Interactions between theophylline and salbutamol on cytokine release in human monocytes

Epigenomic response to albuterol treatment in asthma-relevant airway epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

Albuterol is the first-line asthma medication used in diverse populations. Although DNA methylation (DNAm) is an epigenetic mechanism involved in asthma and bronchodilator drug response (BDR), no study has assessed whether albuterol could induce changes in the airway epithelial methylome. We aimed to characterize albuterol-induced DNAm changes in airway epithelial cells, and assess potential functional consequences and the influence of genetic variation and asthma-related clinical variables.

RESULTS

We followed a discovery and validation study design to characterize albuterol-induced DNAm changes in paired airway epithelial cultures stimulated in vitro with albuterol. In the discovery phase, an epigenome-wide association study using paired nasal epithelial cultures from Puerto Rican children (n = 97) identified 22 CpGs genome-wide associated with repeated-use albuterol treatment (p < 9 × 10-8). Albuterol predominantly induced a hypomethylation effect on CpGs captured by the EPIC array across the genome (probability of hypomethylation: 76%, p value = 3.3 × 10-5). DNAm changes on the CpGs cg23032799 (CREB3L1), cg00483640 (MYLK4-LINC01600), and cg05673431 (KSR1) were validated in nasal epithelia from 10 independent donors (false discovery rate [FDR] < 0.05). The effect on the CpG cg23032799 (CREB3L1) was cross-tissue validated in bronchial epithelial cells at nominal level (p = 0.030). DNAm changes in these three CpGs were shown to be influenced by three independent genetic variants (FDR < 0.05). In silico analyses showed these polymorphisms regulated gene expression of nearby genes in lungs and/or fibroblasts including KSR1 and LINC01600 (6.30 × 10-14 ≤ p ≤ 6.60 × 10-5). Additionally, hypomethylation at the CpGs cg10290200 (FLNC) and cg05673431 (KSR1) was associated with increased gene expression of the genes where they are located (FDR < 0.05). Furthermore, while the epigenetic effect of albuterol was independent of the asthma status, severity, and use of medication, BDR was nominally associated with the effect on the CpG cg23032799 (CREB3L1) (p = 0.004). Gene-set enrichment analyses revealed that epigenomic modifications of albuterol could participate in asthma-relevant processes (e.g., IL-2, TNF-α, and NF-κB signaling pathways). Finally, nine differentially methylated regions were associated with albuterol treatment, including CREB3L1, MYLK4, and KSR1 (adjusted p value < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed evidence of epigenetic modifications induced by albuterol in the mucociliary airway epithelium. The epigenomic response induced by albuterol might have potential clinical implications by affecting biological pathways relevant to asthma.

Survey the effect of drug treatment on modulation of cytokines gene expression in allergic rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis as common airway disease has high prevalence in all peoples worldwide. In allergic diseases, Th2 cells release type 2 cytokines that support the inflammation in airways. All the drugs used for allergic rhinitis do not cure completely, and the choice of drugs according to cost and efficacy is very important in all groups of atopic patients. Therefore, in this study, the effect of commercial drugs on cytokine gene expression has been studied. Male Balb/c mice were divided into six groups. Allergic rhinitis was induced in five of the six groups with ovalbumin, and four of these five groups were treated with salbutamol, budesonide, theophylline, and montelukast. The fifth group was used as positive control group and the sixth group as negative control group. For the survey, RNA was extracted, cDNA was synthesized, and quantitative real-time PCR was done for 21 genes. The four drugs had different effects on mRNA expression of cytokines (IL-1b, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 22, 25, 31, 33, 37, IFN-γ, TNF-α, TGF-β1, and eotaxin) in the allergic rhinitis groups. Salbutamol can be used during pregnancy and breastfeeding, but it has some side effects. Budesonide in the inhaled form is generally safe in pregnancy. Theophylline cannot control allergic attack in the long run. Montelukast is not useful in the treatment of acute allergic attacks. Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of drugs in control of allergic rhinitis via Th2 cytokines can be new approaches in molecular medicine.

Beta2 -agonist increases skeletal muscle interleukin 6 production and release in response to resistance exercise in men

OBJECTIVE

Several tissues produce and release interleukin-6 (IL-6) in response to beta₂ -adrenergic stimulation with selective agonists (beta₂ -agonists). Moreover, exercise stimulates muscle IL-6 production, but whether beta₂ -agonists regulate skeletal muscle production and release of IL-6 in humans in association with exercise remains to be clarified. Thus, we investigated leg IL-6 release in response to beta₂ -agonist salbutamol in lean young men at rest and in recovery from resistance exercise.

DESIGN

The study employed a randomized controlled crossover design, where 12 men ingested either salbutamol (16 mg) or placebo for 4 days, followed by the last dose (24 mg) administered 1½ h before exercise. Arterial and femoral venous plasma IL-6 as well as femoral artery blood flow was measured before and ½-5 h in recovery from quadriceps muscle resistance exercise. Furthermore, vastus lateralis muscle biopsies were collected ½ and 5 h after exercise for determination of mRNA levels of IL-6 and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α.

RESULTS

Average leg IL-6 release was 1.7-fold higher (p = 0.01) for salbutamol than placebo, being 138 ± 76 and 79 ± 66 pg min^-1 (mean ± SD) for salbutamol and placebo, respectively, but IL-6 release was not significantly different between treatments within specific sampling points at rest and after exercise. Muscle IL-6 mRNA was 1.5- and 1.7-fold higher (p = 0.001) for salbutamol than placebo ½ and 5 h after exercise, respectively, whereas no significant treatment differences were observed for TNF-α mRNA.

CONCLUSIONS

Beta₂ -adrenergic stimulation with high doses of the selective beta₂ -agonist salbutamol, preceeded by 4 consecutive daily doses, induces transcription of IL-6 in skeletal muscle in response to resistance exercise, and increases muscle IL-6 release in lean individuals.

Evaluating the therapeutic effect and toxicity of theophylline in infertile men with asthenoteratozoospermia: a double-blind, randomized clinical trial study

Theophylline as a cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) phosphodiesterase inhibitor (cAMP-PDEI) elevates cAMP levels. We aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effect and toxicity of theophylline on the sperm parameters, oxidative stress (OS), and inflammation in asthenoteratozoospermic men. Sixty asthenoteratozoospermic patients were divided into groups of placebo and theophylline (200 mg/day). After 3 months of oral treatment, sperm parameters, viability, and DNA fragmentation were analyzed by the CASA system, eosin nigrosin staining, sperm DNA fragmentation kit, respectively. The seminal plasma level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) of neat semen samples, malondialdehyde (MDA), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-10 (IL-10) was assessed. Data were analyzed statistically using the independent samples t-test and the paired t-test and the means were considered significantly different at p < 0.05. Sperm motility, viability, and the number of sperms with normal morphology and the seminal plasma level of TAC and IL-10 and also sperm DNA fragmentation increased significantly in the theophylline group compared to the placebo. The MDA, TNF-α, and ROS levels decreased significantly in the theophylline group compared to the placebo. Theophylline improved sperm parameters, reduced OS and inflammation, but also created genotoxicity and increased sperm DNA fragmentation. Therefore, to benefit from the desired effects of theophylline and inhibit the toxicity of it in the treatment of men with asthenoteratozoospermia, it is suggested to be used simultaneously with another antioxidant to protect sperm DNA from fragmentation.

Theophylline induces differentiation and modulates cytoskeleton dynamics and cytokines secretion in human melanoma-initiating cells

AIMS

Cutaneous melanoma is the most aggressive skin cancer, derived from neoplastic transformation of melanocytes. Since several evidences highlighted the importance of a hierarchical model of differentiation among cancer cells, closely related to resistance mechanisms and tumor relapse, we investigated the effects of theophylline (Theo), a methylxanthine commonly used in treatment of respiratory diseases, on melanoma cells with different degree of differentiation, including patient-derived melanoma-initiating cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The antiproliferative and antimetastatic effects of Theo was demonstrated by cell counting, adhesion and migration assays on A375 and SK-MEL-30 cells. Further, Theo ability to reduce cell growth was highly significant in A375-derived spheroids and in two patient-derived melanoma-initiating cells (MICs). In order to identify pathways potentially involved in the antineoplastic properties of Theo, a comparative mass spectrometry proteomic analysis was used. Then, melanin content, tyrosinase and tissue transglutaminase activities as differentiation markers and actin re-organization through confocal microscopy were evaluated. Furthermore, a secretome profile of MICs after Theo treatments was performed by multiplex immunoassay.

KEY FINDINGS

Obtained results demonstrate inhibitory effects of Theo on melanoma cell proliferation and migration, mainly in MICs, together with the induction of differentiation parameters. Moreover, our data indicate that the known anti-melanoma effect of Theo is due also to its ability to interfere with cytoskeleton dynamics and to induce the secretion of inflammatory molecules involved in recruitment of immunosuppressive cells in tumor microenvironment.

SIGNIFICANCE

Data strongly suggest that Theo supplement, either as drug or as dietary supply, may represent a potent additional weapon against melanoma.

Salmeterol, a Long-Acting β2-Adrenergic Receptor Agonist, Inhibits Macrophage Activation by Lipopolysaccharide From Porphyromonas gingivalis

BACKGROUND

Salmeterol is a long-acting β2-adrenergic receptor agonist used to treat chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The authors of the current study previously showed that preincubation of primary microglial-enriched cells with salmeterol could inhibit the inflammatory response induced by Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 agonist. In this study, the authors sought to determine if salmeterol had a similar inhibitory effect on the inflammatory response of the murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7 and human monocyte THP-1 to LPS from Porphyromonas gingivalis (PgLPS), an oral microbe implicated in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease.

METHODS

RAW264.7 and THP-1 cells were pretreated with salmeterol, followed by PgLPS, and monitored for production of inflammatory mediators by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The nitric oxide concentration and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activity were measured by Griess method and secretory alkaline phosphatase reporter activity assay, respectively. Reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and immunoblot analysis were used to measure messenger RNA and protein levels. Nuclear translocation of NF-κB was detected by immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

Pretreatment with salmeterol significantly inhibited production of proinflammatory mediators by RAW264.7 and THP-1 cells. Salmeterol downregulated PgLPS-mediated phosphorylation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase but not p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Salmeterol also attenuated activation of NF-κB via inhibition of nuclear translocation of p65-NFκB, the transcriptional activity of NF-κB and IκBα phosphorylation.

CONCLUSION

Salmeterol can significantly inhibit activation of macrophage-mediated inflammation by PgLPS, suggesting that use of salmeterol may be an effective treatment in inhibiting or lessening the inflammatory response mediated through TLR pathway activation.

Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory effects of β-adrenoceptor agonists on human lung macrophages

The principal mechanism by which bronchodilator β-adrenoceptor agonists act is to relax airways smooth muscle although they may also be anti-inflammatory. However, the extent of anti-inflammatory activity and the cell types affected by these agonists are uncertain. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether β-adrenoceptor agonists prevent pro-inflammatory cytokine generation from activated human lung macrophages. Macrophages were isolated and purified from human lung. The cells were pre-treated with both short-acting (isoprenaline, salbutamol, terbutaline) and long-acting (formoterol, salmeterol, indacaterol) β-agonists before activation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce cytokine (TNFα, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10) generation. The experiments showed that short-acting β-agonists were poor inhibitors of cytokine generation. Of the long-acting β-agonists studied, formoterol was also a weak inhibitor of cytokine generation whereas only indacaterol and salmeterol showed moderate inhibitory activity. Further experiments using the β₂-adrenoceptor antagonist ICI-118,551 suggested that the effects of indacaterol were likely to be mediated by β₂-adrenoceptors whereas those of salmeterol were not. These findings were corroborated by functional desensitization studies in which the inhibitory effects of indacaterol appeared to be receptor-mediated whereas those of salmeterol were not. Taken together, the data indicate that the anti-inflammatory effects of β-adrenoceptor agonists on human lung macrophages are modest.

Evaluation of immunomodulatory activities of methanolic extract of khat (Catha edulis, Forsk) and cathinone in Swiss albino mice

Background

The objective of this study was to explore the immunomodulatory effect of khat and its active component, cathinone, using mice.

Materials and methods

Female Swiss albino mice aged 7–8 weeks weighing 25-30 g were used in the study. Mice were randomized into eight groups of 6 each and oral treatment of khat crude extract and cathinone were given daily for four weeks. Physical, hematological, biochemical, and immunological parameters were measured. Immunological studies included humeral immunity (IgG and IgM), cellular immune response (delay type hypersensitivity), phagocytic activities of reticuloendothelial system, and determination of T-lymphocyte population: CD3⁺, CD4⁺, CD8⁺ count and CD4⁺/CD8⁺ status.

Results

Findings of this study showed that, khat and its major metabolite, cathinone, can positively affect immune system in dose dependent manner. When doses of crude khat extract and cathinone increase, the induction of humeral (IgG and IgM) and cellular immune responses were up-regulated significantly (P < 0.05), while at higher dose of khat (200 mg/kg) cellular immune response was suppressed. In support of this, as doses of the two test substances increased, the count of T helper cells (CD4⁺) was significantly increased (P < 0.05), while higher dose significantly reduced whole white blood cell (WBC), CD8⁺, and CD3⁺ counts.

Conclusion

At relatively lower dose (50-100 mg/kg), crude khat extract has immune stimulating property, although higher dose (200 mg/kg) leads to suppression of cellular immune response. Cathinone also share all immune modulating property of its parent compound, khat, but with intense strength. Thus, it calls for further detailed investigation of khat for practical application of the same in human medication.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12865-015-0072-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Antiallergic and antiasthmatic effects of a novel enhydrazinone ester (CEE-1): inhibition of activation of both mast cells and eosinophils

Activation of mast cells and eosinophils is a fundamental process in the pathophysiology of allergic diseases. We have previously reported that the novel enhydrazinone ester CEE-1 (ethyl 4-phenylhydrazinocyclohex-3-en-2-oxo-6-phenyl-1-oate) possesses potent anti-inflammatory activity. We have now tested whether the compound also possesses antiallergic and antiasthmatic effects in vitro and in vivo. The compound significantly inhibited degranulation and leukotriene C4 (LTC4) release from activated human eosinophils, as well as IgE-dependent degranulation and LTC4 release from passively sensitized rat basophilic leukemia cells and bone marrow-derived mouse mast cells. In human eosinophils, the drug was more potent in inhibiting degranulation than LTC4 release {IC50 = 0.4 μM [confidence interval (CI): 0.1-0.9] versus 3.8 μM (CI: 0.9-8.3)}, whereas in mast cells the reverse was essentially the case. The drug did not affect stimulus-induced calcium transients in eosinophils but significantly inhibited early phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 and p38-mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). In vivo, topical application of 4.5-15 mg/kg of the compound significantly inhibited allergen-induced passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in mice. Similarly, in the mouse asthma model, the intranasal administration of 6.5-12.5 mg/kg of the compound significantly inhibited bronchial inflammation and eosinophil accumulation in bronchial lavage fluid, as well as abolishing airway hyper-responsiveness to methacholine. These results show that CEE-1 inhibits the activation of both mast cells and eosinophils in vitro, probably by blocking MAPK-activation pathways, and that these effects are translated into antiallergic and antiasthmatic effects in vivo. The compound, therefore, has potential application in the treatment of asthma and other allergic diseases.

Loss of surface beta-2 adrenoceptors accounts for the insensitivity of cultured human monocytes to beta-2 adrenoceptor agonists

The short-acting beta-2 adrenoceptor agonists (β(2)-agonists), such as salbutamol, are effective bronchodilators used to treat asthma. They lack significant anti-inflammatory effect in vivo as well as on isolated alveolar macrophages even though they exhibit this effect on freshly isolated monocytes. The purpose of this study was to determine if this observation is related to a change in the expression and/or function of surface β(2)-receptors during the differentiation of these cells to macrophages. Purified monocytes, cultured for 1-48 h were pre-treated with the β(2)-agonists (salbutamol or procaterol) or PGE(2) before being stimulated with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Subsequently, the amount of TNF-α (a typical inflammatory mediator) released over 24 h, as well as agonist-stimulated cAMP, were determined by enzyme immunoassays. Western blotting techniques were used to study the expression of the membrane β(2)-receptor protein. Results showed that in freshly isolated human monocytes, both the β(2)-agonists and PGE(2) significantly inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α release as well as increased intracellular cAMP. After culturing adherent monocytes for 24-48 h, the ability of the β(2)-agonists to produce both effects was completely lost, whereas that of PGE(2) was essentially intact. Western blotting data showed a near complete loss of surface expression of β(2)-receptors in cells cultured for ≥24 h. These results show that as human monocytes adhere to surfaces to begin differentiation into macrophages, they selectively lose their surface β(2)-receptors and hence become insensitive to the anti-inflammatory effect of β(2)-agonists. This may explain why β(2)-agonists lack significant anti-inflammatory effect on alveolar macrophages or in clinical asthma.

Mepacrine treatment attenuates allergic airway remodeling segregated from airway inflammation in mice

Asthma is a chronic airway disease characterized by increased airway hyperresponsiveness, airway inflammation, and airway remodeling including collagen deposition in subepithelial regions. We have shown earlier that mepacrine has anti-inflammatory activity and decreased the features of airway remodeling in a subacute model of asthma, when administered during the inflammatory phase. But it was not clear whether the reduction of airway remodeling by mepacrine was a direct effect or indirectly related to the reduction in the airway inflammation. In this study, we determined the effect of mepacrine on airway remodeling and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) in a chronic model of asthma which showed the features of airway inflammation in the initial stage (inflammation predominant stage) and airway remodeling with mild airway inflammation in a later stage (remodeling predominant stage). Mepacrine was administered only in the later stage that more accurately simulates human asthma, where airway remodeling already exists at the time of diagnosis. The remodeling predominant stage was associated with high levels of Th2 cytokines like IL-4 and IL-13, increase in the levels of profibrotic mediators such as arginase and TGF-β, and increased collagen deposition. These were efficiently attenuated by mepacrine treatment and led to a significant reduction in AHR. Thus, we conclude from this study that mepacrine has direct effects on established airway remodeling independent of its anti-inflammatory effects.