammatory effect in the knee joint under the lower-guiding of ABR.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats were divided into control group, model group and SMW without or with low, medium and high doses of ABR groups. Rat model of acute gouty arthritis (AGA) was established by intra-articular injection of 0.2 mL monosodium urate crystal (20 mg/mL) inside knee joint cavity on day 2 during drug treatment slots. Knee joint swelling, synovial hyperplasia and inflammatory cell infiltration were investigated for anti-inflammatory study. The concentrations of berberine in rat plasma and tissues were determined by UPLC-MS/MS method. The effect of ABR on the expression levels of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and MDR1 mRNA in the synovial tissues of knee joints in AGA rats was examined by Western blot and RT-qPCR assay, respectively.

RESULTS

The distribution of berberine increased by 6.53%, 44.31% and 212.96% in the knee joint and 474.93%, 631.01% and 1063.3% in the ankle for SMW with low, medium and high doses of ABR groups, compared with SMW without ABR group. Similarly, the plasma level of berberine increased by 19.81%, 143.4% and 681.13%. On the contrary, the distribution of berberine evidently decreased 3.23, 10.61 and 46.21-fold in heart and 3.68, 6.74 and 24.78-fold in lung. SMW with different doses of ABR groups exhibited better efficiency than SMW without ABR group on ameliorating knee joint swelling, inhibiting synovial hyperplasia and alleviating inflammatory cell infiltration of AGA rats. The treatment with ABR could down-regulate the MDR1 mRNA and P-gp expressions of synovial tissues of knee joints in AGA rats.

CONCLUSIONS

The enhanced articular distribution of berberine in SMW was attributed to the lower-guiding effect of ABR, which could evidently increase the plasma concentration of berberine, improve the supply of blood of inflamed joint, reduce the distribution of berberine in heart and lung and significantly inhibit the MDR1 mRNA and P-gp expression of synovial tissues of knee joints in AGA rats. The dose-response relationship of berberine between the enhanced articular concentration and improved anti-inflammatory effect in the knee joint under the lower-guiding of ABR was observed for the first time.

Dual-functional Brij-S20-modified nanocrystal formulation enhances the intestinal transport and oral bioavailability of berberine

Introduction

Berberine (BBR) is a plant-derived benzylisoquinoline alkaloid and has been demonstrated to be a potential treatment for various chronic diseases. The poor water solubility and P-glycoprotein (Pgp)-mediated drug efflux are the main challenges for its further application in a clinical setting.

Materials and methods

In this study, a Brij-S20 (BS20)-modified nanocrystal formulation (BBR-BS20-NCs) has been developed and investigated with the purpose of improving the intestinal absorption of BBR. The physicochemical properties of the developed BBR-BS20-NCs were characterized and the enhancement of the BBR-BS20-NCs on BBR absorption were investigated both in vitro and in vivo.

Results

The results indicated that BS20 could significantly enhance the intracellular uptake of BBR in MDCK-MDR1 cells via a short-term and reversible modulation on the Pgp function, accompanied by a marked increase in Pgp mRNA expression but without significant influence on the Pgp protein expression. Moreover, the morphology of the prepared BBR-BS20-NCs was observed to be prism-like, with a smooth surface and an average diameter of 148.0 ± 3.2 nm. Compared to raw BBR and physical mixture, BBR-BS20-NCs facilitated the dissolution rate and extent of release of BBR in aqueous solution, and further increased the absorption of BBR in MDCK-MDR1 monolayer by overcoming the Pgp-mediated secretory transport (P_app[BL-AP] values of 2.85 ± 0.04 × 10⁻⁶ cm/s, 2.21 ± 0.14 × 10⁻⁶ cm/s, and 2.00 ± 0.07 × 10⁻⁶ cm/s for pure BBR, physical mixture, and BBR-BS20-NCs, respectively). Significant improvements in the maximum concentration observed (C_max) and area under drug concentration-time curve (AUC_0–t) of BBR-BS20-NCs were obtained in pharmacokinetic studies compared to pure BBR, and the relative bioavailability of BBR-BS20-NCs to pure BBR was 404.1%.

Conclusion

The developed BBR-BS20-NCs combine the advantages of nanocrystal formulation and functional excipient. The novel pharmaceutical design provides a new strategy to improve the oral bioavailability of those drugs with both poor water solubility and Pgp-mediated efflux.

Gut Microbiota-Regulated Pharmacokinetics of Berberine and Active Metabolites in Beagle Dogs After Oral Administration

Berberine (BBR) is considered a multi-target drug that has significant advantages. In contrast to its significant pharmacological effects in clinic, the plasma level of BBR is very low. Our previous work revealed that dihydroberberine (dhBBR) could be an absorbable form of BBR in the intestine, and butyrate is an active metabolite that is generated by gut bacteria in rats. In this study, for the first time we describe gut microbiota-regulated pharmacokinetics in beagle dogs after oral administration of BBR by single (50 mg/kg) or multiple doses (50 mg/kg/d) for 7 days. GC-MS, GC, LC-MS/MS, and LC/MSⁿ-IT-TOF were used to detect dhBBR, butyrate and BBR as well as its Phase I and II metabolites, respectively. The results showed that dhBBR was not detected in dog plasma but was excreted in small amounts in the feces of dogs examined on days 3 and 7. Butyrate was generated by gut bacteria and increased by 1.3- and 1.2-fold in plasma or feces, respectively, after 7 days of BBR treatment compared to the levels before treatment. Changes of intestinal bacterial composition were analyzed by 16S rRNA genes analysis. The results presented that dogs treated with BBR for 7 days increased both the abundance of the butyrate- and the nitroreductases- producing bacteria. We also identified chemical structures of the Phase I and II metabolites and analyzed their contents in beagle dogs. Eleven metabolites were detected in plasma and feces after BBR oral administration (50 mg/kg) to dogs, including 8 metabolites of Phase I and III metabolites of Phase II. The pharmacokinetic profile indicated that the concentration of BBR in plasma was low, with a C_max value of 36.88 ± 23.45 ng/mL. The relative content of glucuronic acid conjugates (M11) was higher than those of other metabolites (M1, M2, M12, and M14) in plasma. BBR was detected in feces, with high excreted amounts on day 3 (2625.04 ± 1726.94 μg/g) and day 7 (2793.43 ± 488.10 μg/g). In summary, this is the first study to describe gut microbiota-regulated pharmacokinetics in beagle dogs after oral administration of BBR, which is beneficial for discovery of drugs with poor absorption but good therapeutic efficacy.

Berberine nanoparticles with enhanced in vitro bioavailability: characterization and antimicrobial activity

BACKGROUND

Berberine is an isoquinoline alkaloid widely used in Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine to treat illnesses such as hypertension and inflammatory conditions, and as an anticancer and hepato-protective agent. Berberine has low oral bioavailability due to poor aqueous solubility and insufficient dissolution rate, which can reduce the efficacy of drugs taken orally. In this study, evaporative precipitation of nanosuspension (EPN) and anti-solvent precipitation with a syringe pump (APSP) were used to address the problems of solubility, dissolution rate and bioavailability of berberine.

METHODS

Semi-crystalline nanoparticles (NPs) of 90-110 nm diameter for APSP and 65-75 nm diameter for EPN were prepared and then characterized using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD). Thereafter, drug content solubility and dissolution studies were undertaken. Berberine and its NPs were evaluated for their antibacterial activity.

RESULTS

The results indicate that the NPs have significantly increased solubility and dissolution rate due to conversion of the crystalline structure to a semi-crystalline form.

CONCLUSION

Berberine NPs produced by both APSP and EPN methods have shown promising activities against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and yeasts, with NPs prepared through the EPN method showing superior results compared to those made with the APSP method and the unprocessed drug.

Investigation on intermolecular interaction between berberine and β-cyclodextrin by 2D UV-Vis asynchronous spectra

The interaction between berberine chloride and β-cyclodextrin (β-CyD) is investigated via 2D asynchronous UV-Vis spectrum. The occurrence of cross peaks around (420nm, 420nm) in 2D asynchronous spectrum reveals that specific intermolecular interaction indeed exists between berberine chloride and β-CyD. In spite of the difficulty caused by overlapping of cross peaks, we manage to confirm that the 420nm band of berberine undergoes a red-shift, and its bandwidth decreases under the interaction with β-CyD. The red-shift of the 420nm band that can be assigned to n-π* transition indicates the environment of berberine becomes more hydrophobic. The above spectral behavior is helpful in understanding why the solubility of berberine is enhanced by β-CyD.

Prolyl oligopeptidase and its role in the organism: attention to the most promising and clinically relevant inhibitors

Prolyl oligopeptidase (POP), also called prolyl endopeptidase, is a cytosolic enzyme investigated by several research groups. It has been proposed to play an important role in physiological processes such as modulation of the levels of several neuronal peptides and hormones containing a proline residue. Due to its proteolytic activity and physiological role in cell signaling pathways, inhibition of POP offers an emerging approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases as well as other diseases related to cognitive impairment. Furthermore, it may also represent an interesting target for treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders, and as an antiangiogenesis or antineoplastic agent. In this review paper, we summarized naturally occurring POP inhibitors together with peptide-like inhibitors and their biological effects. Some of them have shown promising results and interesting pharmacological profiles. However, to date, there is no POP inhibitor available on the market although several clinical trials have been undertaken.

Multidrug-resistant cancer cells and cancer stem cells hijack cellular systems to circumvent systemic therapies, can natural products reverse this?

Chemotherapy is one of the most effective and broadly used approaches for cancer management and many modern regimes can eliminate the bulk of the cancer cells. However, recurrence and metastasis still remain a major obstacle leading to the failure of systemic cancer treatments. Therefore, to improve the long-term eradication of cancer, the cellular and molecular pathways that provide targets which play crucial roles in drug resistance should be identified and characterised. Multidrug resistance (MDR) and the existence of tumor-initiating cells, also referred to as cancer stem cells (CSCs), are two major contributors to the failure of chemotherapy. MDR describes cancer cells that become resistant to structurally and functionally unrelated anti-cancer agents. CSCs are a small population of cells within cancer cells with the capacity of self-renewal, tumor metastasis, and cell differentiation. CSCs are also believed to be associated with chemoresistance. Thus, MDR and CSCs are the greatest challenges for cancer chemotherapy. A significant effort has been made to identify agents that specifically target MDR cells and CSCs. Consequently, some agents derived from nature have been developed with a view that they may overcome MDR and/or target CSCs. In this review, natural products-targeting MDR cancer cells and CSCs are summarized and clustered by their targets in different signaling pathways.

Polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG400) affects the systemic exposure of oral drugs based on multiple mechanisms: taking berberine as an example

High concentrations of PEG400 increase in vivo exposure to berberine (D) by increasing its solubility (A), permeability (B), and lymphatic transport (C).

Tissue distribution, metabolism and hepatic tissue injury in Chinese lizards (Eremias argus) after a single oral administration of lambda-cyhalothrin

Lambda-cyhalothrin (LCT) is a widely used pyrethroid with neurotoxicity. However, little is known about the toxicokinetics of LCT in reptiles. In this study, the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of LCT in Chinese lizards (Eremias Argus) were determined following a single dose (10 mg kg^-1) treatment. In the liver, brain, gonads and skin, LCT levels peaked within several hours and then decreased rapidly. However, the concentration of LCT gradually increased in the fat tissue. More than 90% of the LCT dose was excreted in the faeces. One LCT metabolite, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (PBA), was detected in lizard plasma and tissues. PBA preferentially accumulates in the brain and plasma. The half-life of PBA in the brain was 3.2 days, which was 35.4-fold greater than that of LCT. In the plasma, the concentration of PBA was significantly higher than that of LCT. The bioaccumulation of LCT in tissues was enantioselective, and the enantiomeric fractions (EF) ranged from 0.72 to 0.26. The preferential accumulation of enantiomers changed according to exposure time, but the reasons behind this phenomenon were not clear. For pathological analysis, vacuolation of the cytoplasm and large areas of necrosis were observed in the liver sections after 168 h of dosing. The liver tissues exhibited both decreases in the hepatosomatic index and histopathological lesions during the exposure period. In this study, the effect concentration of LCT in lizards was 200-fold lower than its LD₅₀ value used in risk assessments for birds. These results may provide additional information for the risk assessment of LCT for reptiles and indicate that birds may not be an ideal surrogate for reptile toxicity evaluation.

Dose-response effect of berberine on bile acid profile and gut microbiota in mice

Background

Berberine (BBR) is a traditional antimicrobial herbal medicine. Recently, BBR has gained popularity as a supplement to lower blood lipids, cholesterol and glucose. Bile acids (BAs) are known to regulate blood levels of triglycerides, cholesterol, glucose and energy homeostasis, and gut flora play an important role in BA metabolism. However, whether BBR alters BAs metabolism or dose-response effect of BBR on gut flora is unknown.

Methods

In this study, the effects of various doses of BBR on the concentrations of BAs in liver and serum of male C57BL/6 mice were determined by UPLC-MS/MS, and the expression of BA-related genes, as well as the amount of 32 of the most abundant gut bacterial species in the terminal ileum and large intestine of male C57BL/6 mice were quantified by RT-PCR and Quantigene 2.0 Reagent System, respectively.

Results

Unconjugated BAs and total BAs were significantly altered by BBR in serum but not in liver. Increased primary BAs (βMCA, TβMCA and TUDCA) and decreased secondary BAs (DCA, LCA and the T-conjugates) were observed in livers and serum of mice fed BBR. The expression of BA-synthetic enzymes (Cyp7a1 and 8b1) and uptake transporter (Ntcp) increased 39-400 % in liver of mice fed the higher doses of BBR, whereas nuclear receptors and efflux transporters were not markedly altered. In addition, Bacteroides were enriched in the terminal ileum and large bowel of mice treated with BBR.

Conclusion

The present study indicated that various doses of BBR have effects on BA metabolism and related genes as well as intestinal flora, which provides insight into many pathways of BBR effects.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12906-016-1367-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Development and evaluation of vitamin E d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate-mixed polymeric phospholipid micelles of berberine as an anticancer nanopharmaceutical

Berberine (Brb) is an active alkaloid occurring in various common plant species, with well-recognized potential for cancer therapy. Brb not only augments the efficacy of antineoplastic chemotherapy and radiotherapy but also exhibits direct antimitotic and proapoptotic actions, along with distinct antiangiogenic and antimetastatic activities in a variety of tumors. Despite its low systemic toxicity, several pharmaceutical challenges limit the application of Brb in cancer therapy (ie, extremely low solubility and permeability, very poor pharmacokinetics (PKs), and oral bioavailability). Among lipid-based nanocarriers investigated recently for Brb, stealth amphiphilic micelles of polymeric phospholipid conjugates were studied here as a promising strategy to improve Brb delivery to tumors. Specifically, physicochemically stable micelles made of 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethyleneglycol)-2000] (PEG-PE) mixed with d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) (PEG-succinate ester of vitamin E), in a 3:1 M ratio, increased Brb solubilization by 300%. Our PEG-PE/TPGS-mixed micelles firmly retained the incorporated Brb, displaying extended-release profile in simulated media, with up to 30-fold projected improvement in simulated PKs of Brb. Owing to the markedly better uptake of Brb-containing mixed micelles in vitro, our Brb-mixed micelles nanoformulation significantly amplified apoptosis and overall cytotoxic effectiveness against monolayer and spheroid cultures of human prostate carcinomas (16- to 18-fold lower half-maximal inhibitory concentration values in PC3 and LNPaC, respectively), compared to free Brb. Mixed PEG-PE/TPGS micelles represent a promising delivery platform for the sparingly soluble anticancer agent, Brb, encouraging further pharmaceutical development of this drug for cancer therapy.