theta Isoform of protein kinase C alters barrier function in intestinal epithelium through modulation of distinct claudin isotypes: a novel mechanism for regulation of permeability

Diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1 inhibitor increases plasma alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities via a shedding of the intestinal villi and an increase in intestinal permeability in rats

Diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) is a key enzyme for fat absorption step in the enterocytes. We previously reported that DGAT1 inhibition increased plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities in corn oil-loaded rats via protein kinase C (PKC) activation. In the present study, we investigated the mechanism with respect to the morphology and permeability of the small intestine, focusing on PKC function, and found that shortening of the intestinal villi and a decrease in the number of tdT-mediated dUTP-biotin nick-end labeling-positive cells in the tips of the villi were observed in the jejunum of DGAT1 inhibitor-treated rats loaded with corn oil. These results suggested that the tips of the villi were shed into the intestinal lumen. Next, fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran, 110 kDa (FD-110) was administered intraduodenally to DGAT1 inhibitor-treated rats loaded with corn oil and we found that plasma FD-110 concentrations increased, indicating that the intestinal permeability to molecules with a molecular weight of approximately 110,000 (e.g., ALT and AST) increased. Taken together, the present results suggested that DGAT1 inhibitor-treatment in combination with corn oil causes ALT and AST to leak from the enterocytes into the blood by shedding the tips of the intestinal villi and increasing intestinal permeability.

MUC13 negatively regulates tight junction proteins and intestinal epithelial barrier integrity via protein kinase C

Glycosylated mucin proteins contribute to the essential barrier function of the intestinal epithelium. The transmembrane mucin MUC13 is an abundant intestinal glycoprotein with important functions for mucosal maintenance that are not yet completely understood. We demonstrate that in human intestinal epithelial monolayers, MUC13 localized to both the apical surface and the tight junction (TJ) region on the lateral membrane. MUC13 deletion resulted in increased transepithelial resistance (TEER) and reduced translocation of small solutes. TEER buildup in ΔMUC13 cells could be prevented by addition of MLCK, ROCK or protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors. The levels of TJ proteins including claudins and occludin were highly increased in membrane fractions of MUC13 knockout cells. Removal of the MUC13 cytoplasmic tail (CT) also altered TJ composition but did not affect TEER. The increased buildup of TJ complexes in ΔMUC13 and MUC13-ΔCT cells was dependent on PKC. The responsible PKC member might be PKCδ (or PRKCD) based on elevated protein levels in the absence of full-length MUC13. Our results demonstrate for the first time that a mucin protein can negatively regulate TJ function and stimulate intestinal barrier permeability.

Nanoparticle oral absorption and its clinical translational potential

Oral administration of pharmaceuticals is the most preferred route of administration for patients, but it is challenging to effectively deliver active ingredients (APIs) that i) have extremely high or low solubility in intestinal fluids, ii) are large in size, iii) are subject to digestive and/or metabolic enzymes present in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), brush border, and liver, and iv) are P-glycoprotein substrates. Over the past decades, efforts to increase the oral bioavailability of APIs have led to the development of nanoparticles (NPs) with non-specific uptake pathways (M cells, mucosal, and tight junctions) and target-specific uptake pathways (FcRn, vitamin B12, and bile acids). However, voluminous findings from preclinical models of different species rarely meet practical standards when translated to humans, and API concentrations in NPs are not within the adequate therapeutic window. Various NP oral delivery approaches studied so far show varying bioavailability impacted by a range of factors, such as species, GIT physiology, age, and disease state. This may cause difficulty in obtaining similar oral delivery efficacy when research results in animal models are translated into humans. This review describes the selection of parameters to be considered for translational potential when designing and developing oral NPs.

Mechanisms of Nanoparticle Transport across Intestinal Tissue: An Oral Delivery Perspective

Oral drug administration has been a popular choice due to patient compliance and limited clinical resources. Orally delivered drugs must circumvent the harsh gastrointestinal (GI) environment to effectively enter the systemic circulation. The GI tract has a number of structural and physiological barriers that limit drug bioavailability including mucus, the tightly regulated epithelial layer, immune cells, and associated vasculature. Nanoparticles have been used to enhance oral bioavailability of drugs, as they can act as a shield to the harsh GI environment and prevent early degradation while also increasing uptake and transport of drugs across the intestinal epithelium. Evidence suggests that different nanoparticle formulations may be transported via different intracellular mechanisms to cross the intestinal epithelium. Despite the existence of a significant body of work on intestinal transport of nanoparticles, many key questions remain: What causes the poor bioavailability of the oral drugs? What factors contribute to the ability of a nanoparticle to cross different intestinal barriers? Do nanoparticle properties such as size and charge influence the type of endocytic pathways taken? In this Review, we summarize the different components of intestinal barriers and the types of nanoparticles developed for oral delivery. In particular, we focus on the various intracellular pathways used in nanoparticle internalization and nanoparticle or cargo translocation across the epithelium. Understanding the gut barrier, nanoparticle characteristics, and transport pathways may lead to the development of more therapeutically useful nanoparticles as drug carriers.

Effects of daidzein on antioxidant capacity in weaned pigs and IPEC-J2 cells

Our previous study found that soybean isoflavones in soybean meal play an important role in improving growth performance and antioxidant capacity in pigs. However, it is still unknown whether long-term supplementation with daidzein, an active molecule deglycosylated from daidzin, in a corn–soybean meal diet can enhance growth performance in pigs. Thus, in the present study, an animal trial was carried out to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation with daidzein on the growth performance and antioxidant capacity of pigs. A total of 80 weaned piglets (40 barrows and 40 females) were assigned to 4 treatments with 5 pens per treatment and 4 piglets per pen and fed a diet supplemented with 0, 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg daidzein for a 72-day trial. In addition, porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) were used as an in vitro model to explore the underlying antioxidant mechanisms of daidzein. IPEC-J2 cells were treated with 0.6 mM hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the presence or absence of 40 μM daidzein. The results showed that adding 50 mg/kg of daidzein to the diet significantly improved body weight on day 72, average daily gain (ADG) during days 0 to 72 and plasma superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity on day 42 (P < 0.05). Treatment with 0.6 mM H₂O₂ for 1 h significantly decreased cell viability and catalase (CAT) activity and increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and malondialdehyde (MDA) content (P < 0.05), while pretreatment with 40 μM daidzein prevented the decrease in cell viability and CAT activity and the increase in intracellular ROS levels and MDA content caused by H₂O₂ (P < 0.05). In addition, H₂O₂ stimulation significantly suppressed the expression of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), CAT, occludin and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), while pretreatment with daidzein preserved the expression of Nrf2, CAT and occludin in H₂O₂-stimulated IPEC-J2 cells (P < 0.05). In conclusion, our results suggested that long-term dietary supplementation with 50 mg/kg daidzein improved growth performance in pigs and was beneficial to the antioxidant capacity of pigs. Daidzein exerted protective effects against H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress in IPEC-J2 cells and the underlying mechanism may be related to the activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Direct Action of Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides against a Leaky Gut

The epithelial monolayer is the primary determinant of mucosal barrier function, and tight junction (TJ) complexes seal the paracellular space between the adjacent epithelial cells and represent the main "gate-keepers" of the paracellular route. Impaired TJ functionality results in increased permeation of the "pro-inflammatory" luminal contents to the circulation that induces local and systemic inflammatory and immune responses, ultimately triggering and/or perpetuating (chronic) systemic inflammatory disorders. Increased gut leakiness is associated with intestinal and systemic disease states such as inflammatory bowel disease and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease. Modulation of TJ dynamics is an appealing strategy aiming at inflammatory conditions associated with compromised intestinal epithelial function. Recently there has been a growing interest in nutraceuticals, particularly in non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDOs). NDOs confer innumerable health benefits via microbiome-shaping and gut microbiota-related immune responses, including enhancement of epithelial barrier integrity. Emerging evidence supports that NDOs also exert health-beneficial effects on microbiota independently via direct interactions with intestinal epithelial and immune cells. Among these valuable features, NDOs promote barrier function by directly regulating TJs via AMPK-, PKC-, MAPK-, and TLR-associated pathways. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the epithelial barrier-protective effects of different NDOs with a special focus on their microbiota-independent modulation of TJs.

Oxygen-dependent regulation of permeability in low resistance intestinal epithelial cells infected with Giardia lamblia

Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) reside in a highly anaerobic environment that is subject to daily fluctuations in partial oxygen pressure (pO₂), depending on intestinal tissue perfusion. This condition, known as physiological hypoxia, has a major impact on the maintenance of gut homeostasis, such as effects on the integrity and function of the intestinal epithelial barrier. Giardia lamblia is a microaerophilic protozoan parasite that infects and colonizes the small intestine of its host, causing watery diarrhea. The disease, known as giardiasis, is associated with enhanced intestinal permeability and disruption or reorganization of tight junction (TJ) proteins between IECs. Given the central role of oxygen in gut homeostasis, in this study, we aimed to evaluate whether pO₂ affects intestinal permeability (flux of ions and macromolecules) and TJ protein expression in human IECs during G. lamblia infection. Using human cell lines HuTu-80 and Caco-2 as models of "loose" (low resistance) and "tight" (high resistance) intestines, respectively, we elucidated that low pO₂ drives intestinal barrier dysfunction in IECs infected with trophozoites through dephosphorylation of protein kinase C (PKC α/β II). Additionally, we demonstrated that IECs infected with trophozoites in the presence of a pharmacological PKC activator (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate) partially restored the barrier function, which was correlated with increased protein expression levels of zonula occludens (ZO)-2 and occludin. Collectively, these results support the emerging theory that molecular oxygen impacts gut homeostasis during Giardia infection via direct host signaling pathways. These findings further our knowledge regarding Giardia-host interactions and the pathophysiological mechanisms of human giardiasis.

Impairment of the Retinal Endothelial Cell Barrier Induced by Long-Term Treatment with VEGF-A165 No Longer Depends on the Growth Factor's Presence

As responses of immortalized endothelial cells of the bovine retina (iBREC) to VEGF-A₁₆₅ depend on exposure time to the growth factor, we investigated changes evident after long-term treatment for nine days. The cell index of iBREC cultivated on gold electrodes—determined as a measure of permeability—was persistently reduced by exposure to the growth factor. Late after addition of VEGF-A₁₆₅ protein levels of claudin-1 and CD49e were significantly lower, those of CD29 significantly higher, and the plasmalemma vesicle associated protein was no longer detected. Nuclear levels of β-catenin were only elevated on day two. Extracellular levels of VEGF-A—measured by ELISA—were very low. Similar to the binding of the growth factor by brolucizumab, inhibition of VEGFR2 by tyrosine kinase inhibitors tivozanib or nintedanib led to complete, although transient, recovery of the low cell index when added early, though was inefficient when added three or six days later. Additional inhibition of other receptor tyrosine kinases by nintedanib was similarly unsuccessful, but additional blocking of c-kit by tivozanib led to sustained recovery of the low cell index, an effect observed only when the inhibitor was added early. From these data, we conclude that several days after the addition of VEGF-A₁₆₅ to iBREC, barrier dysfunction is mainly sustained by increased paracellular flow and impaired adhesion. Even more important, these changes are most likely no longer VEGF-A-controlled.

Effects of soybean isoflavones on the growth performance, intestinal morphology and antioxidative properties in pigs

Soybean meal is rich in soybean isoflavones, which exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and anticancer functions in humans and animals. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of soybean isoflavones on the growth performance, intestinal morphology and antioxidative properties in pigs. A total of 72 weaned piglets (7.45 ± 0.13 kg; 36 males and 36 females) were allocated into three treatments and fed corn-soybean meal (C-SBM), corn-soy protein concentrate (C-SPC) or C-SPC supplemented with equal levels of the isoflavones found in the C-SBM diet (C-SPC + ISF) for a 72-day trial. Each treatment had six replicates and four piglets per replicate, half male and half female. On day 42, one male pig from each replicate was selected and euthanized to collect intestinal samples. The results showed that compared to pigs fed the C-SPC diet, pigs fed the C-SBM and C-SPC + ISF diets had higher BW on day 72 (P < 0.05); pigs fed the C-SBM diet had significantly higher average daily gain (ADG) during days 14 to 28 (P < 0.05), with C-SPC + ISF being intermediate; pigs fed the C-SBM diet tended to have higher ADG during days 42 to 72 (P = 0.063), while pigs fed the C-SPC + ISF diet had significantly higher ADG during days 42 to 72 (P < 0.05). Moreover, compared to pigs fed the C-SPC diet, pigs fed the C-SBM diet tended to have greater villus height (P = 0.092), while pigs fed the C-SPC + ISF diet had significantly greater villus height (P < 0.05); pigs fed the C-SBM and C-SPC + ISF diets had significantly increased villus height-to-crypt depth ratio (P < 0.05). Compared with the C-SPC diet, dietary C-SPC + ISF tended to increase plasma superoxide dismutase activity on days 28 (P = 0.085) and 42 (P = 0.075) and reduce plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) content on day 42 (P = 0.089), as well as significantly decreased jejunal mucosa MDA content on day 42 (P < 0.05). However, no significant difference in the expression of tight junction genes among the three groups was found (P > 0.05). In conclusion, our results suggest that a long-term exposure to soybean isoflavones enhances the growth performance, protects the intestinal morphology and improves the antioxidative properties in pigs.

Artificial Sweeteners Disrupt Tight Junctions and Barrier Function in the Intestinal Epithelium through Activation of the Sweet Taste Receptor, T1R3

The breakdown of the intestinal epithelial barrier and subsequent increase in intestinal permeability can lead to systemic inflammatory diseases and multiple-organ failure. Nutrition impacts the intestinal barrier, with dietary components such as gluten increasing permeability. Artificial sweeteners are increasingly consumed by the general public in a range of foods and drinks. The sweet taste receptor (T1R3) is activated by artificial sweeteners and has been identified in the intestine to play a role in incretin release and glucose transport; however, T1R3 has not been previously linked to intestinal permeability. Here, the intestinal epithelial cell line, Caco-2, was used to study the effect of commonly-consumed artificial sweeteners, sucralose, aspartame and saccharin, on permeability. At high concentrations, aspartame and saccharin were found to induce apoptosis and cell death in intestinal epithelial cells, while at low concentrations, sucralose and aspartame increased epithelial barrier permeability and down-regulated claudin 3 at the cell surface. T1R3 knockdown was found to attenuate these effects of artificial sweeteners. Aspartame induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production to cause permeability and claudin 3 internalization, while sweetener-induced permeability and oxidative stress was rescued by the overexpression of claudin 3. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that the artificial sweeteners sucralose, aspartame, and saccharin exert a range of negative effects on the intestinal epithelium through the sweet taste receptor T1R3.

Role of Clostridium perfringens Enterotoxin on YAP Activation in Colonic Sessile Serrated Adenoma/ Polyps with Dysplasia

Sessile serrated adenoma/polyp with dysplasia (SSA/P-D) is an SSA/P with cellular dysplasia and has a higher risk of progressing to colon carcinogenesis. Previously, we reported that tight junction impairment by Clostridiumperfringens enterotoxin (CPE) leads to activation of the transcriptional co-activator yes-associated protein (YAP) in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Here, we investigated whether CPE activates YAP to promote the malignant progression of SSA/P. E-cadherin expression was lower in the 12 cases with SSA/P-D examined than that in normal mucosa, SSA/P, or tubular adenoma (TA). Furthermore, intracellular translocation of claudin-4 (CLDN4) and nuclear translocation of YAP were observed. The CPE gene was detected in DNA extracted from SSA/P-D lesions, but not in SSA/P or TA. Treatment of the rat intestinal epithelial cell line IEC6 with low-dose CPE resulted in intracellular translocation of CLDN4 to the cytoplasmic membrane. Cytoplasmic CLDN4 showed co-precipitation with transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif, zonula occludens (ZO)-1, large tumor suppressor, and mammalian Ste20-like. Additionally, YAP co-precipitated with ZO-2 under CPE treatment led to decreased YAP phosphorylation and nuclear translocation. YAP activation promoted increase in nuclear TEA domain family member level, expression of cyclin D1, snail, vimentin, CD44, NS and decrease in E-cadherin levels, thereby inducing stemness and epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT). The Hippo complex with the incorporation of CLDN4 increased stability. Upon low-dose CPE treatment, HT29 cells with BRAF^V600E gene mutation showed increased growth, enhanced invasive potential, stemness, and induced EMT phenotype, whereas HCT116 cells, which carry KRAS^G13D gene mutation, did not show such changes. In an examination of 10 colorectal cancers, an increase in EMT and stemness was observed in CPE (+) and BRAF mutation (+) cases. These findings suggest that C.perfringens might enhance the malignant transformation of SSA/P-D via YAP activation. Our findings further highlight the importance of controlling intestinal flora using probiotics or antibiotics.

Formulation technologies and advances for oral delivery of novel nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides

Antibiotic resistance has become a global crisis, driving the exploration for novel antibiotics and novel treatment approaches. Among these research efforts two classes of antibiotics, bicyclic nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides, have recently shown promise as novel antimicrobial agents with the possibility to treat multi-drug resistant infections. However, they suffer from the issue of poor oral bioavailability due to disparate factors: low solubility in the case of nitroimidazoles (BCS class II drugs), and low permeability in the case of peptides (BCS class III drugs). Moreover, antimicrobial peptides present another challenge as they are susceptible to chemical and enzymatic degradation, which can present an additional pharmacokinetic hurdle for their oral bioavailability. Formulation technologies offer a potential means for improving the oral bioavailability of poorly permeable and poorly soluble drugs, but there are still drawbacks and limitations associated with this approach. This review discusses in depth the challenges associated with oral delivery of nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides and the formulation technologies that have been used to overcome these problems, including an assessment of the drawbacks and limitations associated with the technologies that have been applied. Furthermore, the potential for supercritical fluid technology to overcome the shortcomings associated with conventional drug formulation methods is reviewed.

Transport Mechanisms of Polymannuronic Acid and Polyguluronic Acid Across Caco-2 Cell Monolayers

Detailed knowledge of the intestinal transport of polymannuronic acid (PM) and polyguluronic acid (PG) is critical for understanding their biological activities. To investigate the transport in the gastrointestinal tract, PM and PG were chemically modified with tyramine and conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) to synthesize FITC-PM (F-PM) and FITC-PG (F-PG) successfully. The transport mechanisms of F-PM and F-PG across the intestinal epithelial cell monolayers (Caco-2 cell monolayers) were then investigated. The results demonstrated that the transport of F-PM and F-PG into epithelial cells was time- and energy-dependent, which was mediated by the macropinocytosis pathway and the clathrin- and caveolae (or lipid raft)-mediated endocytic pathway. The transport process of F-PM and F-PG in Caco-2 cells depended on the acidification of endosomes and involved lysosomes. Tubulin mediated the transport of F-PM, but not of F-PG. Moreover, the absorption enhancer chitosan (CS) promoted the transport of F-PM and F-PG, increasing the apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) by 1.9-fold and 2.6-fold, respectively, by reversibly opening the tight junction (TJ). In summary, this study provided a comprehensive understanding of the transport of PM and PG in the small intestinal epithelial cells, which will provide a theoretical basis for the development of PM and PG with good intestinal absorption.

Cisplatin, rather than oxaliplatin, increases paracellular permeability of LLC-PK1 cells via activating protein kinase C

The clinical use of cisplatin is limited by its adverse events, particularly serious nephrotoxicity. It was clarified that cisplatin is transported by a kidney-specific organic cation transporter (OCT2). OCT2 also mediates the uptake of oxaliplatin into renal proximal tubular cells; however, this agent does not lead nephrotoxicity. In the present study, we carried out comparative experiments with cisplatin and oxaliplatin using porcine kidney LLC-PK1 cell monolayers. In the fluorescein-labeled isothiocyanate-dextran flux assay, the basolateral application of cisplatin, but not oxaliplatin, resulted in an increase in the paracellular permeability of cell monolayers. Even though the cellular accumulation of platinum at 50 μM oxaliplatin could reach the same level at 30 μM cisplatin, oxaliplatin did not induce hyper-permeability in cell monolayers. Cisplatin, but not oxaliplatin, significantly activated PKC. In addition, the combination of PKC inhibitors recovered the increase in paracellular permeability. In conclusion, pharmacodynamic mechanisms via PKC could explain the difference in nephrotoxicity between cisplatin and oxaliplatin.

ADAM15 mediates upregulation of Claudin-1 expression in breast cancer cells

A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase-15 (ADAM15) is a transmembrane protein involved in protein ectodomain shedding, cell adhesion and signalling. We previously cloned and characterised alternatively spliced variants of ADAM15 that differ in their intracellular domains and demonstrated correlation of the expression of specific variants with breast cancer prognosis. In this study we have created isogenic cell panels (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7) expressing five ADAM15 variants including wild-type and catalytically inactive forms. The expression of ADAM15 isoforms in MDA-MB-231 cells led to cell clustering to varying degree, without changes in EMT markers vimentin, slug and E-cadherin. Analysis of tight junction molecules revealed ADAM15 isoform specific, catalytic function dependent upregulation of Claudin-1. The expression of ADAM15A, and to a lesser degree of C and E isoforms led to an increase in Claudin-1 expression in MDA-MB-231 cells, while ADAM15B had no effect. In MCF-7 cells, ADAM15E was the principal variant inducing Claudin-1 expression. Sh-RNA mediated down-regulation of ADAM15 in ADAM15 over-expressing cells reduced Claudin-1 levels. Additionally, downregulation of endogenous ADAM15 expression in T47D cells by shRNA reduced endogenous Claudin-1 expression confirming a role for ADAM15 in regulating Claudin-1 expression. The PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway was involved in regulating Claudin-1 expression downstream of ADAM15. Immunofluorescence analysis of MDA-MB-231 ADAM15A expressing cells showed Claudin-1 at cell-cell junctions, in the cytoplasm and nuclei. ADAM15 co-localised with Claudin-1 and ZO1 at cell-cell junctions. Immunoprecipitation analysis demonstrated complex formation between ADAM15 and ZO1/ZO2. These findings highlight the importance of ADAM15 Intra Cellular Domain-mediated interactions in regulating substrate selection and breast cancer cell phenotype.

The marine biotoxin okadaic acid affects intestinal tight junction proteins in human intestinal cells

Okadaic acid (OA) is a lipophilic phycotoxin that accumulates in the hepatopancreas and fatty tissue of shellfish. Consumption of highly OA-contaminated seafood leads to diarrhetic shellfish poisoning which provokes severe gastrointestinal symptoms associated with a disruption of the intestinal epithelium. Since the molecular mechanisms leading to intestinal barrier disruption are not fully elucidated, we investigated the influence of OA on intestinal tight junction proteins (TJPs) in differentiated Caco-2 cells. We found a concentration- and time-dependent deregulation of genes encoding for intestinal TJPs of the claudin family, occludin, as well as zonula occludens (ZO) 1 and 2. Immunofluorescence staining showed concentration-dependent effects on the structural organization of TJPs already after treatment with a subtoxic but human-relevant concentration of OA. In addition, changes in the structural organization of cytoskeletal F-actin as well as its associated protein ZO-1 were observed. In summary, we demonstrated effects of OA on TJPs in intestinal Caco-2 cells. TJP expressions were affected after treatment with food-relevant OA concentrations. These results might explain the high potential of OA to disrupt the intestinal barrier in vivo as its first target. Thereby the present data contribute to a better understanding of the OA-dependent induction of molecular effects within the intestinal epithelium.

Claudin 1 Is Highly Upregulated by PKC in MCF7 Human Breast Cancer Cells and Correlates Positively with PKCε in Patient Biopsies

Recent studies provide compelling evidence to suggest that the tight junction protein claudin 1, aberrantly expressed in several cancer types, plays an important role in cancer progression. Dysregulation of claudin 1 has been shown to induce epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). Furthermore, activation of the ERK signaling pathway by protein kinase C (PKC) was shown to be necessary for EMT induction. Whether PKC is involved in regulating breast cancer progression has not been addressed. The PKC activator 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) was used to investigate the effect of PKC activity on claudin 1 transcription and protein levels, subcellular distribution, and alterations in EMT markers in human breast cancer (HBC) cell lines. As well, tissue microarray analysis (TMA) of a large cohort of invasive HBC biopsies was conducted to investigate correlations between claudin 1 and PKC isomers. TPA upregulated claudin 1 levels in all HBC cell lines analyzed. In particular, a high induction of claudin 1 protein was observed in the MCF7 cell line. TPA treatment also led to an accumulation of claudin 1 in the cytoplasm. Additionally, we demonstrated that the upregulation of claudin 1 was through the ERK signaling pathway. In patient biopsies, we identified a significant positive correlation between claudin 1, PKCα, and PKCε in ER+ tumors. A similar correlation between claudin 1 and PKCε was identified in ER- tumors, and high PKCε was associated with shorter disease-free survival. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that claudin 1 and the ERK signaling pathway are important players in HBC progression.

Sodium Butyrate Improves High-Concentrate-Diet-Induced Impairment of Ruminal Epithelium Barrier Function in Goats

We investigated the effect of sodium butyrate feeding on the disruption of ruminal epithelium barrier function in goats fed a high-concentrate diet. A total of 18 male Boer goats (live weight of 31.75 ± 1.35 kg, aged 1 year) were randomly assigned to three groups, which were fed a low-concentrate diet (LC), a high-concentrate diet (HC), or a high-concentrate diet with 1% sodium butyrate by weight (SH) for 9 weeks. We found that the pH of rumen fluid in the SH and LC groups was higher than that in the HC group. The activity of protein kinase C (PKC) kinase in the rumen epithelium was higher in the HC group than that in the LC and SH groups. The mRNA expression and phosphorylated protein levels of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the rumen epithelium were lower in the SH and LC groups than those in the HC group. The DNA methylation rate of occludin was higher in the HC group than that in the SH and LC groups. The mRNA and protein expression of claudin-1, claudin-4, occludin, and zona occludin-1 was greater in the SH and LC groups than that in the HC group. In addition, sodium butyrate mitigated damage to the rumen epithelium caused by the HC diet. Together, our results suggest that the supply of sodium butyrate reverses the damage of rumen epithelium tight junction by inhibiting PKC and MAPK signaling pathways and is protective to the rumen epithelium during subacute rumen acidosis.

Dietary Fiber Treatment Corrects the Composition of Gut Microbiota, Promotes SCFA Production, and Suppresses Colon Carcinogenesis

Epidemiological studies propose a protective role for dietary fiber in colon cancer (CRC). One possible mechanism of fiber is its fermentation property in the gut and ability to change microbiota composition and function. Here, we investigate the role of a dietary fiber mixture in polyposis and elucidate potential mechanisms using TS4Cre × cAPC^l°^x468 mice. Stool microbiota profiling was performed, while functional prediction was done using PICRUSt. Stool short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) metabolites were measured. Histone acetylation and expression of SCFA butyrate receptor were assessed. We found that SCFA-producing bacteria were lower in the polyposis mice, suggesting a decline in the fermentation product of dietary fibers with polyposis. Next, a high fiber diet was given to polyposis mice, which significantly increased SCFA-producing bacteria as well as SCFA levels. This was associated with an increase in SCFA butyrate receptor and a significant decrease in polyposis. In conclusion, we found polyposis to be associated with dysbiotic microbiota characterized by a decline in SCFA-producing bacteria, which was targetable by high fiber treatment, leading to an increase in SCFA levels and amelioration of polyposis. The prebiotic activity of fiber, promoting beneficial bacteria, could be the key mechanism for the protective effects of fiber on colon carcinogenesis. SCFA-promoting fermentable fibers are a promising dietary intervention to prevent CRC.

Oxyresveratrol improves tight junction integrity through the PKC and MAPK signaling pathways in Caco-2 cells

Strengthening intestinal tight junctions (TJ) provides an effective barrier from the external environment and is important for recovery from inflammatory bowel disease. Oxyresveratrol (OXY), an isomer of hydroxylated resveratrol, is isolated from many plants. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of OXY on intestinal TJ and to elucidate the mechanism underlying the OXY-mediated increase in TJ integrity in human intestinal Caco-2 cells. OXY-treated Caco-2 cell monolayers showed decreased monolayer permeability as evaluated by paracellular transport assay. The results showed that OXY significantly increased the levels of TJ-related genes and proteins (Claudin-1, Occludin and ZO-1) compared with those of the negative control. OXY activated protein kinase C (PKC) and increased expression levels of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) genes. OXY also increased gene and protein levels of the transcription factor Cdx-2. Expression levels of TJ, PKC and Cdx-2 proteins and transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) value decreased in OXY-treated Caco-2 cells following treatment with a pan-PKC inhibitor compared with those of the untreated control. In conclusion, OXY strengthens the integrity of the intestinal TJ barrier via activation of the PKC and MAPK pathways.

Involvement of PKA signalling in anti-inflammatory effects of chitosan oligosaccharides in IPEC-J2 porcine epithelial cells

Weaning is characterized by intestinal inflammation, which is a big challenge in pig industry. Control of intestinal inflammation is important for improvement of growth performance and health. Therefore, the study was focused on the anti-inflammatory activity of low-molecular-weight chitosan oligosaccharide (LCOS) in a porcine small intestinal epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2). The results showed that TNF-α, as inflammation inducer, significantly upregulated the mRNA expression of IL-8 and MCP-1. Afterwards, LCOS significantly attenuated mRNA expression of IL-8 and MCP-1 induced by TNF-α in the cells. Mannose (MAN), as ligand of mannose receptor, had no effect on the anti-inflammatory activity of LCOS, which suggested that mannose receptor may not involve in the anti-inflammatory activity of LCOS in IPEC-J2 cells. Interestingly, N-[2-(p-bromocinnamylamino)ethyl]-5-isoquinolinesulfonamide 2HCl hydrate (H89), as PKA (protein kinase A)-specific inhibitor, reversed the mRNA expression of IL-8 when co-cultured with LCOS. Furthermore, LCOS concentration dependent downregulated the mRNA expression of claudin-1 compared with TNF-α treatment. However, the trans-epithelial electric resistance (TEER) was not affected by LCOS when co-cultured with TNF-α in 3 hr. In conclusion, LCOS have a potent anti-inflammatory activity, and as a feed additives, may be useful for the inhibition of inflammatory process in weaning period of pigs with intestinal inflammation occurring.

Phosphoproteome Analysis Reveals the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Deoxynivalenol-Induced Intestinal Toxicity in IPEC-J2 Cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a widespread trichothecene mycotoxin that commonly contaminates cereal crops and has various toxic effects in animals and humans. DON primarily targets the gastrointestinal tract, the first barrier against ingested food contaminants. In this study, an isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-based phosphoproteomic approach was employed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying DON-mediated intestinal toxicity in porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) exposed to 20 μM DON for 60 min. There were 4153 unique phosphopeptides, representing 389 phosphorylation sites, detected in 1821 phosphoproteins. We found that 289 phosphopeptides corresponding to 255 phosphoproteins were differentially phosphorylated in response to DON. Comprehensive Gene Ontology (GO) analysis combined with Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment revealed that, in addition to previously well-characterized mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, DON exposure altered phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt (PI3K/Akt) and Janus kinase/signal transducer, and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathways. These pathways are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including apoptosis, the intestinal barrier, intestinal inflammation, and the intestinal absorption of glucose. DON-induced changes are likely to contribute to the intestinal dysfunction. Overall, identification of relevant signaling pathways yielded new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying DON-induced intestinal toxicity, and might help in the development of improved mechanism-based risk assessments in animals and humans.

Systems Proteomics View of the Endogenous Human Claudin Protein Family

Claudins are the major transmembrane protein components of tight junctions in human endothelia and epithelia. Tissue-specific expression of claudin members suggests that this protein family is not only essential for sustaining the role of tight junctions in cell permeability control but also vital in organizing cell contact signaling by protein-protein interactions. How this protein family is collectively processed and regulated is key to understanding the role of junctional proteins in preserving cell identity and tissue integrity. The focus of this review is to first provide a brief overview of the functional context, on the basis of the extensive body of claudin biology research that has been thoroughly reviewed, for endogenous human claudin members and then ascertain existing and future proteomics techniques that may be applicable to systematically characterizing the chemical forms and interacting protein partners of this protein family in human. The ability to elucidate claudin-based signaling networks may provide new insight into cell development and differentiation programs that are crucial to tissue stability and manipulation.

Hyperosmolarity-Induced Down-Regulation of Claudin-2 Mediated by Decrease in PKCβ-Dependent GATA-2 in MDCK Cells

Hyperosmolarity decreases claudin-2 expression in renal tubular epithelial cells, but the molecular mechanism remains undefined. Here, we found that the hyperosmolarity-induced decrease in claudin-2 expression is inhibited by Go6983, a non-selective protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, and PKCβ specific inhibitor in Madin-Darby canine kidney II cells. Hyperosmolarity increased intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration and phosphorylated PKCβ level, which were inhibited by RN-1734, an antagonist of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 channel. Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, a PKC activator, decreased claudin-2 expression. These results indicate hyperosmolarity decreases claudin-2 expression mediated by the activation of RN-1734-sensitive channel and PKCβ. Hyperosmolarity decreased promoter activity of claudin-2, which was inhibited by Go6983 and PKCβ inhibitor similar to those in real-time PCR and Western blotting. The effect of hyperosmolarity on promoter activity was not observed in the construct of -469/-6, a deletion mutant. Claudin-2 has hyperosmolarity-sensitive region in its promoter, which includes GATA binding site. Hyperosmolarity decreased the nuclear level of GATA-2, which was inhibited by Go6983 and PKCβ inhibitor. Mutation of GATA binding site decreased the basal promoter activity and inhibited the effect of hyperosmolarity. In contrast, the hyperosmolarity-induced decrease in reporter activity and claudin-2 expression were rescued by over-expression of wild type GATA-2. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay showed that GATA-2 bound to promoter region of claudin-2. These results suggest that hyperosmolarity decreases the expression level of claudin-2 via a decrease in PKCβ-dependent GATA-2 transcriptional activity in renal tubular epithelial cells.

Claudin switching: Physiological plasticity of the Tight Junction

Tight Junctions (TJs) are multi-molecular complexes in epithelial tissues that regulate paracellular permeability. Within the TJ complex, claudins proteins span the paracellular space to form a seal between adjacent cells. This seal allows regulated passage of ions, fluids, and solutes, contingent upon the complement of claudins expressed. With as many as 27 claudins in the human genome, the TJ seal is complex indeed. This review focuses on changes in claudin expression within the epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract, where claudin differentiation results in several physiologically distinct TJs within the lifetime of the cell. We also review mechanistic studies revealing that TJs are highly dynamic, with the potential to undergo molecular remodeling while structurally intact. Therefore, physiologic Tight Junction plasticity involves both the adaptability of claudin expression and gene specific retention in the TJ; a process we term claudin switching.

Polymeric nanoparticle drug delivery technologies for oral delivery applications

INTRODUCTION

Many therapeutics are limited to parenteral administration. Oral administration is a desirable alternative because of the convenience and increased compliance by patients, especially for chronic diseases that require frequent administration. Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) are one technology being developed to enable clinically feasible oral delivery.

AREAS COVERED

This review discusses the challenges associated with oral delivery. Strategies used to overcome gastrointestinal (GI) barriers using polymeric NPs will be considered, including mucoadhesive biomaterials and targeting of NPs to transcytosis pathways associated with M cells and enterocytes. Applications of oral delivery technologies will also be discussed, such as oral chemotherapies, oral insulin, treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, and mucosal vaccinations.

EXPERT OPINION

There have been many approaches used to overcome the transport barriers presented by the GI tract, but most have been limited by low bioavailability. Recent strategies targeting NPs to transcytosis pathways present in the intestines have demonstrated that it is feasible to efficiently transport both therapeutics and NPs across the intestines and into systemic circulation after oral administration. Further understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of the intestines could lead to additional improvements in oral polymeric NP technologies and enable the translation of these technologies to clinical practice.

Escherichia coli STb enterotoxin dislodges claudin-1 from epithelial tight junctions

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli produce various heat-labile and heat-stable enterotoxins. STb is a low molecular weight heat-resistant toxin responsible for diarrhea in farm animals, mainly young pigs. A previous study demonstrated that cells having internalized STb toxin induce epithelial barrier dysfunction through changes in tight junction (TJ) proteins. These modifications contribute probably to the diarrhea observed. To gain insight into the mechanism of increased intestinal permeability following STb exposure we treated human colon cells (T84) with purified STb toxin after which cells were harvested and proteins extracted. Using a 1% Nonidet P-40-containing solution we investigated the distribution of claudin-1, a major structural and functional TJ protein responsible for the epithelium impermeability, between membrane (NP40-insoluble) and the cytoplasmic (NP-40 soluble) location. Using immunoblot and confocal microscopy, we observed that treatment of T84 cell monolayers with STb induced redistribution of claudin-1. After 24 h, cells grown in Ca⁺⁺-free medium treated with STb showed about 40% more claudin-1 in the cytoplasm compare to the control. Switching from Ca⁺⁺-free to Ca⁺⁺-enriched medium (1.8 mM) increased the dislodgement rate of claudin-1 as comparable quantitative delocalization was observed after only 6 h. Medium supplemented with the same concentration of Mg⁺⁺ or Zn⁺⁺ did not affect the dislodgement rate compared to the Ca⁺⁺-free medium. Using anti-phosphoserine and anti-phosphothreonine antibodies, we observed that the loss of membrane claudin-1 was accompanied by dephosphorylation of this TJ protein. Overall, our findings showed an important redistribution of claudin-1 in cells treated with STb toxin. The loss of phosphorylated TJ membrane claudin-1 is likely to be involved in the increased permeability observed. The mechanisms by which these changes are brought about remain to be elucidated.

Emerging multifunctional roles of Claudin tight junction proteins in bone

The imbalance between bone formation and resorption during bone remodeling has been documented to be a major factor in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. Recent evidence suggests a significant role for the tight junction proteins, Claudins (Cldns), in the regulation of bone remodeling processes. In terms of function, whereas Cldns act "canonically" as key determinants of paracellular permeability, there is considerable recent evidence to suggest that Cldns also participate in cell signaling, ie, a "noncanonical function". To this end, Cldns have been shown to regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and gene expression in a variety of cell types. The present review will discuss Cldns' structure, their expression profile, regulation of expression, and their canonical and non- canonical functions in general with special emphasis on bone cells. In order to shed light on the noncanonical functions of Cldns in bone, we will highlight the role of Cldn-18 in regulating bone resorption and osteoclast differentiation. Collectively, we hope to provide a framework for guiding future research on understanding how Cldns modulate osteoblast and osteoclast function and overall bone homeostasis. Such studies should provide valuable insights into the pathogenesis of osteoporosis, and may highlight Cldns as novel targets for the diagnosis and therapeutic management of osteoporosis.

Protein kinase D promotes airway epithelial barrier dysfunction and permeability through down-regulation of claudin-1

At the interface between host and external environment, the airway epithelium serves as a major protective barrier. In the present study we show that protein kinase D (PKD) plays an important role in the formation and integrity of the airway epithelial barrier. Either inhibition of PKD activity or silencing of PKD increased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), resulting in a tighter epithelial barrier. Among the three PKD isoforms, PKD3 knockdown was the most efficient one to increase TEER in polarized airway epithelial monolayers. In contrast, overexpression of PKD3 wild type, but not PKD3 kinase-inactive mutant, disrupted the formation of apical intercellular junctions and their reassembly, impaired the development of TEER, and increased paracellular permeability to sodium fluorescein in airway epithelial monolayers. We further found that overexpression of PKD, in particular PKD3, markedly suppressed the mRNA and protein levels of claudin-1 but had only minor effects on the expression of other tight junctional proteins (claudin-3, claudin-4, claudin-5, occludin, and ZO-1) and adherent junctional proteins (E-cadherin and β-catenin). Immunofluorescence study revealed that claudin-1 level was markedly reduced and almost disappeared from intercellular contacts in PKD3-overexpressed epithelial monolayers and that claudin-4 was also restricted from intercellular contacts and tended to accumulate in the cell cytosolic compartments. Last, we found that claudin-1 knockdown prevented TEER elevation by PKD inhibition or silencing in airway epithelial monolayers. These novel findings indicate that PKD negatively regulates human airway epithelial barrier formation and integrity through down-regulation of claudin-1, which is a key component of tight junctions.

JNK is a novel regulator of intercellular adhesion

c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) is a family of protein kinases, which are activated by stress stimuli such as inflammation, heat stress and osmotic stress, and regulate diverse cellular processes including proliferation, survival and apoptosis. In this review, we focus on a recently discovered function of JNK as a regulator of intercellular adhesion. We summarize the existing knowledge regarding the role of JNK during the formation of cell-cell junctions. The potential mechanisms and implications for processes requiring dynamic formation and dissolution of cell-cell junctions including wound healing, migration, cancer metastasis and stem cell differentiation are also discussed.

Regulation of paracellular permeability: factors and mechanisms

Epithelial permeability is composed of transcellular permeability and paracellular permeability. Paracellular permeability is controlled by tight junctions (TJs). Claudins and occludin are two major transmembrane proteins in TJs, which directly determine the paracellular permeability to different ions or large molecules. Intracellular signaling pathways including Rho/Rho-associated protein kinase, protein kinase Cs, and mitogen-activated protein kinase, modulate the TJ proteins to affect paracellular permeability in response for diverse stimuli. Cytokines, growth factors and hormones in organism can regulate the paracellular permeability via signaling pathway. The transcellular transporters such as Na-K-ATPase, Na(+)-coupled transporters and chloride channels, can interact with paracellular transport and regulate the TJs. In this review, we summarized the factors affecting paracellular permeability and new progressions of the related mechanism in recent studies, and pointed out further research areas.

Recent advances in chitosan-based nanoparticles for oral delivery of macromolecules

Chitosan (CS), a cationic polysaccharide, is widely regarded as a safe and efficient intestinal absorption enhancer of therapeutic macromolecules, owing to its inherent mucoadhesive feature and ability to modulate the integrity of epithelial tight junctions reversibly. By using CS-based nanoparticles, many studies have attempted to protect the loaded macromolecules against acidic denaturation and enzymatic degradation, prolong their intestinal residence time, and increase their absorption by the intestinal epithelium. Derivatives of CS such as quaternized CS, thiolated CS and carboxylated CS have also been examined to further enhance its effectiveness in oral absorption of macromolecular drugs. This review article describes the synthesis of these CS derivatives and their characteristics, as well as their potential transport mechanisms of macromolecular therapeutics across the intestinal biological membrane. Recent advances in using CS and its derivatives as carriers for oral delivery of hydrophilic macromolecules and their effects on drug transport are also reviewed.

Claudins in intestines: Distribution and functional significance in health and diseases

Intestines are organs that not only digest food and absorb nutrients, but also provide a defense barrier against pathogens and noxious agents ingested. Tight junctions (TJs) are the most apical component of the junctional complex, providing one form of cell-cell adhesion in enterocytes and playing a critical role in regulating paracellular barrier permeability. Alteration of TJs leads to a number of pathophysiological diseases causing malabsorption of nutrition and intestinal structure disruption, which may even contribute to systemic organ failure. Claudins are the major structural and functional components of TJs with at least 24 members in mammals. Claudins have distinct charge-selectivity, either by tightening the paracellular pathway or functioning as paracellular channels, regulating ions and small molecules passing through the paracellular pathway. In this review, we have discussed the functions of claudin family members, their distribution and localization in the intestinal tract of mammals, their alterations in intestine-related diseases and chemicals/agents that regulate the expression and localization of claudins as well as the intestinal permeability, which provide a therapeutic view for treating intestinal diseases.

Continuous endocytic recycling of tight junction proteins: how and why?

Tight junctions consist of many proteins, including transmembrane and associated cytoplasmic proteins, which act to provide a barrier regulating transport across epithelial and endothelial tissues. These junctions are dynamic structures that are able to maintain barrier function during tissue remodelling and rapidly alter it in response to extracellular signals. Individual components of tight junctions also show dynamic behaviour, including migration within the junction and exchange in and out of the junctions. In addition, it is becoming clear that some tight junction proteins undergo continuous endocytosis and recycling back to the plasma membrane. Regulation of endocytic trafficking of junctional proteins may provide a way of rapidly remodelling junctions and will be the focus of this chapter.

Exercise regulation of intestinal tight junction proteins

Gastrointestinal distress, such as diarrhoea, cramping, vomiting, nausea and gastric pain are common among athletes during training and competition. The mechanisms that cause these symptoms are not fully understood. The stress of heat and oxidative damage during exercise causes disruption to intestinal epithelial cell tight junction proteins resulting in increased permeability to luminal endotoxins. The endotoxin moves into the blood stream leading to a systemic immune response. Tight junction integrity is altered by the phosphoylation state of the proteins occludin and claudins, and may be regulated by the type of exercise performed. Prolonged exercise and high-intensity exercise lead to an increase in key phosphorylation enzymes that ultimately cause tight junction dysfunction, but the mechanisms are different. The purpose of this review is to (1) explain the function and physiology of tight junction regulation, (2) discuss the effects of prolonged and high-intensity exercise on tight junction permeability leading to gastrointestinal distress and (3) review agents that may increase or decrease tight junction integrity during exercise.

Claudin heterogeneity and control of lung tight junctions

Lung epithelial cells interconnected by tight junctions provide a barrier to the free diffusion of solutes into airspaces. Transmembrane tight junction proteins known as claudins are essential for epithelial barrier function. Claudins are regulated through interactions with each other that are coordinated with other transmembrane tight junction proteins and cytosolic scaffold proteins. Of the 14 claudins expressed by the alveolar epithelium, claudin-3, claudin-4, and claudin-18 are the most prominent; each confers unique properties to alveolar barrier function. In particular, a protective role for claudin-4 in preventing lung injury has emerged. By contrast, lung diseases that affect claudin expression and impair barrier function, including alcoholic lung syndrome and sepsis, prime the lung for pulmonary edema. Thus, approaches to restore and/or augment lung claudin expression provide potential targets for promoting healthy barrier function.

Mechanism and consequence of chitosan-mediated reversible epithelial tight junction opening

In order to increase the absorption of hydrophilic macromolecules in the small intestine, permeation enhancers such as chitosan (CS) and its derivatives have been evaluated. The aim of the current work was to investigate, on molecular levels, the effect of CS on tight junction (TJ) integrity in Caco-2 cells. The observed changes in transepithelial-electrical-resistance measurements and the staining patterns of the monolayer Caco-2 cells demonstrate that CS can transiently and reversibly open the TJs between cells, thus enhancing the paracellular permeability. TJ ultra-structures examined by transmission electron microscopy support the concept that CS did induce transient opening of TJs. We then assessed TJ disruption at the gene and protein expression levels. Our data indicate that exposure to CS followed by recovery resulted in a significant increase in claudin-4 (Cldn4) gene transcription. Additionally, CS treatment induced redistribution of the TJ protein CLDN4 intracellularly following by its degradation in lysosomes, which represented an important contributing factor in TJ weakening, leading to the opening of TJs. The recovery of TJ after CS disruption required CLDN4 protein synthesis. These results suggest that CS regulates TJs by inducing changes in transmembrane CLDN4 protein. Understanding the mechanism of interaction between CS and epithelial cells is of paramount importance and needs to be established to aid further development in the use of CS to mediate the trans-epithelial drug delivery.

Transcriptional regulation of claudin-18 via specific protein kinase C signaling pathways and modification of DNA methylation in human pancreatic cancer cells

Since claudin-18 (Cldn18) is overexpressed in precursor lesion PanIN and pancreatic duct carcinoma, it serves as a diagnostic marker and a target of immunotherapy. The stomach isoform of Cldn18, Cldn18a2 is regulated via a PKC/MAPK/AP-1-dependent pathway in PKC activator 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA)-stimulated gastric cancer cells. However, little is known about how Cldn18 is regulated, not only in pancreatic duct carcinoma but also in normal human pancreatic duct epithelial cells (HPDE cells). In the present study, four pancreatic cancer cell lines, HPAF-II, HPAC, PANC-1 and BXPC3, and hTERT-HPDE cells in which the hTERT gene was introduced into HPDE cells in primary culture, were treated with TPA. In all human pancreatic cancer cell lines and hTERT-HPDE cells, Cldn18 mRNA indicated as Cldn18a2 was markedly induced by TPA and in well- or moderately differentiated human pancreatic cancer cells HPAF-II and HPAC and hTERT-HPDE cells, the protein was also strongly increased. The upregulation of Cldn18 by TPA in human pancreatic cancer cell lines was prevented by inhibitors of PKCδ, PKCε, and PKCα, whereas the upregulation of Cldn18 by TPA in hTERT-HPDE cells was prevented by inhibitors of PKCδ, PKCθ, and PKCα. Furthermore, a CpG island was identified within the coding sequence of the Cldn18 gene and treatment with the demethylating agent 5-azadeoxycytidine enhanced upregulation of Cldn18 by TPA in HPAF-II and HPAC, but not hTERT-HPDE cells. Our findings suggest that in human pancreatic cancer cells, Cldn18 is primarily regulated at the transcriptional level via specific PKC signaling pathways and modified by DNA methylation.

Claudins: control of barrier function and regulation in response to oxidant stress

Claudins are a family of nearly two dozen transmembrane proteins that are a key part of the tight junction barrier that regulates solute movement across polarized epithelia. Claudin family members interact with each other, as well as with other transmembrane tight junction proteins (such as occludin) and cytosolic scaffolding proteins (such as zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1)). Although the interplay between all of these different classes of proteins is critical for tight junction formation and function, claudin family proteins are directly responsible for forming the equivalent of paracellular ion selective channels (or pores) with specific permeability and thus are essential for barrier function. In this review, we summarize current progress in identifying structural elements of claudins that regulate their transport, assembly, and function. The effects of oxidant stress on claudins are also examined, with particular emphasis on lung epithelial barrier function and oxidant stress induced by chronic alcohol abuse.

Claudin-1 required for HCV virus entry has high potential for phosphorylation and O-glycosylation

HCV is a leading cause of hepatocellular carcinoma and cirrhosis all over the world. Claudins belong to family of tight junction's proteins that are responsible for establishing barriers for controlling the flow of molecules around cells. For therapeutic strategies, regulation of viral entry into the host cells holds a lot of promise. During HCV infection claudin-1 is highly expressed in liver and believed to be associated with HCV virus entry after HCV binding with or without co-receptor CD81. The claudin-1 assembly with tight junctions is regulated by post translational modifications. During claudins assembly and disassembly with tight junctions, phosphorylation is required at C-terminal tail. In cellular proteins, interplay between phosphorylation and O-β-GlcNAc modification is believed to be functional switch, but it is very difficult to monitor these functional and vibrant changes in vivo. Netphos 2.0 and Disphos 1.3 programs were used for potential phosphorylation; NetPhosK 1.0 and KinasePhos for kinase prediction; and YinOYang 1.2 and OGPET to predict possible O-glycosylation sites. We also identified Yin Yang sites that may have potential for O-β-GlcNAc and phosphorylation interplay at same Ser/Thr residues. We for the first time proposed that alternate phosphorylation and O-β-GlcNAc modification on Ser 192, Ser 205, Ser 206; and Thr 191 may provide an on/off switch to regulate assembly of claudin-1 at tight junctions. In addition these phosphorylation sites may be targeted by novel chemotherapeutic agents to prevent phosphorylation lead by HCV viral entry complex.

Protein kinase C activation modulates reversible increase in cortical blood-brain barrier permeability and tight junction protein expression during hypoxia and posthypoxic reoxygenation

Hypoxia (Hx) is a component of many disease states including stroke. Ischemic stroke occurs when there is a restriction of cerebral blood flow and oxygen to part of the brain. During the ischemic, and subsequent reperfusion phase of stroke, blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity is lost with tight junction (TJ) protein disruption. However, the mechanisms of Hx and reoxygenation (HR)-induced loss of BBB integrity are not fully understood. We examined the role of protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes in modifying TJ protein expression in a rat model of global Hx. The Hx (6% O(2)) induced increased hippocampal and cortical vascular permeability to 4 and 10 kDa dextran fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and endogenous rat-IgG. Cortical microvessels revealed morphologic changes in nPKC-θ distribution, increased nPKC-θ and aPKC-ζ protein expression, and activation by phosphorylation of nPKC-θ (Thr538) and aPKC-ζ (Thr410) residues after Hx treatment. Claudin-5, occludin, and ZO-1 showed disrupted organization at endothelial cell margins, whereas Western blot analysis showed increased TJ protein expression after Hx. The PKC inhibition with chelerythrine chloride (5 mg/kg intraperitoneally) attenuated Hx-induced hippocampal vascular permeability and claudin-5, PKC (θ and ζ) expression, and phosphorylation. This study supports the hypothesis that nPKC-θ and aPKC-ζ signaling mediates TJ protein disruption resulting in increased BBB permeability.

c-Jun N-terminal kinase is largely involved in the regulation of tricellular tight junctions via tricellulin in human pancreatic duct epithelial cells

Tricellulin (TRIC) is a tight junction protein at tricellular contacts where three epithelial cells meet, and it is required for the maintenance of the epithelial barrier. To investigate whether TRIC is regulated via a c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, human pancreatic HPAC cells, highly expressed at tricellular contacts, were exposed to various stimuli such as the JNK activators anisomycin and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), and the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-1α. TRIC expression and the barrier function were moderated by treatment with the JNK activator anisomycin, and suppressed not only by inhibitors of JNK and PKC but also by siRNAs of TRIC. TRIC expression was induced by treatment with the PKC activator TPA and proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-1α, whereas the changes were inhibited by a JNK inhibitor. Furthermore, in normal human pancreatic duct epithelial cells using hTERT-transfected primary cultured cells, the responses of TRIC expression to the various stimuli were similar to those in HPAC cells. TRIC expression in tricellular tight junctions is strongly regulated together with the barrier function via the JNK transduction pathway. These findings suggest that JNK may be involved in the regulation of tricellular tight junctions including TRIC expression and the barrier function during normal remodeling of epithelial cells, and prevent disruption of the epithelial barrier in inflammation and other disorders in pancreatic duct epithelial cells.

Protein kinase C activation has distinct effects on the localization, phosphorylation and detergent solubility of the claudin protein family in tight and leaky epithelial cells

We have previously shown that protein kinase C (PKC) activation has distinct effects on the structure and barrier properties of cultured epithelial cells (HT29 and MDCK I). Since the claudin family of tight junction (TJ)-associated proteins is considered to be crucial for the function of mature TJ, we assessed their expression patterns and cellular destination, detergent solubility and phosphorylation upon PKC stimulation for 2 or 18 h with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA). In HT29 cells, claudins 1, 3, 4 and 5 and possibly claudin 2 were redistributed to apical cell–cell contacts after PKC activation and the amounts of claudins 1, 3 and 5, but not of claudin 2, were increased in cell lysates. By contrast, in MDCK I cells, PMA treatment resulted in redistribution of claudins 1, 3, 4 and 5 from the TJ and in reorganization of the proteins into more insoluble complexes. Claudins 1 and 4 were phosphorylated in both MDCK I and HT29 cells, but PKC-induced changes in claudin phosphorylation state were detected only in MDCK I cells. A major difference between HT29 and MDCK I cells, which have low and high basal transepithelial electrical resistance, respectively, was the absence of claudin 2 in the latter. Our findings show that PKC activation targets in characteristic ways the expression patterns, destination, detergent solubility and phosphorylation state of claudins in epithelial cells with different capacities to form an epithelial barrier.

Transcriptional control of tight junction proteins via a protein kinase C signal pathway in human telomerase reverse transcriptase-transfected human pancreatic duct epithelial cells

In human pancreatic cancer, integral membrane proteins of tight junction claudins are abnormally regulated, making these proteins promising molecular diagnostic and therapeutic targets. However, the regulation of claudin-based tight junctions remains unknown not only in the pancreatic cancer cells but also in normal human pancreatic duct epithelial (HPDE) cells. To investigate the regulation of tight junction molecules including claudins in normal HPDE cells, we introduced the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) gene into HPDE cells in primary culture. The hTERT-transfected HPDE (hTERT-HPDE) cells were positive for the pancreatic duct epithelial markers such as CK7, CK19, and carbonic anhydrase isozyme 2 and expressed epithelial tight junction molecules claudin-1, -4, -7 and, -18, occludin, JAM-A, ZO-1, ZO-2, and tricellulin. By treatment with fetal bovine serum or 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), the tight junction molecules were up-regulated at the transcriptional level via a protein kinase C (PKC) signal pathway. A PKC-alpha inhibitor, Gö6976, prevented up-regulation of claudin-4 by TPA. Furthermore, a PKC-delta inhibitor, rottlerin, prevented up-regulation of claudin-7, occludin, ZO-1, and ZO-2 by TPA. By GeneChip analysis, up-regulation of the transcription factor ELF3 was observed in both fetal bovine serum- and TPA-treated cells. Treatment with small interfering RNAs of ELF3 prevented up-regulation of claudin-7 by TPA. These data suggest that tight junctions of normal HPDE cells were at least in part regulated via a PKC signal pathway by transcriptional control.

Involucrin–claudin-6 tail deletion mutant (CΔ206) transgenic mice: a model of delayed epidermal permeability barrier formation and repair

Preterm birth is a major global health problem that results in a large number of infant deaths, many of which are attributable to the complications of an immature epidermal permeability barrier (EPB), for which there is currently no effective therapeutic option. The mammalian EPB is formed during development and is essential for survival as it maintains thermoregulation and hydration, and provides a defense against infection. Using transgenic mouse technology, we have demonstrated the importance of claudin (Cldn)-containing tight junctions (TJs) in epidermal differentiation and, in particular, that epidermal suprabasal overexpression of Cldn6 results in an EPB-deficient phenotype that phenocopies the dysfunctional EPB of premature human infants. In this study, we used the same approach to target a Cldn6 tail deletion mutant to the epidermis of mice [involucrin (Inv)-Cldn6-CΔ206 transgenic mice]. The Inv-Cldn6-CΔ206 transgenic mice displayed a developmental delay in EPB formation, as shown by the expression of keratins and Cldns, and by X-Gal penetration assays. Trans-epidermal water loss measurements and immunolocalization studies indicated that the epidermal differentiation program was also perturbed in postnatal Inv-Cldn6-CΔ206 transgenic mice resulting in a delayed maturation. Notably, however, expression/localization of epidermal differentiation and maturation markers, including Cldns, indicated that the transgenic epidermis matured and normalized by postnatal day 10, which is 3 days after the wild-type epidermis. Our results suggest that activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (Erk1/2) pathway and Cldn1 phosphorylation are associated with the repair and maturation of the skin barrier processes. These studies provide additional support for the crucial role of Cldns in epidermal differentiation, maturation and the formation of the EPB, and describe a novel animal model for evaluating postnatal epidermal maturation and therapies that may accelerate the process.