An orally bioavailable synthetic analog of an active dehydroepiandrosterone metabolite reduces established disease in rodent models of rheumatoid arthritis

Does dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate have a role in COVID-19 prognosis and treatment?

The pathophysiology of COVID comprises an exaggerated pro-inflammatory response. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has a crucial role in various inflammatory conditions and modulated immunological response. Limited evidence is available regarding the incidence and the effect of HPA dysfunction in COVID-19. Although the cortisol levels have only been estimated in a few studies, the dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) release from the adrenal gland has not been explored yet. In this mini review, the authors discuss the role of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and DHEAS in the acute stress response and immunological modulation. Various effects of DHEAS have been demonstrated in different diseases. The specific inhibitory effect of DHEA on interleukin 6 (IL-6) could be of paramount importance in COVID-19. Further, DHEA supplementation has already been proposed in inflammatory conditions, like rheumatoid arthritis. DHEAS levels in COVID-19 may help to understand the HPA axis dysfunction as well as the possibility of repurposing DHEA as a drug for mitigating the pro-inflammatory COVID-19.

Potential of dehydroepiandrosterone in modulating osteoarthritis-related pain

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common form of degenerative arthropathy, and the primary symptom is chronic joint pain. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) exerts a chondroprotective effect against OA and has been reported to have potent structure-modifying effects on osteoarthritic cartilage, thereby attenuating disease progression. However, the ability of DHEA to modulate OA-related pain has not yet been verified. Recent evidence suggests that there may be a link between the pharmacological effects of DHEA and pain generation. For example, DHEA synthesized in the adrenal gland interferes directly with nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors, a major biochemical contributor to peripheral hypersensitivity. Similarly, endogenous DHEA produced in the spinal cord exerts a regulatory effect on nociception in neuropathic rats. In this short review, we discuss recent studies concerning crucial signalling cascades and molecular mechanisms involved in pain generation as well as the potential link between DHEA activity and nociception. Particular attention is given to the putative molecular mechanisms underlying the favourable efficacy of DHEA against pain generation. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of DHEA against osteoarthritic pain may pave the way for the discovery and development of novel anti-OA drugs, as effective drugs for OA treatment are not currently available.

Dehydroepiandrosterone: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications in osteoarthritis

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), a 19-carbon steroid hormone primarily synthesized in the adrenal gland, exerts a chondroprotective effect against osteoarthritis (OA) and has been considered an effective candidate of disease-modifying OA drugs (DMOADs) that slow disease progression. We and others previously demonstrated that DHEA exerted a beneficial effect on osteoarthritic cartilage by positively modulating the balance between anabolic and catabolic factors (e.g., MMPs/TIMP-1, ADAMTS/TIMP-3 and cysteine proteinases/cystatin C), inhibiting catabolic signaling pathways (e.g., Wnt/β-catenin), and suppressing proinflammatory cytokines-mediated low-grade synovial inflammation (e.g., IL-1β). However, the full picture of the pharmacological molecular mechanism(s) underlying the activity of DHEA against OA is still incomplete, and a comprehensive and up-to-date review article in this field is unavailable. In this review, recent findings (apart from the well documented pathogenesis of OA) regarding disease-related mechanisms involving low grade synovial inflammation, cartilage matrix stiffness, chondrocyte autophagy and the roles of a variety of catabolic cellular signaling pathways are discussed. Moreover, the possible relationship between these disease-related mechanisms and DHEA action is discussed. Emerging evidence from in vivo and in vitro studies were scrutinized and are concisely presented to demonstrate the investigational and putative mechanisms underlying the anti-OA potential of DHEA.

Androst-5-ene-3β,7α/β,17β-triols, their plasma levels and dependence on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Androst-5-ene-triols are metabolites of dehydroepiandrosterone, the most abundant steroid hormone in human circulation. Many observations in rodents have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory and immune modulating activity of 7β-hydroxy-androst-5-enes, and on the basis of these experiments androst-5-ene-3β,7β,17β-triol is considered as a potential agent in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. In contrast to the fairly abundant information on the levels and effects of androst-5-ene-triols in experimental animals and of their the pharmacological perspective, little is known about androst-5-ene-3β,7α/β,17β-triols circulating in human blood, their regulation by the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, or their daily concentration variability. Here we provide some data on androst-5-ene-3β,7α/β,17β-triol concentrations under various conditions in men and women.

Dehydroepiandrosterone and Experimental Osteoarthritis

Despite an increased understanding of the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA) and the availability of a number of drugs designed to ameliorate its symptoms, a successful disease-modifying therapy remains elusive. Recent lines of evidence suggest that dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), a 19-carbon steroid hormone classified as an adrenal androgen, exerts a chondroprotective effect in OA patients, and it has been proven to be an effective DMOAD candidate that slows OA progression. However, the exact mechanisms underlying its anti-OA effect is largely unknown. This review summarizes emerging observations from studies of cell biology, preclinical animal studies, and preliminary clinical trials and describes the findings of investigations on this topic to develop an initial blueprint of the mechanisms by which DHEA slows OA progression. Presently, studies on DMOADs are increasing in importance but have met limited success. Encouragingly, the current data on DHEA are promising and may prove that DHEA-based treatment is efficacious for preventing and slowing human OA progression.

Oral Delivery of a Synthetic Sterol Reduces Axonopathy and Inflammation in a Rodent Model of Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a group of optic neuropathies associated with aging and sensitivity to intraocular pressure (IOP). The disease is the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Early progression in glaucoma involves dysfunction of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons, which comprise the optic nerve. Deficits in anterograde transport along RGC axons to central visual structures precede outright degeneration, and preventing these deficits is efficacious at abating subsequent progression. HE3286 is a synthetic sterol derivative that has shown therapeutic promise in models of inflammatory disease and neurodegenerative disease. We examined the efficacy of HE3286 oral delivery in preventing loss of anterograde transport in an inducible model of glaucoma (microbead occlusion). Adult rats received HE3286 (20 or 100 mg/kg) or vehicle daily via oral gavage for 4 weeks. Microbead occlusion elevated IOP ~30% in all treatment groups, and elevation was not affected by HE3286 treatment. In the vehicle group, elevated IOP reduced anterograde axonal transport to the superior colliculus, the most distal site in the optic projection, by 43% (p = 0.003); HE3286 (100 mg/kg) prevented this reduction (p = 0.025). HE3286 increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the optic nerve head and retina, while decreasing inflammatory and pathogenic proteins associated with elevated IOP compared to vehicle treatment. Treatment with HE3286 also increased nuclear localization of the transcription factor NFκB in collicular and retinal neurons, but decreased NFκB in glial nuclei in the optic nerve head. Thus, HE3286 may have a neuroprotective influence in glaucoma, as well as other chronic neurodegenerations.

Solid-phase synthesis of libraries of ethynylated aminosteroid derivatives as potential antileukemic agents

Steroids possessing an ethynyl group at position 17α (tertiary alcohols) are well known to be more stable than their non-ethynyl analogs (secondary alcohols). To facilitate the development of new drugs with better metabolic stability, we developed a new diethylsilyl acetylenic linker allowing us to rapidly synthesize libraries of ethynylated steroid derivatives using a solid-phase strategy. To illustrate its usefulness, this linker was used to expand the molecular diversity of a lead compound having a hydroxy acetylenic pattern and to potentially find new compounds with interesting cytotoxic activity against leukemia cell lines. Herein, we report the chemical synthesis and the characterization of three libraries of ethynylated aminosteroid derivatives using the diethylacetylenic linker. We discuss their antiproliferative activities obtained in 2 leukemia cell lines (HL-60 and Jurkat), which results provided new structure-activity relationships. We also identified a new promising aminosteroid derivative with an azetidine moiety (compound B1) inhibiting 60% and 75% of HL-60 and Jurkat cell proliferation, respectively, at 1 μM. More generally, these results validate the use of a diethylsilyl acetylenic linker for researchers interested in generating libraries of alcohol derivatives with better stability and drug profile.

Chemically Modified Interleukin-6 Aptamer Inhibits Development of Collagen-Induced Arthritis in Cynomolgus Monkeys

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a potent mediator of inflammatory and immune responses, and a validated target for therapeutic intervention of inflammatory diseases. Previous studies have shown that SL1026, a slow off-rate modified aptamer (SOMAmer) antagonist of IL-6, neutralizes IL-6 signaling in vitro. In the present study, we show that SL1026 delays the onset and reduces the severity of rheumatoid symptoms in a collagen-induced arthritis model in cynomolgus monkeys. SL1026 (1 and 10 mg/kg), administered q.i.d., delayed the progression of arthritis and the concomitant increase in serum IL-6 levels compared to the untreated control group. Furthermore, SL1026 inhibited IL-6-induced STAT3 phosphorylation ex vivo in T lymphocytes from human blood and IL-6-induced C-reactive protein and serum amyloid A production in human primary hepatocytes. Importantly, SOMAmer treatment did not elicit an immune response, as evidenced by the absence of anti-SOMAmer antibodies in plasma of treated monkeys. These results demonstrate that SOMAmer antagonists of IL-6 may be attractive agents for the treatment of IL-6-mediated diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis.

HE3286 reduces axonal loss and preserves retinal ganglion cell function in experimental optic neuritis

PURPOSE

Optic nerve inflammation, demyelination, and axonal loss are all prominent features of optic neuritis. While corticosteroids hasten visual recovery in optic neuritis, no treatment improves final visual outcomes. HE3286 (17α-ethynyl-5-androstene-3β,7β,17β-triol), a synthetic derivative of a natural steroid, β-AET (5-androstene-3β,7β,17β-triol), exerts anti-inflammatory effects in several disease models and has purported neuroprotective effects as well. HE3286's ability to suppress optic neuritis was examined in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model of multiple sclerosis.

METHODS

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis was induced in C57/BL6 mice. Mice were treated daily with intraperitoneal vehicle or 40 mg/kg HE3286. Visual function was assessed by optokinetic responses (OKR) at baseline and every 10 days until euthanasia at 40 days post immunization. Retinas and optic nerves were isolated. Inflammation (hematoxylin and eosin and Iba1 staining), demyelination (Luxol fast blue staining), and axonal loss (neurofilament staining) were assessed in optic nerve sections. Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) were immunolabeled with Brn3a antibodies to quantify RGC survival.

RESULTS

Progressive decreases in OKR occurred in vehicle-treated EAE mice, and HE3286 treatment reduced the level of this vision loss. HE3286 also attenuated the degree of inflammation, demyelination, and axonal loss in EAE optic nerves as compared to nerves from vehicle-treated EAE mice. Retinal ganglion cell loss that occurred in both vehicle- and HE3286-treated EAE mice was reduced in the temporal retinal quadrant of HE3286-treated mice.

CONCLUSIONS

HE3286 suppresses inflammation, reduces demyelination and axonal loss, and promotes RGC survival during experimental optic neuritis. Importantly, HE3286 treatment also preserves some RGC function. Results suggest that HE3286 is a potential novel treatment for optic neuritis.

A synthetic anti-inflammatory sterol improves insulin sensitivity in insulin-resistant obese impaired glucose tolerance subjects

OBJECTIVE

To study the activity of HE3286 (17α-ethynylandrost-5-ene-3β,7β,17β-triol), an anti-inflammatory sterol that is active in models of obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance in high body mass index (BMI) subjects with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT).

DESIGN AND METHODS

HE3286 was explored in high BMI IGT subjects using hyperinsulinemic, euglycemic clamp studies.

RESULTS

In insulin-resistant subjects, HE3286 significantly increased day 29 insulin-stimulated glucose disposal and HDL cholesterol, and decreased C-reactive protein (CRP) compared to placebo. For HE3286, change in M value showed a significant negative correlation with baseline M value. Subjects with baseline M value below the median (4.2 mg/kg/min) had significantly lower adiponectin and higher lipopolysaccharide-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cell cytokine secretion. After 28 days of HE3286 treatment, adiponectin levels were significantly increased in insulin-resistant (baseline M < 4.2), but not insulin-sensitive (baseline M > 4.2) subjects, compared to placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

HE3286 significantly increased the frequency of subjects with increased insulin-stimulated glucose disposal and HDL, and decreased CRP compared to placebo, in insulin-resistant, but not insulin-sensitive subjects. Thus, HE3286 may preferentially benefit insulin-resistant, inflamed, high BMI IGT subjects.

Molecular targets for 17α-ethynyl-5-androstene-3β,7β,17β-triol, an anti-inflammatory agent derived from the human metabolome

HE3286, 17α-ethynyl-5-androstene-3β, 7β, 17β-triol, is a novel synthetic compound related to the endogenous sterol 5-androstene-3β, 7β, 17β-triol (β-AET), a metabolite of the abundant adrenal steroid dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). HE3286 has shown efficacy in clinical studies in impaired glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes, and in vivo models of types 1 and 2 diabetes, autoimmunity, and inflammation. Proteomic analysis of solid-phase HE3286-bound bead affinity experiments, using extracts from RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cells, identified 26 binding partners. Network analysis revealed associations of these HE3286 target proteins with nodes in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways for type 2 diabetes, insulin, adipokine, and adipocyte signaling. Binding partners included low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (Lrp1), an endocytic receptor; mitogen activated protein kinases 1 and 3 (Mapk1, Mapk3), protein kinases involved in inflammation signaling pathways; ribosomal protein S6 kinase alpha-3 (Rsp6ka3), an intracellular regulatory protein; sirtuin-2 (Sirt2); and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 (Hsd17β4), a sterol metabolizing enzyme.

Dehydroepiandrosterone inhibits the activation and dysfunction of endothelial cells induced by high glucose concentration

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), an adrenal steroid, has a protective role against diabetes; however, its mechanisms of action are unknown. Here, we focus on the effect of DHEA on the activation of endothelial cells induced by a high concentration of glucose. Adhesion on U937 cells, expression of adhesion molecules, production of ROS and NO, expression of eNOS, and translocation of NF-κB were evaluated in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) treated with high concentrations of glucose, DHEA, or both. High concentrations of glucose (>20mM) induced an increase in adhesion, an increment in mainly E-selectin and PECAM-1 expression, as well as in ROS and NO production, eNOS expression, translocation of NF-κB, and degradation of its inhibitor IκB-α. DHEA abolished adhesion and the increase of E-selectin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and PECAM-1 induced by glucose. In addition, DHEA completely blocked oxidative stress and decreased translocation of NF-κB and the degradation of IκB-α induced by glucose. These results suggest that DHEA protects against the activation of endothelial cells induced by high concentrations of glucose, indicating that DHEA could be useful in the treatment of hyperglycemia and diabetes.

Oxidative metabolism of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and biologically active oxygenated metabolites of DHEA and epiandrosterone (EpiA)--recent reports

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a multifunctional steroid with a broad range of biological effects in humans and animals. DHEA can be converted to multiple oxygenated metabolites in the brain and peripheral tissues. The mechanisms by which DHEA exerts its effects are not well understood. However, evidence that the effects of DHEA are mediated by its oxygenated metabolites has accumulated. This paper will review the panel of oxygenated DHEA metabolites (7, 16 and 17-hydroxylated derivatives) including a number of 5α-androstane derivatives, such as epiandrosterone (EpiA) metabolites. The most important aspects of the oxidative metabolism of DHEA in the liver, intestine and brain are described. Then, this article reviews the reported biological effects of oxygenated DHEA metabolites from recent findings with a specific focus on cancer, inflammatory and immune processes, osteoporosis, thermogenesis, adipogenesis, the cardiovascular system, the brain and the estrogen and androgen receptors.

Dehydroepiandrosterone suppresses eosinophil infiltration and airway hyperresponsiveness via modulation of chemokines and Th2 cytokines in ovalbumin-sensitized mice

In this study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory response and the mechanism by which dehydroepiandrosterone modulates immunity in ovalbumin-sensitized asthmatic mice. Female BALB/c mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin and then treated with oral administration of dehydroepiandrosterone on days 21 to 27. The results showed dehydroepiandrosterone could suppress airway hyperresponsiveness and decrease eosinophil infiltration of the lungs in ovalbumin-sensitized mice. Moreover, dehydroepiandrosterone inhibited chemokines, including CCL11/eotaxin-1 and CCL24/eotaxin-2, and Th2-associated cytokine levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. After the inflammatory human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B was treated with dehydroepiandrosterone, levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines were inhibited, including IL-6, IL-8, CCL11, and CCL24. We suggested that dehydroepiandrosterone inhibited inflammation in bronchial epithelial cells as indicated by the suppression of Th2-associated cytokines and chemokines. Dehydroepiandrosterone also suppressed eosinophil migration and infiltration into the lung to improve the symptoms of asthma in ovalbumin-sensitized mice.

A potential role for 5-androstene-3β,7β,17β-triol in obesity and metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome is marked by perturbed glucocorticoid (GC) signaling, systemic inflammation, and altered immune status. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), a major circulating adrenal steroid and dietary supplement, demonstrates antiobesity, anti-inflammatory, GC-opposing and immune-modulating activity when administered to rodents. However, plasma DHEA levels failed to correlate with metabolic syndrome and oral replacement therapy provided only mild benefits to patients. Androstene-3β,7β,17β-triol (β-AET) an anti-inflammatory metabolite of DHEA, also exhibits GC-opposing and immune-modulating activity when administered to rodents. We hypothesized a role for β-AET in obesity. We now report that plasma levels of β-AET positively correlate with BMI in healthy men and women. Together with previous studies, the observations reported here may suggest a compensatory role for β-AET in preventing the development of metabolic syndrome. The β-AET structural core may provide the basis for novel pharmaceuticals to treat this disease.

HE3286, an orally bioavailable synthetic analogue of an active DHEA metabolite suppresses spontaneous autoimmune diabetes in the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse

5-Androstene-3β,7β,17β-triol (AET) is a naturally occurring anti-inflammatory adrenal steroid that limits acute and chronic inflammation. HE3286 (17α-ethynyl-5-androstene-3β,7β,17β-triol) is a synthetic derivative of AET with improved pharmaceutical properties and efficacy in some animal models of autoimmunity. Here, daily oral doses of HE3286 led to a suppression of spontaneous autoimmune diabetes in the non-obese diabetic mouse model of type 1 diabetes mellitus when administered either shortly before or after the first incidence of disease onset. Efficacy was associated with reduced insulitis and a suppression of the pathogenic T helper cell type 1 and type 17 phenotypes in peripheral lymphoid organs. These results demonstrate that daily oral treatment with HE3286 administrated relatively late in the destructive autoimmune process led to a suppression of type 1 diabetes mellitus onset and of the pathological inflammatory status, supporting its clinical evaluation in type 1 diabetes mellitus subjects.

Novel components of the human metabolome: the identification, characterization and anti-inflammatory activity of two 5-androstene tetrols

Two natural 5-androstene steroid tetrols, androst-5-ene-3β,7β,16α,17β-tetrol (HE3177) and androst-5-ene-3α,7β,16α,17β-tetrol (HE3413), were discovered in human plasma and urine. These compounds had significant aqueous solubility, did not bind or transactivate steroid-binding nuclear hormone receptors, and were not immunosuppressive in murine mixed-lymphocyte studies. Both compounds appear to be metabolic end products, as they were resistant to primary and secondary metabolism. Both were orally bioavailable, and were very well tolerated in a two-week dose-intensive toxicity study in mice. Anti-inflammatory properties were found with exogenous administration of these compounds in rodent disease models of multiple sclerosis, lung injury, chronic prostatitis, and colitis.

HE3286, an oral synthetic steroid, treats lung inflammation in mice without immune suppression

Background

17α-Ethynyl-5-androsten-3β, 7β, 17β-triol (HE3286) is a synthetic derivative of an endogenous steroid androstenetriol (β-AET), a metabolite of the abundant adrenal steroid deyhdroepiandrosterone (DHEA), with broad anti-inflammatory activities. We tested the ability of this novel synthetic steroid with improved pharmacological properties to limit non-productive lung inflammation in rodents and attempted to gauge its immunological impact.

Methods and Results

In mice, oral treatment with HE3286 (40 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.05) decreased neutrophil counts and exudate volumes (~50%) in carrageenan-induced pleurisy, and myeloperoxidase in lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury. HE3286 (40 mg/kg) was not found to be profoundly immune suppressive in any of the classical animal models of immune function, including those used to evaluate antigen specific immune responses in vivo (ovalbumin immunization). When mice treated for two weeks with HE3286 were challenged with K. pneumoniae, nearly identical survival kinetics were observed in vehicle-treated, HE3286-treated and untreated groups.

Conclusions

HE3286 represents a novel, first-in-class anti-inflammatory agent that may translate certain benefits of β-AET observed in rodents into treatments for chronic inflammatory pulmonary disease.

5-androstenediol ameliorates pleurisy, septic shock, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice

Androstenediol (androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol; 5-AED), a natural adrenal steroid, has been shown to suppress experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in female SJL/J mice. We here report that 5-AED limits inflammation and proinflammatory cytokines including TNFα in murine models of carrageenan-induced pleurisy and lippopolysaccaride- (LPS) induced septic shock. 5-AED binds to and transactivates sex steroid receptors with the same general rank order of potency (ERβ > ERα ≫ AR). 5-AED provides benefit in EAE in a dose-dependent fashion, even when treatment is delayed until onset of disease. The minimally effective dose may be as low as 4 mg/kg in mice. However, benefit was not observed when 5-AED was given in soluble formulation, leading to a short half-life and rapid clearance. These observations suggest that treatment with 5-AED limits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in these animal models and, ultimately, when formulated and administered properly, may be beneficial for patients with multiple sclerosis and other Th1-driven autoimmune diseases.

A new antidiabetic compound attenuates inflammation and insulin resistance in Zucker diabetic fatty rats

Tissue macrophage inflammatory pathways contribute to obesity-associated insulin resistance. Here, we have examined the efficacy and mechanisms of action of a novel anti-inflammatory compound (HE3286) in vitro and in vivo. In primary murine macrophages, HE3286 attenuates LPS- and TNFalpha-stimulated inflammation. In Zucker diabetic fatty rats, inflammatory cytokine/chemokine expression was downregulated in liver and adipose tissue by HE3286 treatment, as was macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue. In line with reduced inflammation, HE3286 treatment normalized fasting and fed glucose levels, improved glucose tolerance, and enhanced skeletal muscle and liver insulin sensitivity, as assessed by hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp studies. In phase 2 clinical trials, HE3286 treatment led to an enhancement in insulin sensitivity in humans. Gluconeogenic capacity was also reduced by HE3286 treatment, as evidenced by a reduced glycemic response during pyruvate tolerance tests and decreased basal hepatic glucose production (HGP) rates. Since serum levels of gluconeogenic substrates were decreased by HE3286, it indicates that the reduction of both intrinsic gluconeogenic capacity and substrate availability contributes to the decrease in HGP. Lipidomic analysis revealed that HE3286 treatment reduced liver cholesterol and triglyceride content, leading to a feedback elevation of LDL receptor and HMG-CoA reductase expression. Accordingly, HE3286 treatment markedly decreased total serum cholesterol. In conclusion, HE3286 is a novel anti-inflammatory compound, which displays both glucose-lowering and cholesterol-lowering effects.