1
|
Ding Y, Fan B, Zhu C, Chen Z. Shared and Related Molecular Targets and Actions of Salicylic Acid in Plants and Humans. Cells 2023; 12:cells12020219. [PMID: 36672154 PMCID: PMC9856608 DOI: 10.3390/cells12020219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a phenolic compound produced by all plants that has an important role in diverse processes of plant growth and stress responses. SA is also the principal metabolite of aspirin and is responsible for many of the anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective and antitumor activities of aspirin. As a result, the number of identified SA targets in both plants and humans is large and continues to increase. These SA targets include catalases/peroxidases, metabolic enzymes, protein kinases and phosphatases, nucleosomal and ribosomal proteins and regulatory and signaling proteins, which mediate the diverse actions of SA in plants and humans. While some of these SA targets and actions are unique to plants or humans, many others are conserved or share striking similarities in the two types of organisms, which underlie a host of common biological processes that are regulated or impacted by SA. In this review, we compare shared and related SA targets and activities to highlight the common nature of actions by SA as a hormone in plants versus a therapeutic agent in humans. The cross examination of SA targets and activities can help identify new actions of SA and better explain their underlying mechanisms in plants and humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Ding
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Baofang Fan
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA
| | - Cheng Zhu
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
- Correspondence: (C.Z.); (Z.C.); Tel.: +86-571-8683-6090 (C.Z.); +1-765-494-4657 (Z.C.)
| | - Zhixiang Chen
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA
- Correspondence: (C.Z.); (Z.C.); Tel.: +86-571-8683-6090 (C.Z.); +1-765-494-4657 (Z.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Newcomer ME, Brash AR. The structural basis for specificity in lipoxygenase catalysis. Protein Sci 2015; 24:298-309. [PMID: 25524168 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Many intriguing facets of lipoxygenase (LOX) catalysis are open to a detailed structural analysis. Polyunsaturated fatty acids with two to six double bonds are oxygenated precisely on a particular carbon, typically forming a single chiral fatty acid hydroperoxide product. Molecular oxygen is not bound or liganded during catalysis, yet it is directed precisely to one position and one stereo configuration on the reacting fatty acid. The transformations proceed upon exposure of substrate to enzyme in the presence of O2 (RH + O2 → ROOH), so it has proved challenging to capture the precise mode of substrate binding in the LOX active site. Beginning with crystal structures with bound inhibitors or surrogate substrates, and most recently arachidonic acid bound under anaerobic conditions, a picture is consolidating of catalysis in a U-shaped fatty acid binding channel in which individual LOX enzymes use distinct amino acids to control the head-to-tail orientation of the fatty acid and register of the selected pentadiene opposite the non-heme iron, suitably positioned for the initial stereoselective hydrogen abstraction and subsequent reaction with O2 . Drawing on the crystal structures available currently, this review features the roles of the N-terminal β-barrel (C2-like, or PLAT domain) in substrate acquisition and sensitivity to cellular calcium, and the α-helical catalytic domain in fatty acid binding and reactions with O2 that produce hydroperoxide products with regio and stereospecificity. LOX structures combine to explain how similar enzymes with conserved catalytic machinery differ in product, but not substrate, specificities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcia E Newcomer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 70803
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ulrich-Merzenich G, Kelber O, Koptina A, Freischmidt A, Heilmann J, Müller J, Zeitler H, Seidel MF, Ludwig M, Heinrich EU, Winterhoff H. Novel neurological and immunological targets for salicylate-based phytopharmaceuticals and for the anti-depressant imipramine. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2012; 19:930-939. [PMID: 22743246 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2012.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2012] [Revised: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory processes are increasingly recognised to contribute to neurological and neuropsychatric disorders such as depression. Thus we investigated whether a standardized willow bark preparation (WB) which contains among other constituents salicin, the forerunner of non-steroidal antiphlogistic drugs, would have an effect in a standard model of depression, the forced swimming test (FST), compared to the antidepressant imipramine. Studies were accompanied by gene expression analyses. In order to allocate potential effects to the different constituents of WB, fractions of the extract with different compositions of salicyl alcohol derivative and polyphenols were also investigated. Male Sprague Dawley rats (n=12/group) were treated for 14 days (p.o.) with the WB preparation STW 33-I (group A) and its fractions (FR) (groups FR-B to E) in concentrations of 30 mg/kg. The FRs were characterized by a high content of flavone and chalcone glycosides (FR-B), flavonoid glycosides and salicyl alcohol derivatives (FR-C), salicin and related salicyl alcohol derivatives (FR-D) and proanthocyanidines (FR-E). The tricyclic antidepressant imipramine (20 mg/kg) (F) was used as positive control. The FST was performed on day 15. The cumulative immobility time was significantly (p<0.05) reduced in group A (36%), group FR-D (44%) and by imipramine (16%) compared to untreated controls. RNA was isolated from peripheral blood. RNA samples (group A, group FR-D, and imipramine) were further analysed by rat whole genome microarray (Agilent) in comparison to untreated controls. Quantitative PCR for selected genes was performed. Genes (>2 fold, p<0.01), affected by WB and/or FR-D and imipramine, included both inflammatory (e.g. IL-3, IL-10) and neurologically relevant targets. Common genes regulated by WB, FR-D and imipramine were GRIA 2 ↓, SRP54 ↓, CYP26B ↓, DNM1L ↑ and KITLG ↓. In addition, the hippocampus of rats treated (27 d) with WB (15-60 mg/kg WB) or imipramine (15 mg/kg bw) showed a slower serotonin turnover (5-hydroxyindol acetic acid/serotonin (p<0.05)) depending on the dosage. Thus WB (30 mg/kg), its ethanolic fraction rich in salicyl alcohol derivatives (FR-D) (30 mg/kg) and imipramine, by being effective in the FST, modulated known and new targets relevant for neuro- and immunofunctions in rats. These findings contribute to our understanding of the link between inflammation and neurological functions and may also support the scope for the development of co-medications from salicylate-containing phytopharmaceuticals as multicomponent mixtures with single component synthetic drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Ulrich-Merzenich
- Medizinische Poliklinik, Universitätsklinikum, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Oates JA. Cardiovascular Risk Markers and Mechanisms in Targeting the COX Pathway for Colorectal Cancer Prevention. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2011; 4:1145-8. [DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-11-0333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
5
|
Effect of diethylcarbamazine, butylated hydroxy anisole and methyl substituted chalcone on filarial parasite Setaria cervi: Proteomic and biochemical approaches. J Proteomics 2011; 74:1595-606. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2011.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2011] [Revised: 04/20/2011] [Accepted: 04/22/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
6
|
Yamanishi Y, Kotera M, Kanehisa M, Goto S. Drug-target interaction prediction from chemical, genomic and pharmacological data in an integrated framework. Bioinformatics 2010; 26:i246-54. [PMID: 20529913 PMCID: PMC2881361 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btq176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION In silico prediction of drug-target interactions from heterogeneous biological data is critical in the search for drugs and therapeutic targets for known diseases such as cancers. There is therefore a strong incentive to develop new methods capable of detecting these potential drug-target interactions efficiently. RESULTS In this article, we investigate the relationship between the chemical space, the pharmacological space and the topology of drug-target interaction networks, and show that drug-target interactions are more correlated with pharmacological effect similarity than with chemical structure similarity. We then develop a new method to predict unknown drug-target interactions from chemical, genomic and pharmacological data on a large scale. The proposed method consists of two steps: (i) prediction of pharmacological effects from chemical structures of given compounds and (ii) inference of unknown drug-target interactions based on the pharmacological effect similarity in the framework of supervised bipartite graph inference. The originality of the proposed method lies in the prediction of potential pharmacological similarity for any drug candidate compounds and in the integration of chemical, genomic and pharmacological data in a unified framework. In the results, we make predictions for four classes of important drug-target interactions involving enzymes, ion channels, GPCRs and nuclear receptors. Our comprehensively predicted drug-target interaction networks enable us to suggest many potential drug-target interactions and to increase research productivity toward genomic drug discovery. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Datasets and all prediction results are available at http://cbio.ensmp.fr/~yyamanishi/pharmaco/. AVAILABILITY Softwares are available upon request.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiro Yamanishi
- Mines ParisTech, Centre for Computational Biology, 35 rue Saint-Honore, F-77305 Fontainebleau Cedex, Institut Curie, F-75248, INSERM U900, F-75248, Paris, France.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Brune K, Renner B, Hinz B. Using pharmacokinetic principles to optimize pain therapy. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2010; 6:589-98. [PMID: 20820196 DOI: 10.1038/nrrheum.2010.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cyclo-oxygenase (COX) inhibitors are widely used to relieve musculoskeletal pain. These agents block the production of prostaglandins (PGs) at sites of inflammation by inhibiting the activity of two COX enzymes necessary for PG production and normal organ homeostasis. Inhibition of PG production at sites unrelated to pain is associated with adverse drug reactions (ADRs). The degree of analgesic efficacy, as well as the incidence and the localization of ADRs, are critically influenced by the pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution and elimination) of these drugs. Ideally, sufficient and permanent inhibition of COX enzymes should be achieved in target tissues, with minimal ADRs. To minimize underdosing or overdosing, which result in therapeutic failure or ADRs, the COX inhibitor with the most appropriate pharmacokinetic properties should be selected on the basis of a thorough pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis. In this Review, the pharmacokinetics of the prevailing COX inhibitors will be discussed and enigmatic aspects of these intensively used drugs will be considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kay Brune
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Morgan G, Johnsen J. Might salicylate exert benefits against childhood cancer? Ecancermedicalscience 2010; 4:156. [PMID: 22276025 PMCID: PMC3234022 DOI: 10.3332/ecancer.2010.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2009] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Childhood cancers are a broad range of diseases. Research on the chemopreventive potential of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin (acetylsalicylate) has yet to be fully directed towards childhood cancers. A prima facie hypothesis on salicylate and childhood cancer would therefore be based on several factors. Firstly, salicylate inhibits the production of inflammatory prostaglandins, which have been shown to stimulate the growth of cancer cells. Secondly, salicylate inhibits the growth of cancer cells in pre-clinical models. Thirdly, salicylate is a natural component of fruits and vegetables so it is consumed within the diet. Further research, of which some possibilities are identified, is recommended.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Morgan
- Fellow of the Royal Institute for Public Health, National Health Service for Wales, Wales, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase enzymes house spatially distinct cyclooxygenase- and peroxidase-active sites. The two-electron reduction of peroxides to their corresponding alcohols by the heme bound in the peroxidase-active site converts the heme to a ferryloxoprotoporyphrin cation radical, with a reductant providing the two electrons necessary to bring the heme back to its resting state. The ferryloxoprotoporyphrin cation radical can abstract a hydrogen atom from a tyrosine residue in the cyclooxygenase-active site, activating the oxygenase functionality. The tyrosyl radical subsequently abstracts a hydrogen atom from the cyclooxygenase substrate, arachidonic acid, leading to its oxygenation and the formation of a hydroperoxy endoperoxide intermediate, PGG(2). The peroxidase functionality reduces PGG(2) to the hydroxy endoperoxide, PGH(2), which serves as the precursor to downstream prostaglandins and thromboxane. The peroxidase activity of cycloxygenase enzymes can be assayed by quantifying the oxidation of a peroxidase reductant or the reduction of a hydroperoxide substrate. Here we describe a spectrophotometric assay used to measure the oxidation of a reductant, 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), as well as a high-performance liquid chromatography method for the measurement of the conversion of 5-phenyl-4-pentyl hydroperoxide (PPHP) to its corresponding alcohol. The first provides a continuous but indirect assay of peroxidase activity, whereas the second provides a discontinuous but direct assay.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey C Duggan
- A.B. Hancock Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Nam TG, Nara SJ, Zagol-Ikapitte I, Cooper T, Valgimigli L, Oates JA, Porter NA, Boutaud O, Pratt DA. Pyridine and pyrimidine analogs of acetaminophen as inhibitors of lipid peroxidation and cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase catalysis. Org Biomol Chem 2009; 7:5103-12. [PMID: 20024105 PMCID: PMC2873786 DOI: 10.1039/b912528k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Herein we report an investigation of the efficacy of pyridine and pyrimidine analogs of acetaminophen (ApAP) as peroxyl radical-trapping antioxidants and inhibitors of enzyme-catalyzed lipid peroxidation by cyclooxygenases (COX) and lipoxygenases (LOX). In inhibited autoxidations we find that ApAP, the common analgesic and antipyretic agent, is a very good antioxidant with a rate constant for reaction with peroxyl radicals (k(inh) = 5 x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1)) that is higher than many widely-used phenolic antioxidants, such as the ubiquitous butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). This reactivity is reduced substantially upon incorporation of nitrogen into the phenolic ring, owing to an increase in the O-H bond dissociation enthalpy of pyridinols and pyrimidinols with respect to phenols. Incorporation of nitrogen into the phenolic ring of ApAP was also found to decrease its efficacy as an inhibitor of prostaglandin biosynthesis by ovine COX-1 (oCOX-1). This is explained on the basis of an increase in its oxidation potential and its reduced reactivity as a reducing co-substrate of the peroxidase protoporphyrin. In contrast, the efficacy of ApAP as an inhibitor of lipid hydroperoxide biosynthesis by soybean LOX-1 (sLOX-1) increased upon incorporation of nitrogen into the ring, suggesting a different mechanism of inhibition dependent on the acidity of the phenolic O-H which may involve chelation of the catalytic non-heme iron atom. The greater stability of the 3-pyridinols and 5-pyrimidinols to air oxidation as compared to phenols allowed us to evaluate some electron-rich pyridinols and pyrimidinols as inhibitors of oCOX-1 and sLOX-1. While the pyridinols had the best combination of activities as antioxidants and inhibitors of oCOX-1 and sLOX-1, they were found to be more toxic than ApAP in preliminary assays in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell culture. The pyrimidinols, however, were up to 17-fold more reactive to peroxyl radicals and up to 25-fold better inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis than ApAP, with similar cytotoxicities to HepG2 cells at high levels of exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Gyu Nam
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Long-chain carboxychromanols, metabolites of vitamin E, are potent inhibitors of cyclooxygenases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:20464-9. [PMID: 19074288 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0810962106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase (COX-1/COX-2)-catalyzed eicosanoid formation plays a key role in inflammation-associated diseases. Natural forms of vitamin E are recently shown to be metabolized to long-chain carboxychromanols and their sulfated counterparts. Here we find that vitamin E forms differentially inhibit COX-2-catalyzed prostaglandin E(2) in IL-1beta-stimulated A549 cells without affecting COX-2 expression, showing the relative potency of gamma-tocotrienol approximately delta-tocopherol > gamma-tocopherol >> alpha- or beta-tocopherol. The cellular inhibition is partially diminished by sesamin, which blocks the metabolism of vitamin E, suggesting that their metabolites may be inhibitory. Consistently, conditioned media enriched with long-chain carboxychromanols, but not their sulfated counterparts or vitamin E, reduce COX-2 activity in COX-preinduced cells with 5 microM arachidonic acid as substrate. Under this condition, 9'- or 13'-carboxychromanol, the vitamin E metabolites that contain a chromanol linked with a 9- or 13-carbon-length carboxylated side chain, inhibits COX-2 with an IC(50) of 6 or 4 microM, respectively. But 13'-carboxychromanol inhibits purified COX-1 and COX-2 much more potently than shorter side-chain analogs or vitamin E forms by competitively inhibiting their cyclooxygenase activity with K(i) of 3.9 and 10.7 microM, respectively, without affecting the peroxidase activity. Computer simulation consistently indicates that 13'-carboxychromanol binds more strongly than 9'-carboxychromanol to the substrate-binding site of COX-1. Therefore, long-chain carboxychromanols, including 13'-carboxychromanol, are novel cyclooxygenase inhibitors, may serve as anti-inflammation and anticancer agents, and may contribute to the beneficial effects of certain forms of vitamin E.
Collapse
|
12
|
Acetylation of prostaglandin H2 synthases by aspirin is inhibited by redox cycling of the peroxidase. Biochem Pharmacol 2007; 75:1472-81. [PMID: 18242581 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2007.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2007] [Revised: 11/29/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Aspirin exerts its unique pharmacological effects by irreversibly acetylating a serine residue in the cyclooxygenase site of prostaglandin-H2-synthases (PGHSs). Despite the irreversibility of the inhibition, the potency of aspirin varies remarkably between cell types, suggesting that molecular determinants could contribute to cellular selectivity. Using purified enzymes, we found no evidence that aspirin is selective for either of the two PGHS isoforms, and we showed that hydroperoxide substrates of the PGHS peroxidase inhibited the rate of acetylation of PGHS-1 by 68%. Using PGHS-1 reconstituted with cobalt protoporphyrin, a heme devoid of peroxidase activity, we demonstrated that reversal by hydroperoxides of the aspirin-mediated acetylation depends upon the catalytic activity of the PGHS peroxidase. We demonstrated that inhibition of PGHS-2 by aspirin in cells in culture is reversed by 12-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid dose-dependently (ED50=0.58+/-0.15 microM) and that in cells with high levels of hydroperoxy-fatty acids (RAW264.7) the efficacy of aspirin is markedly decreased as compared to cells with low levels of hydroperoxides (A549; IC50s=256+/-22 microM and 11.0+/-0.9 microM, respectively). Together, these findings indicate that acetylation of the PGHSs by aspirin is regulated by the catalytic activity of the peroxidase, which yields a higher oxidative state of the enzyme.
Collapse
|
13
|
Schildknecht S, Daiber A, Ghisla S, Cohen RA, Bachschmid MM. Acetaminophen inhibits prostanoid synthesis by scavenging the PGHS-activator peroxynitrite. FASEB J 2007; 22:215-24. [PMID: 17724253 DOI: 10.1096/fj.06-8015com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The primary pharmacological target of acetaminophen is prostaglandin endoperoxide H2 synthase (PGHS). The enzymatic catalytic mechanism is radical-based, initiated, and maintained by the persistent presence of peroxides, particularly peroxynitrite, which is termed "peroxide tone". Whereas the prevailing concept assumes a direct reduction of the active, oxidized enzyme by acetaminophen, here we show that acetaminophen is a potent scavenger of peroxynitrite (peroxynitrite-mediated phenol nitration, IC50 approximately 72 microM; Sin-1-mediated DHR123 oxidation, IC50 approximately 11 microM) and thus inhibits PGHS by eliminating the peroxide tone. Nanomolar concentrations of peroxynitrite increased the activity of isolated PGHS and prostacyclin formation by aortic endothelial cells. This elevated activity was efficiently inhibited by pharmacologically relevant concentrations of acetaminophen (IC50 approximately 10 microM for 6-keto-PGF1alpha) and other free radical scavengers. However, when the peroxide tone was provided by H2O2 or tert-butyl-OOH, acetaminophen had only negligible inhibitory effects. Our concept could help to explain the efficacy of acetaminophen to inhibit PGHS in cell types with moderate oxidant formation. However, high levels of peroxynitrite or other peroxides such as lipid peroxides formed at inflammatory sites might overwhelm the ability of acetaminophen to decrease PGHS activation. The concept presented herein provides a molecular basis to explain the excellent analgesic and antipyretic properties of acetaminophen together with its minimal anti-inflammatory effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Schildknecht
- Vascular Biology Unit, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Pierre SC, Schmidt R, Brenneis C, Michaelis M, Geisslinger G, Scholich K. Inhibition of cyclooxygenases by dipyrone. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 151:494-503. [PMID: 17435797 PMCID: PMC2013970 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Dipyrone is a potent analgesic drug that has been demonstrated to inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX). In contrast to classical COX-inhibitors, such as aspirin-like drugs, dipyrone has no anti-inflammatory effect and a low gastrointestinal toxicity, indicating a different mode of action. Here, we aimed to investigate the effects of dipyrone on COX. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The four major metabolites of dipyrone, including the two pharmacologically active metabolites, 4-methyl-amino-antipyrine (MAA) and amino-antipyrine (AA), were used to characterise their binding to COX and haem as well as their effects on the biochemical properties of COX. Mass spectrometry, UV and visible photometry were used to study binding and prostaglandin production. Levels of anti-oxidant enzymes were assessed by Western blotting. KEY RESULTS The pharmacologically active metabolites of dipyrone, MAA and AA, did not inhibit COX activity in vitro like classical COX inhibitors, but instead redirected the prostaglandin synthesis, ruling out inhibition of COX through binding to its active site. We found that MAA and AA formed stable complexes with haem and reacted with hydrogen peroxide in presence of haem, ferrous ions (Fe(2+)) or COX. Moreover, MAA reduced Fe(3+) to Fe(2+) and accordingly increased lipid peroxidation and the expression of anti-oxidant enzymes in cultured cells and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Our data suggest that the pharmacologically active metabolites of dipyrone inhibit COX activity by sequestering radicals which initiate the catalytic activity of this enzyme or through the reduction of the oxidative states of the COX protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S C Pierre
- Pharmazentrum frankfurt, ZAFES, Klinikum der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt Frankfurt, Germany
| | - R Schmidt
- Pharmazentrum frankfurt, ZAFES, Klinikum der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt Frankfurt, Germany
| | - C Brenneis
- Pharmazentrum frankfurt, ZAFES, Klinikum der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt Frankfurt, Germany
| | - M Michaelis
- Sanofi-Aventis Deutschland GmbH Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - G Geisslinger
- Pharmazentrum frankfurt, ZAFES, Klinikum der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt Frankfurt, Germany
| | - K Scholich
- Pharmazentrum frankfurt, ZAFES, Klinikum der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt Frankfurt, Germany
- Author for correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Affiliation(s)
- Anna L Blobaum
- A. B. Hancock Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt Institute for Chemical Biology and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Mitchell JA, Warner TD. COX isoforms in the cardiovascular system: understanding the activities of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2006; 5:75-86. [PMID: 16485347 DOI: 10.1038/nrd1929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit the formation of prostanoids by the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). Work in the past 15 years has shown that COX exists in two forms: COX1, which is largely associated with physiological functions, and COX2, which is largely associated with pathological functions. Heated debate followed the introduction of selective COX2 inhibitors around 5 years ago: do these drugs offer any advantages over the traditional NSAIDs theywere meant to replace, particularly in regard to gastrointestinal and cardiovascular side effects? Here we discuss the evidence and the latest recommendations for the use of selective inhibitors of COX2 as well as the traditional NSAIDs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane A Mitchell
- Cardiothoracic Pharmacology, Unit of Critical Care Medicine, National Heart and Lung Institute, Royal Brompton Hospital, Imperial College School of Medicine, Dovehouse Street, London SW3 6LY, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kulmacz RJ. Regulation of cyclooxygenase catalysis by hydroperoxides. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 338:25-33. [PMID: 16115608 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2005] [Accepted: 08/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Activation of cyclooxygenase catalysis in prostaglandin H synthase-1 and -2 by peroxide-dependent formation of a tyrosyl radical is emerging as an important part of regulating cellular production of bioactive prostanoids. This review discusses the mechanism of tyrosyl radical formation and the influence of peroxide, fatty acid, peroxidase cosubstrate, and protein structure on the activation process and cyclooxygenase catalysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Kulmacz
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
Skepticism about the health benefits of fish oil is largely the result of our incomplete understanding of the biochemistry of omega3 essential fatty acids. Recent work has confirmed the roles of omega3 fatty acids in gene transcription and signal transduction, and has given insight into the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and the EPA/arachidonic acid (AA) ratio on prostanoid (PG) metabolism and function. One pronounced effect of fish-oil-induced increases in EPA/AA ratios is decreased PG formation from AA via cyclooxygenase-1, because EPA inhibits this isoform. In addition, cells lacking endogenous alkyl-peroxide-generating systems and thus having a low 'peroxide tone' cannot oxygenate EPA via cyclooxygenase-1. Platelets, however, which are equipped with a lipoxygenase that can produce an abundance of hydroperoxide from AA, can form small amounts of thromboxane A3 from EPA via cyclooxygenase-1. A second major consequence of elevated EPA/AA ratios is significantly increased production of 3-series PGs, including PGE3, via cyclooxygenase-2. There are four PGE receptor subtypes and at least one of these types--not yet identified--has a significantly different response to PGE3 than to PGE2; this difference may underlie the ability of omega3 fatty acids to mitigate inflammation and tumorigenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William L Smith
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Lucas R, Warner TD, Vojnovic I, Mitchell JA. Cellular mechanisms of acetaminophen: role of cyclo-oxygenase. FASEB J 2005; 19:635-7. [PMID: 15705740 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-2437fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Acetaminophen is one of the most commonly used drugs for the safe and effective treatment of pain and fever. Acetaminophen works by lowering cyclo-oxygenase products preferentially in the central nervous system, where oxidant stress is strictly limited. However, the precise mechanism of action for acetaminophen on cyclo-oxygenase activity is debated. Two theories prevail. First, it is suggested that acetaminophen selectively inhibits a distinct form of cyclo-oxygenase, cyclo-oxygenase-3. Second, it is suggested that acetaminophen has no affinity for the active site of cyclo-oxygenase but instead blocks activity by reducing the active oxidized form of cyclo-oxygenase to an inactive form. Here, we have used an in vitro model of cyclo-oxygenase-2 activity (A549 cells stimulated with IL-1beta) to show that acetaminophen is an effective inhibitor of cyclo-oxygenase activity in intact cells. However, acetaminophen, unlike nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), cannot inhibit activity in broken cell preparations. The inhibitory effects of acetaminophen were abolished by increasing intracellular oxidation conditions with the cell-permeable hydroperoxide t-butylOOH. Similarly the inhibitory effects of the cyclo-oxygenase-2 selective inhibitor rofecoxib or the mixed cyclo-oxygenase-1/cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors ibuprofen and naproxen were significant reduced by t-butylOOH. By contrast, the inhibitory effects of indomethacin or diclofenac, which also inhibit both cyclo-oxygenase-1 and cyclo-oxygenase-2, were unaffected by t-butylOOH. These observations dispel the notion that cyclo-oxygenase-3 is involved in the actions of acetaminophen and provide evidence that supports the theory that acetaminophen interferes with the oxidation state of cyclo-oxygease. Moreover, they suggest for the first time that the inhibitory effects of some NSAIDs, including the newly introduced cyclo-oxygenase-2 selective inhibitor rofecoxib, owe part of their inhibitory actions to effects on oxidation state of cyclo-oxygenase. Our data with t-butylOOH and NSAIDs illustrates an, as yet, undeveloped therapeutic window for the "cyclo-oxygenase inhibitor". Specifically, combining active site selectively with actions on enzyme oxidation state would allow for a broader range of tissue selective drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Lucas
- Cardiothoracic Pharmacology, UCCM, Royal Brompton Hospital, NHLI, Imperial College London, UK
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Simmons DL, Botting RM, Hla T. Cyclooxygenase Isozymes: The Biology of Prostaglandin Synthesis and Inhibition. Pharmacol Rev 2004; 56:387-437. [PMID: 15317910 DOI: 10.1124/pr.56.3.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1166] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) represent one of the most highly utilized classes of pharmaceutical agents in medicine. All NSAIDs act through inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis, a catalytic activity possessed by two distinct cyclooxygenase (COX) isozymes encoded by separate genes. The discovery of COX-2 launched a new era in NSAID pharmacology, resulting in the synthesis, marketing, and widespread use of COX-2 selective drugs. These pharmaceutical agents have quickly become established as important therapeutic medications with potentially fewer side effects than traditional NSAIDs. Additionally, characterization of the two COX isozymes is allowing the discrimination of the roles each play in physiological processes such as homeostatic maintenance of the gastrointestinal tract, renal function, blood clotting, embryonic implantation, parturition, pain, and fever. Of particular importance has been the investigation of COX-1 and -2 isozymic functions in cancer, dysregulation of inflammation, and Alzheimer's disease. More recently, additional heterogeneity in COX-related proteins has been described, with the finding of variants of COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. These variants may function in tissue-specific physiological and pathophysiological processes and may represent important new targets for drug therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Simmons
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, E280 BNSN, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84604, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Ouellet M, Falgueyret JP, Percival MD. Detergents profoundly affect inhibitor potencies against both cyclo-oxygenase isoforms. Biochem J 2004; 377:675-84. [PMID: 14510637 PMCID: PMC1223887 DOI: 10.1042/bj20030969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2003] [Revised: 09/19/2003] [Accepted: 09/26/2003] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The sensitivity of Coxs (cyclo-oxygenases) to inhibition is known to be highly dependent on assay conditions. In the present study, the inhibitor sensitivities of purified Cox-1 and -2 were determined in a colorimetric assay using the reducing agent N, N, N ', N '-tetramethyl- p -phenylenediamine. With the detergent genapol X-100 (2 mM) present, the potencies of nimesulide, ibuprofen, flufenamic acid, niflumic acid and naproxen were increased over 100-fold against Cox-2 and titration curve shapes changed, so that maximal inhibition now approached 100%. Indomethacin, diclofenac and flosulide were not changed in potency. Similar effects of genapol were observed with inhibitors of Cox-1. DuP-697 and two analogues became more than 10-fold less potent against Cox-2 with genapol present. Tween-20, Triton X-100 and phosphatidylcholine, but not octylglucoside, gave qualitatively similar effects as genapol. Similar detergent-dependent changes in inhibitor potency were also observed using a [(14)C]arachidonic acid HPLC assay. The increases in potency of ibuprofen, flufenamic acid, isoxicam and niflumic acid towards Cox-2 and ibuprofen towards Cox-1 were accompanied by a change from time-independent to time-dependent inhibition. The interactions of Cox inhibitors has been described in terms of multiple binding step mechanisms. The genapol-dependent increase in inhibitor potency for ketoprofen was associated with an increase in the rate constant for the conversion of the initial enzyme-inhibitor complex to a second, more tightly bound form. The loss of potency for some inhibitors is probably due to inhibitor partitioning into detergent micelles. The present study identifies detergents as another factor that must be considered when determining inhibitor potencies against both Cox isoforms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marc Ouellet
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Merck Frosst Centre for Therapeutic Research, Pointe-Claire-Dorval, Quebec, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Abstract
Paracetamol and salicylate are weak inhibitors of both isolated cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and COX-2 but are potent inhibitors of prostaglandin (PG) synthesis in intact cells if low concentrations of arachidonic acid are available. The effects of both drugs are overcome by increased levels of hydroperoxides. At low concentrations of arachidonic acid, COX-2 is the major isoenzyme involved in PG synthesis when both COX-1 and COX-2 are present in cells. Therefore, paracetamol and salicylate may selectively inhibit PG synthesis involving COX-2 because the lower flux through this pathway produces lesser levels of the hydroperoxide, PGG(2), than the pathway involving COX-1. Apart from the lack of anti-inflammatory effect of paracetamol in rheumatoid arthritis, the clinical effects of paracetamol and salicylate are very similar and resemble those of the selective COX-2 inhibitors. A splice variant of COX-1, termed COX-3, may be a site of action of these drugs but, further work, particularly at low concentrations of arachidonic acid is required. We suggest that paracetamol, salicylate and, possibly, the pyrazolone drugs, such as dipyrone, may represent a distinct class of atypical NSAIDs which could be termed peroxide sensitive analgesic and antipyretic drugs (PSAADs).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Garry G Graham
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Kozak W, Aronoff DM, Boutaud O, Kozak A. 11,12-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid attenuates synthesis of prostaglandin E2 in rat monocytes stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2003; 228:786-94. [PMID: 12876297 DOI: 10.1177/15353702-0322807-03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase (epoxygenase)-derived arachidonic acid (AA) metabolites, including 11,12-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (11,12-EET), possess anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a cyclooxygenase (COX)-derived metabolite of AA, is a well-defined mediator of fever and inflammation. We have tested the hypothesis that 11,12-EET attenuates synthesis of PGE2 in monocytes, which are the cells that are indispensable for induction of fever and initiation of inflammation. Monocytes isolated from freshly collected rat blood were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 100 ng/2 x 10(5) cells) to induce COX-2 and stimulate generation of PGE2. SKF-525A, an inhibitor of epoxygenases, significantly augmented the lipopolysaccharide-provoked synthesis of PGE2 in cell culture in a concentration-dependent manner. It did not affect, however, elevation of the expression of COX-2 protein in monocytes stimulated with LPS. 11,12-EET also did not affect the induction of COX-2 in monocytes incubated with lipopolysaccharide. However, 11,12-EET suppressed, in a concentration-dependent fashion, the generation of PGE2 in incubates. Preincubation of a murine COX-2 preparation for 0-5 min with three concentrations of 11,12-EET (1, 5, and 10 microM) inhibited the oxygenation of [14C]-labeled AA by the enzyme. The inhibitory effect of 11,12-EET on COX-2 was time-and-concentration-dependent, suggesting a mechanism-based inhibition. Based on these data, we conclude that 11,12-EET suppresses generation of PGE2 in monocytes via modulating the activity of COX-2. These data support the hypothesis that epoxygenase-derived AA metabolites constitute a negative feedback on the enhanced synthesis of prostaglandins upon inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wieslaw Kozak
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, Georgia 30912, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|