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Przywara K, Adamski R, Książczyk M, Suchodolski J, Cal M. 3-bromopyruvate induces morphological alteration and may initiate programmed cell death in Cryptococcus neoformans cells. Arch Microbiol 2024; 206:153. [PMID: 38472387 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-024-03894-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
3-Bromopyruvate (3BP), known for its potent anticancer properties, also exhibits remarkable efficacy against the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. So far it has been proven that the main fungicidal activity of 3BP is based on ATP depletion and a reduction of intracellular level of glutathione. The presented study includes a broad range of methods to further investigate the mechanistic effects of 3BP on C. neoformans cells. The use of flow cytometry allowed a thorough examination of their survival during 3BP treatment, while observations using electron microscopy made it possible to note the changes in cellular morphology. Utilizing ruthenium red, the study suggests a mitochondrial pathway may initiate programmed cell death in response to 3BP. Analysis of free radical generation and gene expression changes supports this hypothesis. These findings enhance comprehension of 3BP's mechanisms in fungal cells, paving the way for its potential application as a therapeutic agent against cryptococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Przywara
- Department of Mycology and Genetics, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland.
| | - Ryszard Adamski
- Laboratory of Microscopic Techniques, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Marta Książczyk
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jakub Suchodolski
- Department of Mycology and Genetics, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Magdalena Cal
- Department of Mycology and Genetics, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
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2
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Mendes MIP, Arnaut LG. Redaporfin Development for Photodynamic Therapy and its Combination with Glycolysis Inhibitors. Photochem Photobiol 2022; 99:769-776. [PMID: 36564949 DOI: 10.1111/php.13770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) remains an underutilized treatment modality in oncology. Many efforts have been dedicated to the development of better photosensitizers, better formulations and delivery methods, rigorous planning of light dose distribution in tissues, mechanistic insight, improvement of treatment protocols and combinations with other therapeutic agents. Hopefully, progress in all these fields will eventually expand the use of PDT. Here we offer a brief review of our own contribution to the development of a photosensitizer for PDT - redaporfin - currently in Phase II clinical trials, and present data on its combination with two glycolysis inhibitors: 2-deoxyglucose and 3-bromopyruvate. We show that 3-bromopyruvate is more cytotoxic to a carcinoma cell line (CT26) than to a normal fibroblast (3T3) cell line, and that this selectivity is maintained in the in vitro combination with redaporfin-PDT. This combination was investigated in BALB/c mice with large subcutaneous CT26 tumors and it is shown that the cure rate in the combination is higher (33% cures) than in PDT (11% cures) or in 3-bromopyruvate (no cures) alone. The combination of redaporfin-PDT with 3-bromopyruvate illustrates the potential of combination therapies and how PDT benefits can be enhanced by systemic drugs with complementary targets.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luis G Arnaut
- CQC-IMS, Department of Chemistry, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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3
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Vital PDS, Bonatelli M, Dias MP, de Salis LVV, Pinto MT, Baltazar F, Maria-Engler SS, Pinheiro C. 3-Bromopyruvate Suppresses the Malignant Phenotype of Vemurafenib-Resistant Melanoma Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232415650. [PMID: 36555289 PMCID: PMC9779063 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232415650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) BRAF mutations are associated with high mortality and are a substantial factor in therapeutic decisions. Therapies targeting BRAF-mutated tumors, such as vemurafenib (PLX), have significantly improved the overall survival of melanoma patients. However, patient relapse and low response rates remain challenging, even with contemporary therapeutic alternatives. Highly proliferative tumors often rely on glycolysis to sustain their aggressive phenotype. 3-bromopyruvate (3BP) is a promising glycolysis inhibitor reported to mitigate resistance in tumors. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of 3BP as an antineoplastic agent for PLX-resistant melanoma treatment. (2) The effect of 3BP alone or in combination with PLX on viability, proliferation, colony formation, cell death, migration, invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal marker and metabolic protein expression, extracellular glucose and lactate, and reactive species were evaluated in two PLX-resistant melanoma cell lines. (3) 3BP treatment, which was more effective as monotherapy than combined with PLX, disturbed the metabolic and epithelial-mesenchymal profile of PLX-resistant cells, impairing their proliferation, migration, and invasion and triggering cell death. (4) 3BP monotherapy is a potent metabolic-disrupting agent against PLX-resistant melanomas, supporting the suppression of the malignant phenotype in this type of neoplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik da Silva Vital
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, SP, Brazil
| | - Murilo Bonatelli
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, SP, Brazil
| | - Marina Pereira Dias
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, SP, Brazil
| | - Larissa Vedovato Vilela de Salis
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, SP, Brazil
- Barretos School of Health Sciences Dr. Paulo Prata—FACISB, Barretos 14785-002, SP, Brazil
| | - Mariana Tomazini Pinto
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, SP, Brazil
| | - Fátima Baltazar
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Silvya Stuchi Maria-Engler
- Clinical Chemistry and Toxicology Department, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 04023-901, SP, Brazil
| | - Céline Pinheiro
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, SP, Brazil
- Barretos School of Health Sciences Dr. Paulo Prata—FACISB, Barretos 14785-002, SP, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-(17)-3321-3060
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4
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Sołek P, Mytych J, Łannik E, Majchrowicz L, Koszła O, Koziorowska A, Koziorowski M. Cancer on-target: Selective enhancement of 3-bromopyruvate action by an electromagnetic field in vitro. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 180:153-164. [PMID: 35063649 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the modern world. Nowadays, most often treatment methods used in clinical oncology are drug therapies applied as monotherapy or combined therapy. Additionally, recent studies focus on developing approaches with the use of a drug in combination with other factors, not only chemical, to improve the probability and magnitude of therapeutic responses and reduce the possibility of chemoresistance. Such a promising factor seems to be an electromagnetic field (EMF) application. Here, we tested the effect of continuous or pulsed EMF on human cancer cells of different origin treated or not with 3-bromopyruvate, a small and powerful alkylating agent with a broad spectrum of anticancer activities. We provide strong evidence suggesting that ELF-EMF potentiates the anti-cancer activity of 3BP in human cancer cells through inhibition of TNFα secretion leading to irreversible p21/p27-dependent G2/M cell cycle arrest and finally cancer cell death. Our findings suggest a novel approach combining pharmacotherapy with ELF-EMF. In conclusion, electromagnetic field seems to be a potential modulator of anti-cancer efficacy of 3BP while combined therapy offers off-target activity. These features contribute to the development of innovative therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemysław Sołek
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093, Lublin, Poland; Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Rzeszow, 35-310, Rzeszow, Poland.
| | - Jennifer Mytych
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Rzeszow, 35-310, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Ewelina Łannik
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Rzeszow, 35-310, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Lena Majchrowicz
- BRAINCITY, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology PAS, 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Oliwia Koszła
- Department of Synthesis and Chemical Technology of Pharmaceutical Substances with Computer Modeling Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Koziorowska
- College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszow, 35-310, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Marek Koziorowski
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Rzeszow, 35-310, Rzeszow, Poland
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5
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Sharma ND, Keewan E, Matlawska-Wasowska K. Metabolic Reprogramming and Cell Adhesion in Acute Leukemia Adaptation to the CNS Niche. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:767510. [PMID: 34957100 PMCID: PMC8703109 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.767510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Involvement of the Central Nervous System (CNS) in acute leukemia confers poor prognosis and lower overall survival. Existing CNS-directed therapies are associated with a significant risk of short- or long-term toxicities. Leukemic cells can metabolically adapt and survive in the microenvironment of the CNS. The supporting role of the CNS microenvironment in leukemia progression and dissemination has not received sufficient attention. Understanding the mechanism by which leukemic cells survive in the nutrient-poor and oxygen-deprived CNS microenvironment will lead to the development of more specific and less toxic therapies. Here, we review the current literature regarding the roles of metabolic reprogramming in leukemic cell adhesion and survival in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitesh D Sharma
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology-Oncology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, United States.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Esra'a Keewan
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology-Oncology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, United States.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Ksenia Matlawska-Wasowska
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology-Oncology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, United States.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
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6
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Ciscato F, Ferrone L, Masgras I, Laquatra C, Rasola A. Hexokinase 2 in Cancer: A Prima Donna Playing Multiple Characters. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094716. [PMID: 33946854 PMCID: PMC8125560 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Hexokinases are a family of ubiquitous exose-phosphorylating enzymes that prime glucose for intracellular utilization. Hexokinase 2 (HK2) is the most active isozyme of the family, mainly expressed in insulin-sensitive tissues. HK2 induction in most neoplastic cells contributes to their metabolic rewiring towards aerobic glycolysis, and its genetic ablation inhibits malignant growth in mouse models. HK2 can dock to mitochondria, where it performs additional functions in autophagy regulation and cell death inhibition that are independent of its enzymatic activity. The recent definition of HK2 localization to contact points between mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum called Mitochondria Associated Membranes (MAMs) has unveiled a novel HK2 role in regulating intracellular Ca2+ fluxes. Here, we propose that HK2 localization in MAMs of tumor cells is key in sustaining neoplastic progression, as it acts as an intersection node between metabolic and survival pathways. Disrupting these functions by targeting HK2 subcellular localization can constitute a promising anti-tumor strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Ciscato
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; (L.F.); (I.M.); (C.L.)
- Correspondence: (F.C.); (A.R.)
| | - Lavinia Ferrone
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; (L.F.); (I.M.); (C.L.)
| | - Ionica Masgras
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; (L.F.); (I.M.); (C.L.)
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, 56124 Pias, Italy
| | - Claudio Laquatra
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; (L.F.); (I.M.); (C.L.)
| | - Andrea Rasola
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; (L.F.); (I.M.); (C.L.)
- Correspondence: (F.C.); (A.R.)
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7
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Panina SB, Pei J, Kirienko NV. Mitochondrial metabolism as a target for acute myeloid leukemia treatment. Cancer Metab 2021; 9:17. [PMID: 33883040 PMCID: PMC8058979 DOI: 10.1186/s40170-021-00253-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute myeloid leukemias (AML) are a group of aggressive hematologic malignancies resulting from acquired genetic mutations in hematopoietic stem cells that affect patients of all ages. Despite decades of research, standard chemotherapy still remains ineffective for some AML subtypes and is often inappropriate for older patients or those with comorbidities. Recently, a number of studies have identified unique mitochondrial alterations that lead to metabolic vulnerabilities in AML cells that may present viable treatment targets. These include mtDNA, dependency on oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial metabolism, and pro-survival signaling, as well as reactive oxygen species generation and mitochondrial dynamics. Moreover, some mitochondria-targeting chemotherapeutics and their combinations with other compounds have been FDA-approved for AML treatment. Here, we review recent studies that illuminate the effects of drugs and synergistic drug combinations that target diverse biomolecules and metabolic pathways related to mitochondria and their promise in experimental studies, clinical trials, and existing chemotherapeutic regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jingqi Pei
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
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8
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Garcia SN, Guedes RC, Marques MM. Unlocking the Potential of HK2 in Cancer Metabolism and Therapeutics. Curr Med Chem 2020; 26:7285-7322. [PMID: 30543165 DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666181213092652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Glycolysis is a tightly regulated process in which several enzymes, such as Hexokinases (HKs), play crucial roles. Cancer cells are characterized by specific expression levels of several isoenzymes in different metabolic pathways and these features offer possibilities for therapeutic interventions. Overexpression of HKs (mostly of the HK2 isoform) have been consistently reported in numerous types of cancer. Moreover, deletion of HK2 has been shown to decrease cancer cell proliferation without explicit side effects in animal models, which suggests that targeting HK2 is a viable strategy for cancer therapy. HK2 inhibition causes a substantial decrease of glycolysis that affects multiple pathways of central metabolism and also destabilizes the mitochondrial outer membrane, ultimately enhancing cell death. Although glycolysis inhibition has met limited success, partly due to low selectivity for specific isoforms and excessive side effects of the reported HK inhibitors, there is ample ground for progress. The current review is focused on HK2 inhibition, envisaging the development of potent and selective anticancer agents. The information on function, expression, and activity of HKs is presented, along with their structures, known inhibitors, and reported effects of HK2 ablation/inhibition. The structural features of the different isozymes are discussed, aiming to stimulate a more rational approach to the design of selective HK2 inhibitors with appropriate drug-like properties. Particular attention is dedicated to a structural and sequence comparison of the structurally similar HK1 and HK2 isoforms, aiming to unveil differences that could be explored therapeutically. Finally, several additional catalytic- and non-catalytic roles on different pathways and diseases, recently attributed to HK2, are reviewed and their implications briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara N Garcia
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal.,iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita C Guedes
- iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - M Matilde Marques
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
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Hexokinase II inhibition by 3-bromopyruvate sensitizes myeloid leukemic cells K-562 to anti-leukemic drug, daunorubicin. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20190880. [PMID: 31506393 PMCID: PMC6757186 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20190880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
An increased metabolic flux towards Warburg phenotype promotes survival, proliferation and causes therapeutic resistance, in leukemic cells. Hexokinase-II (HK-II) is expressed predominantly in cancer cells, which promotes Warburg metabolic phenotype and protects the cancer cells from drug-induced apoptosis. The HK-II inhibitor 3- Bromopyruvate (3-BP) dissociates HK-II from mitochondrial complex, which leads to enhanced sensitization of leukemic cells to anti-leukemic drugs. In the present study, we analyzed the Warburg characteristics viz. HK-II expression, glucose uptake, endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) level of leukemic cell lines K-562 and THP-1 and then investigated if 3-BP can sensitize the leukemic cells K-562 to anti-leukemic drug Daunorubicin (DNR). We found that both K-562 and THP-1 cells have multi-fold high levels of HK-II, glucose uptake and endogenous ROS with respect to normal PBMCs. The combined treatment (CT) of 3-BP and DNR showed synergistic effect on the growth inhibition (GI) of K-562 and THP-1 cells. This growth inhibitory effect was attributed to 3-BP induced S-phase block and DNR induced G2/M block, resulted in reduced proliferation due to CT. Further, CT resulted in low HK-II level in mitochondrial fraction, high intracellular calcium and elevated apoptosis as compared with individual treatment of DNR and 3-BP. Moreover, CT caused enhanced DNA damage and hyperpolarized mitochondria, leading to cell death. Taken together, these results suggest that 3-BP synergises the anticancer effects of DNR in the chronic myeloid leukemic cell K-562, and may act as an effective adjuvant to anti-leukemic chemotherapy.
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Yadav S, Pandey SK, Goel Y, Temre MK, Singh SM. Antimetabolic Agent 3-Bromopyruvate Exerts Myelopotentiating Action in a Murine Host Bearing a Progressively Growing Ascitic Thymoma. Immunol Invest 2019; 49:425-442. [PMID: 31264492 DOI: 10.1080/08820139.2019.1627368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Tumor growth and its chemotherapeutic regimens manifest myelosuppression, which is one of the possible causes underlying the limited success of immunotherapeutic anticancer strategies. Hence, approaches are being designed to develop safer therapeutic regimens that may have minimal damaging action on the process of myelopoiesis. 3-Bromopyruvate (3-BP) is a highly potent antimetabolic agent displaying a broad spectrum antineoplastic activity. However, 3-BP has not been investigated for its effect on the process of myelopoiesis in a tumor-bearing host. Hence, in this investigation, we studied the myelopoietic effect of in vivo administration of 3-BP to a murine host bearing a progressively growing ascitic thymoma designated as Dalton's lymphoma (DL). 3-BP administration to the DL-bearing mice resulted in a myelopotentiating action, reflected by an elevated count of bone marrow cells (BMC) accompanied by augmented proliferative ability and a declined induction of apoptosis. The BMC of 3-BP-administered mice displayed enhanced responsiveness to macrophage colony-stimulating factor for colony-forming ability of myeloid lineage along with an enhanced differentiation of F4/80+ bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). BMDM differentiated from the BMC of 3-BP-administered DL-bearing mice showed an augmented response to lipopolysaccharide and interferon-γ for activation, displaying an augmented tumor cytotoxicity, expression of cytokines, reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, CD11c, TLR-4, and HSP70. These features are indicative of the differentiation of M1 subtype of macrophages. Thus, this study demonstrates the myelopotentiating action of 3-BP, indicating its hematopoietic safety and potential for reinforcing the differentiation of macrophages in a tumor-bearing host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saveg Yadav
- School of Biotechnology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Shrish Kumar Pandey
- School of Biotechnology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Yugal Goel
- School of Biotechnology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Mithlesh Kumar Temre
- School of Biotechnology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Sukh Mahendra Singh
- School of Biotechnology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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11
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Pichla M, Sroka J, Pienkowska N, Piwowarczyk K, Madeja Z, Bartosz G, Sadowska-Bartosz I. Metastatic prostate cancer cells are highly sensitive to 3-bromopyruvic acid. Life Sci 2019; 227:212-223. [PMID: 30928407 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.03.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Revised: 03/23/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
AIMS 3-Bromopyruvate (3-BP), an alkylating agent and a glycolytic inhibitor, is a promising anticancer agent, which can be efficient also against multidrug-resistant cancer cells. The aim of this study was to examine how 3-BP affects the survival and mobility of rat (MAT-LyLu and AT-2) and human (DU-145 and PC-3) metastatic prostate cancer cell lines. MAIN METHODS Cytotoxicity was estimated with Neutral Red. Cell mobility was analyzed by time-lapse microscopic monitoring of trajectories of individual cells at 5-min intervals for 6h. ATP was estimated with luciferin/luciferase and glutathione (GSH) with o-phthalaldehyde. Actin cytoskeleton was visualized with phalloidin conjugated with Atto-488. KEY FINDINGS All metastatic prostate cell lines studied were very sensitive to 3-BP (IC50 of 4-26μM). 3-Bromopyruvate drastically reduced cell movement even at concentrations of 5-10μM after 1h treatment. This compound depleted also cellular ATP and GSH, and disrupted actin cytoskeleton. SIGNIFICANCE The data obtained suggest that 3-BP can potentially be useful for treatment of metastatic prostate cancer and, especially, be efficient in limiting metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Pichla
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Agriculture, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza Street 4, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Jolanta Sroka
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa Street 7, 30-387 Cracow, Poland
| | - Natalia Pienkowska
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Agriculture, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza Street 4, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Piwowarczyk
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa Street 7, 30-387 Cracow, Poland
| | - Zbigniew Madeja
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa Street 7, 30-387 Cracow, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Bartosz
- Department of Molecular Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łódź, Pomorska Street 141/143, 90-236 Łódź, Poland
| | - Izabela Sadowska-Bartosz
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Agriculture, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza Street 4, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland.
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12
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Pulaski L, Jatczak-Pawlik I, Sobalska-Kwapis M, Strapagiel D, Bartosz G, Sadowska-Bartosz I. 3-Bromopyruvate induces expression of antioxidant genes. Free Radic Res 2019; 53:170-178. [PMID: 30362385 DOI: 10.1080/10715762.2018.1541176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
An alkylating compound, 3-bromopyruvic acid (3-3-bromopyruvic acid (BP)) is a promising anti-cancer agent, potentially able to act on multidrug-resistant cells. Its action has been attributed mainly to inhibition of glycolysis. This compound induces also oxidative stress at a cellular level. The effects of 3-BP on gene expression have not been studied although they may determine the survival of cells exposed to 3-BP. The aim of this paper was to examine the effect 3-BP on gene expression pattern in breast MCF-7 cancer cells. Detection of the differences in gene expression was performed using microarrays and dysregulated genes were validated by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Exposure of cells to 100 µM 3-BP for 6, 12 and 24 increased expression and diminished expression of 39 and 6 genes, respectively. Among the induced genes, 22 belong to general cellular stress response genes, maintenance genes involved in redox homeostasis, responding to oxidative stress (among them metallothioneins, low-molecular-weight thiol homeostasis enzymes and genes coding for NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases operating on complex organic substrates, including aldo-keto reductases). These results demonstrate that transient oxidative stress in cells exposed to 3-BP is followed by antioxidant response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukasz Pulaski
- a Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation, Institute of Medical Biology , Polish Academy of Sciences , Lodz , Poland.,b Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Molecular Biophysics , University of Lodz , Lodz , Poland
| | - Izabela Jatczak-Pawlik
- b Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Molecular Biophysics , University of Lodz , Lodz , Poland
| | - Marta Sobalska-Kwapis
- c Biobank Lab, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Molecular Biophysics , University of Lodz , Lodz , Poland
| | - Dominik Strapagiel
- c Biobank Lab, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Molecular Biophysics , University of Lodz , Lodz , Poland
| | - Grzegorz Bartosz
- b Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Molecular Biophysics , University of Lodz , Lodz , Poland
| | - Izabela Sadowska-Bartosz
- d Department of Analytical Biochemistry Faculty of Biology and Agriculture , University of Rzeszow , Rzeszow , Poland
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Tumor Energy Metabolism and Potential of 3-Bromopyruvate as an Inhibitor of Aerobic Glycolysis: Implications in Tumor Treatment. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11030317. [PMID: 30845728 PMCID: PMC6468516 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11030317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor formation and growth depend on various biological metabolism processes that are distinctly different with normal tissues. Abnormal energy metabolism is one of the typical characteristics of tumors. It has been proven that most tumor cells highly rely on aerobic glycolysis to obtain energy rather than mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) even in the presence of oxygen, a phenomenon called “Warburg effect”. Thus, inhibition of aerobic glycolysis becomes an attractive strategy to specifically kill tumor cells, while normal cells remain unaffected. In recent years, a small molecule alkylating agent, 3-bromopyruvate (3-BrPA), being an effective glycolytic inhibitor, has shown great potential as a promising antitumor drug. Not only it targets glycolysis process, but also inhibits mitochondrial OXPHOS in tumor cells. Excellent antitumor effects of 3-BrPA were observed in cultured cells and tumor-bearing animal models. In this review, we described the energy metabolic pathways of tumor cells, mechanism of action and cellular targets of 3-BrPA, antitumor effects, and the underlying mechanism of 3-BrPA alone or in combination with other antitumor drugs (e.g., cisplatin, doxorubicin, daunorubicin, 5-fluorouracil, etc.) in vitro and in vivo. In addition, few human case studies of 3-BrPA were also involved. Finally, the novel chemotherapeutic strategies of 3-BrPA, including wafer, liposomal nanoparticle, aerosol, and conjugate formulations, were also discussed for future clinical application.
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Ko YH, Niedźwiecka K, Casal M, Pedersen PL, Ułaszewski S. 3-Bromopyruvate as a potent anticancer therapy in honor and memory of the late Professor André Goffeau. Yeast 2018; 36:211-221. [PMID: 30462852 DOI: 10.1002/yea.3367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
3-Bromopyruvate (3BP) is a small, highly reactive molecule formed by bromination of pyruvate. In the year 2000, the antitumor properties of 3BP were discovered. Studies using animal models proved its high efficacy for anticancer therapy with no apparent side effects. This was also found to be the case in a limited number of cancer patients treated with 3BP. Due to the "Warburg effect," most tumor cells exhibit metabolic changes, for example, increased glucose consumption and lactic acid production resulting from mitochondrial-bound overexpressed hexokinase 2. Such alterations promote cell migration, immortality via inhibition of apoptosis, and less dependence on the availability of oxygen. Significantly, these attributes also make cancer cells more sensitive to agents, such as 3BP that inhibits energy production pathways without harming normal cells. This selectivity of 3BP is mainly due to overexpressed monocarboxylate transporters in cancer cells. Furthermore, 3BP is not a substrate for any pumps belonging to the ATP-binding cassette superfamily, which confers resistance to a variety of drugs. Also, 3BP has the capacity to induce multiple forms of cell death, by, for example, ATP depletion resulting from inactivation of both glycolytic and mitochondrial energy production pathways. In addition to its anticancer property, 3BP also exhibits antimicrobial activity. Various species of microorganisms are characterized by different susceptibility to 3BP inhibition. Among tested strains, the most sensitive was found to be the pathogenic yeast-like fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. Significantly, studies carried out in our laboratories have shown that 3BP exhibits a remarkable capacity to eradicate cancer cells, fungi, and algae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young H Ko
- KoDiscovery, LLC, University of Maryland BioPark, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Margarida Casal
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Biology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Peter L Pedersen
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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15
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Yamada M, Kagaya M, Noguchi N, Ueki S, Hasunuma N, Osada SI, Manabe M. Topical 3-bromopyruvate is a novel targeted therapy for melanoma in a preclinical model. J Dermatol Sci 2018; 92:134-142. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2018.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Zhang X, Chen J, Ai Z, Zhang Z, Lin L, Wei H. Targeting glycometabolic reprogramming to restore the sensitivity of leukemia drug-resistant K562/ADM cells to adriamycin. Life Sci 2018; 215:1-10. [PMID: 30473023 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2018.10.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Mounting studies have confirmed that cancer cells reprogram their metabolism during early carcinogenesis to develop many other hallmarks, and demonstrated a relationship between aerobic glycolysis and the occurrence of drug resistance. However, the molecular mechanisms and role in tumor drug resistance of aerobic glycolysis remain unclear. MAIN METHODS We analyzed differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at the RNA level between the multi-drug resistance (MDR) leukemia cell line K562/adriamycin (ADM) and its parental, drug-sensitive K562 cell line. Clustering and enrichment analysis of DEGs was performed. Oxamate, a lactic dehydrogenase inhibitor were used to assess the effect of glycolysis inhibition on ADM susceptibility and the expression of the enriched DEGs in K562/ADM cells. KEY FINDINGS A total of 1742 DEGs were detected between the K562/ADM and K562 cell lines. The differential expression of unigenes encoding enzymes involved in glycometabolism signifies that there was a greater aerobic glycolysis flux in K562/ADM cells. The PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, which is related to glucose metabolism, showed representative differential enrichment and up-regulation in K562/ADM cells. Oxamate improved and re-sensitized the therapeutic effect of ADM in ADM-resistant cells by inhibiting aerobic glycolysis either directly or indirectly by down-regulation of the AKT-mTOR pathway. SIGNIFICANCE Our findings suggest that ADM resistance mediated by the increase of aerobic glycolysis, which related to the over-activation of the AKT-mTOR-c-Myc pathway in MDR leukemia cells. Inhibition of aerobic glycolysis and down-regulation of signaling pathways involved in aerobic glycolysis represent a potential chemotherapeutic strategy for sensitizing leukemic cells and thereby overcoming MDR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Ziying Ai
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Zhewen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Li Lin
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Hulai Wei
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China.
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17
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Glutathione may have implications in the design of 3-bromopyruvate treatment protocols for both fungal and algal infections as well as multiple myeloma. Oncotarget 2018; 7:65614-65626. [PMID: 27582536 PMCID: PMC5323179 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In different fungal and algal species, the intracellular concentration of reduced glutathione (GSH) correlates closely with their susceptibility to killing by the small molecule alkylating agent 3-bromopyruvate (3BP). Additionally, in the case of Cryptococcus neoformans cells 3BP exhibits a synergistic effect with buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), a known GSH depletion agent. This effect was observed when 3BP and BSO were used together at concentrations respectively of 4-5 and almost 8 times lower than their Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC). Finally, at different concentrations of 3BP (equal to the half-MIC, MIC and double-MIC in a case of fungi, 1 mM and 2.5 mM for microalgae and 25, 50, 100 μM for human multiple myeloma (MM) cells), a significant decrease in GSH concentration is observed inside microorganisms as well as tumor cells. In contrast to the GSH concentration decrease, the presence of 3BP at concentrations corresponding to sub-MIC values or half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) clearly results in increasing the expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in the synthesis of GSH in Cryptococcus neoformans and MM cells. Moreover, as shown for the first time in the MM cell model, the drastic decrease in the ATP level and GSH concentration and the increase in the amount of ROS caused by 3BP ultimately results in cell death.
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Protective and recuperative effects of 3-bromopyruvate on immunological, hepatic and renal homeostasis in a murine host bearing ascitic lymphoma: Implication of niche dependent differential roles of macrophages. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 99:970-985. [PMID: 29689702 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.01.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2017] [Revised: 01/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
3-bromopyruvate (3-BP) possesses promising antineoplastic potential, however, its effects on immunological homeostasis vis a vis hepatic and renal functions in a tumor bearing host remain unclear. Therefore, the effect of 3-BP administration to a murine host bearing a progressively growing tumor of thymoma origin, designated as Dalton's lymphoma (DL), on immunological, renal and hepatic homeostasis was investigated. Administration of 3-BP (4 mg/kg) to the tumor bearing host reversed tumor growth associated thymic atrophy and splenomegaly, accompanied by altered cell survival and repertoire of splenic, bone marrow and tumor associated macrophages (TAM). TAM displayed augmented phagocytic, tumoricidal activities and production of IL-1 and TNF-α. 3-BP-induced activation of TAM was of indirect nature, mediated by IFN-γ. Blood count of T lymphocytes (CD4+ & CD8+) and NK cells showed a rise in 3-BP administered tumor bearing mice. Moreover, 3-BP administration triggered modulation of immunomodulatory cytokines in serum along with refurbished hepatic and renal functions. The study indicates the role of altered cytokines balance, site specific differential macrophage functions and myelopoiesis in restoration of lymphoid organ homeostasis in 3-BP administered tumor bearing host. These observations will have long lasting impact in understanding of alternate mechanisms underlying the antitumor action of 3-BP accompanying appraisal of safety issues for optimizing its antineoplastic actions.
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Yadav S, Pandey SK, Kumar A, Kujur PK, Singh RP, Singh SM. Antitumor and chemosensitizing action of 3-bromopyruvate: Implication of deregulated metabolism. Chem Biol Interact 2017; 270:73-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2017.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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El Sayed SM, Baghdadi H, Zolaly M, Almaramhy HH, Ayat M, Donki JG. The promising anticancer drug 3-bromopyruvate is metabolized through glutathione conjugation which affects chemoresistance and clinical practice: An evidence-based view. Med Hypotheses 2017; 100:67-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2017.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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21
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Harguindey S, Stanciu D, Devesa J, Alfarouk K, Cardone RA, Polo Orozco JD, Devesa P, Rauch C, Orive G, Anitua E, Roger S, Reshkin SJ. Cellular acidification as a new approach to cancer treatment and to the understanding and therapeutics of neurodegenerative diseases. Semin Cancer Biol 2017; 43:157-179. [PMID: 28193528 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
During the last few years, the understanding of the dysregulated hydrogen ion dynamics and reversed proton gradient of cancer cells has resulted in a new and integral pH-centric paradigm in oncology, a translational model embracing from cancer etiopathogenesis to treatment. The abnormalities of intracellular alkalinization along with extracellular acidification of all types of solid tumors and leukemic cells have never been described in any other disease and now appear to be a specific hallmark of malignancy. As a consequence of this intracellular acid-base homeostatic failure, the attempt to induce cellular acidification using proton transport inhibitors and other intracellular acidifiers of different origins is becoming a new therapeutic concept and selective target of cancer treatment, both as a metabolic mediator of apoptosis and in the overcoming of multiple drug resistance (MDR). Importantly, there is increasing data showing that different ion channels contribute to mediate significant aspects of cancer pH regulation and etiopathogenesis. Finally, we discuss the extension of this new pH-centric oncological paradigm into the opposite metabolic and homeostatic acid-base situation found in human neurodegenerative diseases (HNDDs), which opens novel concepts in the prevention and treatment of HNDDs through the utilization of a cohort of neural and non-neural derived hormones and human growth factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Harguindey
- Institute of Clinical Biology and Metabolism, c) Postas 13, 01004 Vitoria, Spain.
| | - Daniel Stanciu
- Institute of Clinical Biology and Metabolism, c) Postas 13, 01004 Vitoria, Spain
| | - Jesús Devesa
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain and Scientific Director of Foltra Medical Centre, Teo, Spain
| | - Khalid Alfarouk
- Al-Ghad International Colleges for Applied Medical Sciences, Al-Madinah Al-Munawarah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rosa Angela Cardone
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | | | - Pablo Devesa
- Research and Development, Medical Centre Foltra, Teo, Spain
| | - Cyril Rauch
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham,College Road, Sutton Bonington, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Gorka Orive
- Laboratory of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of the Basque Country, Networking Biomedical Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine, CIBER-BBN, SLFPB-EHU, 01006 Vitoria, Spain
| | - Eduardo Anitua
- BTI Biotechnology Institute ImasD, S.L. C/Jacinto Quincoces, 39, 01007 Vitoria, Spain
| | - Sébastien Roger
- Inserm UMR1069, University François-Rabelais of Tours,10 Boulevard Tonnellé, 37032 Tours, France; Institut Universitaire de France, 1 Rue Descartes, Paris 75231, France
| | - Stephan J Reshkin
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
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de Blas E, Estañ MC, Del Carmen Gómez de Frutos M, Ramos J, Del Carmen Boyano-Adánez M, Aller P. Selected polyphenols potentiate the apoptotic efficacy of glycolytic inhibitors in human acute myeloid leukemia cell lines. Regulation by protein kinase activities. Cancer Cell Int 2016; 16:70. [PMID: 27610044 PMCID: PMC5015235 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-016-0345-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The glycolysis inhibitor 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) is a safe, potentially useful anti-tumour drug, but its efficacy is normally low when used alone. Recent studies indicated that 2-DG stimulates the PI3K/Akt and MEK/ERK defensive pathways, which limits the apoptotic efficacy in tumour cell lines. We hypothesized that co-treatment with selected polyphenols could improve 2-DG-provoked apoptosis by preventing defensive kinase activation. Methods Cell proliferation was measured by cell counting or the MTT assay. Cell cycle, apoptosis and necrosis were determined by propidium iodide staining and/or annexin V labeling followed by flow cytometry. Mitochondria pore transition and depolarization were determined by calcein-ATM or rhodamine 123 labeling followed flow cytometry. Intracellular reactive oxygen species and GSH were determined by dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate or monochlorobimane labeling followed by flow cytometry or fluorimetry. Expression and phosphorylation of protein kinases were analyzed by the Western blot. Results (i) 2-DG-provoked apoptosis was greatly potentiated by co-treatment with the sub-lethal concentrations of the flavonoid quercetin in human HL60 acute myeloblastic leukemia cells. Allowing for quantitative differences, apoptosis potentiation was also obtained using NB4 promyelocytic and THP-1 promonocytic cells, using curcumin or genistein instead of quercetin, and using lonidamine instead of 2-DG, but not when 2-DG was substituted by incubation in glucose-free medium. (ii) Quercetin and 2-DG rapidly elicited the opening of mitochondria pore transition, which preceded the trigger of apoptosis. (iii) Treatments did not affect GSH levels, and caused disparate effects on reactive oxygen species generation, which did not match the changes in lethality. (iv) 2-DG and lonidamine stimulated defensive Akt and ERK phosphorylation/activation, while glucose starvation was ineffective. Polyphenols prevented the stimulation of Akt phosphorylation, and in some cases also ERK phosphorylation. In addition, quercetin and 2-DG stimulated GSK-3α,β phosphorylation/inactivation, although with different isoform specificity. The use of pharmacologic inhibitors confirmed the importance of these kinase modifications for apoptosis. Conclusions The present in vitro observations suggest that co-treatment with low concentrations of selected polyphenols might represent a manner of improving the poor anti-tumour efficacy of some glycolytic inhibitors, and that apoptosis potentiation may be at least in part explained by the regulation of defensive protein kinase activities. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12935-016-0345-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena de Blas
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CIB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - María Cristina Estañ
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CIB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain ; Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Del Carmen Gómez de Frutos
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CIB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain ; Departamento de Biología de Sistemas, Unidad de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Ramos
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CIB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain ; Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Del Carmen Boyano-Adánez
- Departamento de Biología de Sistemas, Unidad de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Patricio Aller
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CIB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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The anticancer agent 3-bromopyruvate: a simple but powerful molecule taken from the lab to the bedside. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2016; 48:349-62. [PMID: 27457582 DOI: 10.1007/s10863-016-9670-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, 3-bromopyruvate (3BP), a simple alkylating chemical compound was presented to the scientific community as a potent anticancer agent, able to cause rapid toxicity to cancer cells without bystander effects on normal tissues. The altered metabolism of cancers, an essential hallmark for their progression, also became their Achilles heel by facilitating 3BP's selective entry and specific targeting. Treatment with 3BP has been administered in several cancer type models both in vitro and in vivo, either alone or in combination with other anticancer therapeutic approaches. These studies clearly demonstrate 3BP's broad action against multiple cancer types. Clinical trials using 3BP are needed to further support its anticancer efficacy against multiple cancer types thus making it available to more than 30 million patients living with cancer worldwide. This review discusses current knowledge about 3BP related to cancer and discusses also the possibility of its use in future clinical applications as it relates to safety and treatment issues.
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Jiang Y, Nakada D. Cell intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of leukemia cell metabolism. Int J Hematol 2016; 103:607-16. [PMID: 26897135 DOI: 10.1007/s12185-016-1958-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic homeostasis is a fundamental property of cells that becomes dysregulated in cancer to meet the altered, often heightened, demand for metabolism for increased growth and proliferation. Oncogenic mutations can directly change cellular metabolism in a cell-intrinsic manner, priming cells for malignancy. Additionally, cell-extrinsic cues from the microenvironment, such as hypoxia, nutrient availability, oxidative stress, and crosstalk from surrounding cells can also affect cancer cell metabolism, and produce metabolic heterogeneity within the tumor. Here, we highlight recent findings revealing the complexity and adaptability of leukemia cells to coordinate metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajian Jiang
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Daisuke Nakada
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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25
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Ho N, Morrison J, Silva A, Coomber BL. The effect of 3-bromopyruvate on human colorectal cancer cells is dependent on glucose concentration but not hexokinase II expression. Biosci Rep 2016; 36:e00299. [PMID: 26740252 PMCID: PMC4759612 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20150267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer cells heavily rely on the glycolytic pathway regardless of oxygen tension. Hexokinase II (HKII) catalyses the first irreversible step of glycolysis and is often overexpressed in cancer cells. 3-Bromopyruvate (3BP) has been shown to primarily target HKII, and is a promising anti-cancer compound capable of altering critical metabolic pathways in cancer cells. Abnormal vasculature within tumours leads to heterogeneous microenvironments, including glucose availability, which may affect drug sensitivity. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the mechanisms by which 3BP acts on colorectal cancer (CRC) cells with focus on the HKII/Akt signalling axis. High HKII-expressing cell lines were more sensitive to 3BP than low HKII-expressing cells. 3BP-induced rapid Akt phosphorylation at site Thr-308 and cell death via both apoptotic and necrotic mechanisms. Cells grown under lower glucose concentrations showed greater resistance towards 3BP. Cells with HKII knockdown showed no changes in 3BP sensitivity, suggesting the effects of 3BP are independent of HKII expression. These results emphasize the importance of the tumour microenvironment and glucose availability when considering therapeutic approaches involving metabolic modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson Ho
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1
| | - Jodi Morrison
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1
| | - Andreza Silva
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1
| | - Brenda L Coomber
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1
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26
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Kwiatkowska E, Wojtala M, Gajewska A, Soszyński M, Bartosz G, Sadowska-Bartosz I. Effect of 3-bromopyruvate acid on the redox equilibrium in non-invasive MCF-7 and invasive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2015; 48:23-32. [PMID: 26715289 DOI: 10.1007/s10863-015-9637-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Novel approaches to cancer chemotherapy employ metabolic differences between normal and tumor cells, including the high dependence of cancer cells on glycolysis ("Warburg effect"). 3-Bromopyruvate (3-BP), inhibitor of glycolysis, belongs to anticancer drugs basing on this principle. 3-BP was tested for its capacity to kill human non-invasive MCF-7 and invasive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. We found that 3-BP was more toxic for MDA-MB-231 cells than for MCF-7 cells. In both cell lines, a statistically significant decrease of ATP and glutathione was observed in a time- and 3-BP concentration-dependent manner. Transient increases in the level of reactive oxygen species and reactive oxygen species was observed, more pronounced in MCF-7 cells, followed by a decreasing tendency. Activities of glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) decreased in 3-BP treated MDA-MB-231 cells. For MCF-7 cells decreases of GR and GST activities were noted only at the highest concentration of 3-BP.These results point to induction of oxidative stress by 3-BP via depletion of antioxidants and inactivation of antioxidant enzymes, more pronounced in MDA-MB-231 cells, more sensitive to 3-BP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Kwiatkowska
- Department of Molecular Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Martyna Wojtala
- Department of Molecular Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Gajewska
- Department of Molecular Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Mirosław Soszyński
- Department of Molecular Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Bartosz
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology and Agriculture, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Izabela Sadowska-Bartosz
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology and Agriculture, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601, Rzeszów, Poland.
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Bodur C, Karakas B, Timucin AC, Tezil T, Basaga H. AMP-activated protein kinase couples 3-bromopyruvate-induced energy depletion to apoptosis via activation of FoxO3a and upregulation of proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins. Mol Carcinog 2015; 55:1584-1597. [PMID: 26373689 DOI: 10.1002/mc.22411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2015] [Revised: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Most tumors primarily rely on glycolysis rather than mitochondrial respiration for ATP production. This phenomenon, also known as Warburg effect, renders tumors more sensitive to glycolytic disturbances compared to normal cells. 3-bromopyruvate is a potent inhibitor of glycolysis that shows promise as an anticancer drug candidate. Although investigations revealed that 3-BP triggers apoptosis through ATP depletion and subsequent AMPK activation, the underlying molecular mechanisms coupling AMPK to apoptosis are poorly understood. We showed that 3-BP leads to a rapid ATP depletion which was followed by growth inhibition and Bax-dependent apoptosis in HCT116 cells. Apoptosis was accompanied with activation of caspase-9 and -3 while pretreatment with a general caspase inhibitor attenuated cell death. AMPK, p38, JNK, and Akt were phosphorylated immediately upon treatment. Pharmacological inhibition and silencing of AMPK largely inhibited 3-BP-induced apoptosis and reversed phosphorylation of JNK. Transcriptional activity of FoxO3a was dramatically increased subsequent to AMPK-mediated phosphorylation of FoxO3a at Ser413. Cell death analysis of cells transiently transfected with wt or AMPK-phosphorylation-deficient FoxO3 expression plasmids verified the contributory role of AMPK-FoxO3a axis in 3-BP-induced apoptosis. In addition, expression of proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins Bim and Bax were upregulated in an AMPK-dependent manner. Bim was transcriptionally activated in association with FoxO3a activity, while Bax upregulation was abolished in p53-null cells. Together, these data suggest that AMPK couples 3-BP-induced metabolic disruption to intrinsic apoptosis via modulation of FoxO3a-Bim axis and Bax expression. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cagri Bodur
- Molecular Biology, Genetics, and Bioengineering Program, Sabanci University, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Bahriye Karakas
- Molecular Biology, Genetics, and Bioengineering Program, Sabanci University, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ahmet Can Timucin
- Molecular Biology, Genetics, and Bioengineering Program, Sabanci University, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Tugsan Tezil
- Molecular Biology, Genetics, and Bioengineering Program, Sabanci University, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Huveyda Basaga
- Molecular Biology, Genetics, and Bioengineering Program, Sabanci University, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
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Lee M, Yoon JH. Metabolic interplay between glycolysis and mitochondrial oxidation: The reverse Warburg effect and its therapeutic implication. World J Biol Chem 2015; 6:148-61. [PMID: 26322173 PMCID: PMC4549759 DOI: 10.4331/wjbc.v6.i3.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Aerobic glycolysis, i.e., the Warburg effect, may contribute to the aggressive phenotype of hepatocellular carcinoma. However, increasing evidence highlights the limitations of the Warburg effect, such as high mitochondrial respiration and low glycolysis rates in cancer cells. To explain such contradictory phenomena with regard to the Warburg effect, a metabolic interplay between glycolytic and oxidative cells was proposed, i.e., the "reverse Warburg effect". Aerobic glycolysis may also occur in the stromal compartment that surrounds the tumor; thus, the stromal cells feed the cancer cells with lactate and this interaction prevents the creation of an acidic condition in the tumor microenvironment. This concept provides great heterogeneity in tumors, which makes the disease difficult to cure using a single agent. Understanding metabolic flexibility by lactate shuttles offers new perspectives to develop treatments that target the hypoxic tumor microenvironment and overcome the limitations of glycolytic inhibitors.
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Perturbation of cellular oxidative state induced by dichloroacetate and arsenic trioxide for treatment of acute myeloid leukemia. Leuk Res 2015; 39:719-29. [PMID: 25982179 DOI: 10.1016/j.leukres.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is rising and the outcome of current therapy, which has not changed significantly in the last 40 years, is suboptimal. Cellular oxidative state is a credible target to selectively eradicate AML cells, because it is a fundamental property of each cell that is sufficiently different between leukemic and normal cells, yet its aberrancy shared among different AML cells. To this end, we tested whether a short-time treatment of AML cells, including cells with FLT3-ITD mutation, with sub-lethal dose of dichloroacetate (DCA) (priming) followed by pharmacologic dose of arsenic trioxide (ATO) in presence of low-dose DCA could produce insurmountable level of oxidative damage that kill AML cells. Using cellular cytotoxicity, apoptotic and metabolic assays with both established AML cell lines and primary AML cells, we found that priming with DCA significantly potentiated the cytotoxicity of ATO in AML cells in a synergistic manner. The combination decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential as well as expression of Mcl-1 and GPx in primary AML cells more than either drug alone. One patient with AML whose disease was refractory to several lines of prior treatments was treated with this combination, and tolerated it well. These data suggest that targeting cellular redox balance in leukemia may provide a therapeutic option for AML patients with relapsed/refractory disease.
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Apoptotic efficacy of etomoxir in human acute myeloid leukemia cells. Cooperation with arsenic trioxide and glycolytic inhibitors, and regulation by oxidative stress and protein kinase activities. PLoS One 2014; 9:e115250. [PMID: 25506699 PMCID: PMC4266683 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatty acid synthesis and oxidation are frequently exacerbated in leukemia cells, and may therefore represent a target for therapeutic intervention. In this work we analyzed the apoptotic and chemo-sensitizing action of the fatty acid oxidation inhibitor etomoxir in human acute myeloid leukemia cells. Etomoxir caused negligible lethality at concentrations up to 100 µM, but efficaciously cooperated to cause apoptosis with the anti-leukemic agent arsenic trioxide (ATO, Trisenox), and with lower efficacy with other anti-tumour drugs (etoposide, cisplatin), in HL60 cells. Etomoxir-ATO cooperation was also observed in NB4 human acute promyelocytic cells, but not in normal (non-tumour) mitogen-stimulated human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Biochemical determinations in HL60 cells indicated that etomoxir (25–200 µM) dose-dependently inhibited mitochondrial respiration while slightly stimulating glycolysis, and only caused marginal alterations in total ATP content and adenine nucleotide pool distribution. In addition, etomoxir caused oxidative stress (increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species accumulation, decrease in reduced glutathione content), as well as pro-apoptotic LKB-1/AMPK pathway activation, all of which may in part explain the chemo-sensitizing capacity of the drug. Etomoxir also cooperated with glycolytic inhibitors (2-deoxy-D-glucose, lonidamine) to induce apoptosis in HL60 cells, but not in NB4 cells. The combined etomoxir plus 2-deoxy-D-glucose treatment did not increase oxidative stress, caused moderate decrease in net ATP content, increased the AMP/ATP ratio with concomitant drop in energy charge, and caused defensive Akt and ERK kinase activation. Apoptosis generation by etomoxir plus 2-deoxy-D-glucose was further increased by co-incubation with ATO, which is apparently explained by the capacity of ATO to attenuate Akt and ERK activation. In summary, co-treatment with etomoxir may represent an interesting strategy to increase the apoptotic efficacy of ATO and (with some limitations) 2-deoxy-D-glucose which, although clinically important anti-tumour agents, exhibit low efficacy in monotherapy.
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31
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Byrne FL, Poon IKH, Modesitt SC, Tomsig JL, Chow JDY, Healy ME, Baker WD, Atkins KA, Lancaster JM, Marchion DC, Moley KH, Ravichandran KS, Slack-Davis JK, Hoehn KL. Metabolic vulnerabilities in endometrial cancer. Cancer Res 2014; 74:5832-45. [PMID: 25205105 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-14-0254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Women with metabolic disorders, including obesity and diabetes, have an increased risk of developing endometrial cancer. However, the metabolism of endometrial tumors themselves has been largely understudied. Comparing human endometrial tumors and cells with their nonmalignant counterparts, we found that upregulation of the glucose transporter GLUT6 was more closely associated with the cancer phenotype than other hallmark cancer genes, including hexokinase 2 and pyruvate kinase M2. Importantly, suppression of GLUT6 expression inhibited glycolysis and survival of endometrial cancer cells. Glycolysis and lipogenesis were also highly coupled with the cancer phenotype in patient samples and cells. To test whether targeting endometrial cancer metabolism could be exploited as a therapeutic strategy, we screened a panel of compounds known to target diverse metabolic pathways in endometrial cells. We identified that the glycolytic inhibitor, 3-bromopyruvate, is a powerful antagonist of lipogenesis through pyruvylation of CoA. We also provide evidence that 3-bromopyruvate promotes cell death via a necrotic mechanism that does not involve reactive oxygen species and that 3-bromopyruvate impaired the growth of endometrial cancer xenografts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances L Byrne
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ivan K H Poon
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Department of Biochemistry, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Susan C Modesitt
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Jose L Tomsig
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Jenny D Y Chow
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Marin E Healy
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - William D Baker
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Kristen A Atkins
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Johnathan M Lancaster
- Departments of Women's Oncology and Experimental Therapeutics Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Douglas C Marchion
- Departments of Women's Oncology and Experimental Therapeutics Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Kelle H Moley
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Kodi S Ravichandran
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Center for Cell Clearance, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Jill K Slack-Davis
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Cancer Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Kyle L Hoehn
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Cancer Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.
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