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Matthees ESF, Filor JC, Jaiswal N, Reichel M, Youssef N, D'Uonnolo G, Szpakowska M, Drube J, König GM, Kostenis E, Chevigné A, Godbole A, Hoffmann C. GRK specificity and Gβγ dependency determines the potential of a GPCR for arrestin-biased agonism. Commun Biol 2024; 7:802. [PMID: 38956302 PMCID: PMC11220067 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06490-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are mainly regulated by GPCR kinase (GRK) phosphorylation and subsequent β-arrestin recruitment. The ubiquitously expressed GRKs are classified into cytosolic GRK2/3 and membrane-tethered GRK5/6 subfamilies. GRK2/3 interact with activated G protein βγ-subunits to translocate to the membrane. Yet, this need was not linked as a factor for bias, influencing the effectiveness of β-arrestin-biased agonist creation. Using multiple approaches such as GRK2/3 mutants unable to interact with Gβγ, membrane-tethered GRKs and G protein inhibitors in GRK2/3/5/6 knockout cells, we show that G protein activation will precede GRK2/3-mediated β-arrestin2 recruitment to activated receptors. This was independent of the source of free Gβγ and observable for Gs-, Gi- and Gq-coupled GPCRs. Thus, β-arrestin interaction for GRK2/3-regulated receptors is inseparably connected with G protein activation. We outline a theoretical framework of how GRK dependence on free Gβγ can determine a GPCR's potential for biased agonism. Due to this inherent cellular mechanism for GRK2/3 recruitment and receptor phosphorylation, we anticipate generation of β-arrestin-biased ligands to be mechanistically challenging for the subgroup of GPCRs exclusively regulated by GRK2/3, but achievable for GRK5/6-regulated receptors, that do not demand liberated Gβγ. Accordingly, GRK specificity of any GPCR is foundational for developing arrestin-biased ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edda S F Matthees
- Institut für Molekulare Zellbiologie, CMB - Center for Molecular Biomedicine; Universitätsklinikum Jena, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Hans-Knöll-Straße 2, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Jenny C Filor
- Institut für Molekulare Zellbiologie, CMB - Center for Molecular Biomedicine; Universitätsklinikum Jena, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Hans-Knöll-Straße 2, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Natasha Jaiswal
- Institut für Molekulare Zellbiologie, CMB - Center for Molecular Biomedicine; Universitätsklinikum Jena, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Hans-Knöll-Straße 2, D-07745, Jena, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Section of Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Mona Reichel
- Institut für Molekulare Zellbiologie, CMB - Center for Molecular Biomedicine; Universitätsklinikum Jena, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Hans-Knöll-Straße 2, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Noureldine Youssef
- Institut für Molekulare Zellbiologie, CMB - Center for Molecular Biomedicine; Universitätsklinikum Jena, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Hans-Knöll-Straße 2, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Giulia D'Uonnolo
- Immuno-Pharmacology and Interactomics, Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH), 29 rue Henri Koch, L-4354, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
- Faculty of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Martyna Szpakowska
- Immuno-Pharmacology and Interactomics, Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH), 29 rue Henri Koch, L-4354, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Julia Drube
- Institut für Molekulare Zellbiologie, CMB - Center for Molecular Biomedicine; Universitätsklinikum Jena, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Hans-Knöll-Straße 2, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Gabriele M König
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, Nussallee 6, D-53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Evi Kostenis
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, Nussallee 6, D-53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Andy Chevigné
- Immuno-Pharmacology and Interactomics, Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH), 29 rue Henri Koch, L-4354, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Amod Godbole
- Institut für Molekulare Zellbiologie, CMB - Center for Molecular Biomedicine; Universitätsklinikum Jena, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Hans-Knöll-Straße 2, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Carsten Hoffmann
- Institut für Molekulare Zellbiologie, CMB - Center for Molecular Biomedicine; Universitätsklinikum Jena, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Hans-Knöll-Straße 2, D-07745, Jena, Germany.
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2
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Saito A, Kise R, Inoue A. Generation of Comprehensive GPCR-Transducer-Deficient Cell Lines to Dissect the Complexity of GPCR Signaling. Pharmacol Rev 2024; 76:599-619. [PMID: 38719480 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.124.001186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024] Open
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) compose the largest family of transmembrane receptors and are targets of approximately one-third of Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs owing to their involvement in almost all physiologic processes. GPCR signaling occurs through the activation of heterotrimeric G-protein complexes and β-arrestins, both of which serve as transducers, resulting in distinct cellular responses. Despite seeming simple at first glance, accumulating evidence indicates that activation of either transducer is not a straightforward process as a stimulation of a single molecule has the potential to activate multiple signaling branches. The complexity of GPCR signaling arises from the aspects of G-protein-coupling selectivity, biased signaling, interpathway crosstalk, and variable molecular modifications generating these diverse signaling patterns. Numerous questions relative to these aspects of signaling remained unanswered until the recent development of CRISPR genome-editing technology. Such genome editing technology presents opportunities to chronically eliminate the expression of G-protein subunits, β-arrestins, G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), and many other signaling nodes in the GPCR pathways at one's convenience. Here, we review the practicality of using CRISPR-derived knockout (KO) cells in the experimental contexts of unraveling the molecular details of GPCR signaling mechanisms. To mention a few, KO cells have revealed the contribution of β-arrestins in ERK activation, Gα protein selectivity, GRK-based regulation of GPCRs, and many more, hence validating its broad applicability in GPCR studies. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review emphasizes the practical application of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) transducer knockout (KO) cells in dissecting the intricate regulatory mechanisms of the GPCR signaling network. Currently available cell lines, along with accumulating KO cell lines in diverse cell types, offer valuable resources for systematically elucidating GPCR signaling regulation. Given the association of GPCR signaling with numerous diseases, uncovering the system-based signaling map is crucial for advancing the development of novel drugs targeting specific diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayaki Saito
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Ryoji Kise
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Asuka Inoue
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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3
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Two-step structural changes in M3 muscarinic receptor activation rely on the coupled G q protein cycle. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1276. [PMID: 36882424 PMCID: PMC9992711 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36911-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulate diverse intracellular signaling pathways through the activation of heterotrimeric G proteins. However, the effects of the sequential activation-deactivation cycle of G protein on the conformational changes of GPCRs remains unknown. By developing a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) tool for human M3 muscarinic receptor (hM3R), we find that a single-receptor FRET probe can display the consecutive structural conversion of a receptor by G protein cycle. Our results reveal that the G protein activation evokes a two-step change in the hM3R structure, including the fast step mediated by Gq protein binding and the subsequent slower step mediated by the physical separation of the Gαq and Gβγ subunits. We also find that the separated Gαq-GTP forms a stable complex with the ligand-activated hM3R and phospholipase Cβ. In sum, the present study uncovers the real-time conformational dynamics of innate hM3R during the downstream Gq protein cycle.
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Xiang G, Acosta-Ruiz A, Radoux-Mergault A, Kristt M, Kim J, Moon JD, Broichhagen J, Inoue A, Lee FS, Stoeber M, Dittman JS, Levitz J. Control of Gα q signaling dynamics and GPCR cross-talk by GRKs. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabq3363. [PMID: 36427324 PMCID: PMC9699688 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq3363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Numerous processes contribute to the regulation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), but relatively little is known about rapid mechanisms that control signaling on the seconds time scale or regulate cross-talk between receptors. Here, we reveal that the ability of some GPCR kinases (GRKs) to bind Gαq both drives acute signaling desensitization and regulates functional interactions between GPCRs. GRK2/3-mediated acute desensitization occurs within seconds, is rapidly reversible, and can occur upon local, subcellular activation. This rapid desensitization is kinase independent, insensitive to pharmacological inhibition, and generalizable across receptor families and effectors. We also find that the ability of GRK2 to bind G proteins also enables it to regulate the extent and timing of Gαq-dependent signaling cross-talk between GPCRs. Last, we find that G protein/GRK2 interactions enable a novel form of GPCR trafficking cross-talk. Together, this work reveals potent forms of Gαq-dependent GPCR regulation with wide-ranging pharmacological and physiological implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoqing Xiang
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | - Melanie Kristt
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jihye Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jared D. Moon
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Asuka Inoue
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Francis S. Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Miriam Stoeber
- Department of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jeremy S. Dittman
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joshua Levitz
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Corresponding author.
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5
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Al‐Zaid B, Chacko S, Ezeamuzie CI, Bünemann M, Krasel C, Karimian T, Lanzerstorfer P, Al‐Sabah S. Differential effects of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor/glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor heteromerization on cell signaling when expressed in HEK-293 cells. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2022; 10:e01013. [PMID: 36177761 PMCID: PMC9523454 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.1013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The incretin hormones: glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) are important regulators of many aspects of metabolism including insulin secretion. Their receptors (GIPR and GLP-1R) are closely related members of the secretin class of G-protein-coupled receptors. As both receptors are expressed on pancreatic β-cells there is at least the hypothetical possibility that they may form heteromers. In the present study, we investigated GIPR/GLP-1R heteromerization and the impact of GIPR on GLP-1R-mediated signaling and vice versa in HEK-293 cells. Real-time fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) saturation experiments confirm that GLP-1R and GIPR form heteromers. Stimulation with 1 μM GLP-1 caused an increase in both FRET and BRET ratio, whereas stimulation with 1 μM GIP caused a decrease. The only other ligand tested to cause a significant change in BRET signal was the GLP-1 metabolite, GLP-1 (9-36). GIPR expression had no significant effect on mini-Gs recruitment to GLP-1R but significantly inhibited GLP-1 stimulated mini-Gq and arrestin recruitment. In contrast, the presence of GLP-1R improved GIP stimulated mini-Gs and mini-Gq recruitment to GIPR. These data support the hypothesis that GIPR and GLP-1R form heteromers with differential consequences on cell signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bashaier Al‐Zaid
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineKuwait UniversityKuwait CityKuwait
| | - Siby Chacko
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineKuwait UniversityKuwait CityKuwait
| | | | - Moritz Bünemann
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Pharmacology and ToxicologyThe Philipps University of MarburgMarburgGermany
| | - Cornelius Krasel
- School of Pharmacy, Institute for Pharmacology and ToxicologyThe Philipps University of MarburgMarburgGermany
| | - Tina Karimian
- University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, School of EngineeringWelsAustria
| | - Peter Lanzerstorfer
- University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, School of EngineeringWelsAustria
| | - Suleiman Al‐Sabah
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineKuwait UniversityKuwait CityKuwait
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Abstract
G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest and pharmacologically most important family of cell-surface receptors. Some GPCRs interact specifically with receptor-activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs), but the consequences of this interaction for the receptor activation mechanism are not well understood. Using a set of fluorescent biosensors for the parathyroid hormone 1 receptor (PTH1R) and its downstream signaling partners, we show here that RAMP2 induces a unique, preactivated receptor state that shows faster activation and altered downstream signaling. This type of GPCR modulation may open new methods of drug design. Receptor-activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs) are ubiquitously expressed membrane proteins that associate with different G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs), including the parathyroid hormone 1 receptor (PTH1R), a class B GPCR and an important modulator of mineral ion homeostasis and bone metabolism. However, it is unknown whether and how RAMP proteins may affect PTH1R function. Using different optical biosensors to measure the activation of PTH1R and its downstream signaling, we describe here that RAMP2 acts as a specific allosteric modulator of PTH1R, shifting PTH1R to a unique preactivated state that permits faster activation in a ligand-specific manner. Moreover, RAMP2 modulates PTH1R downstream signaling in an agonist-dependent manner, most notably increasing the PTH-mediated Gi3 signaling sensitivity. Additionally, RAMP2 increases both PTH- and PTHrP-triggered β-arrestin2 recruitment to PTH1R. Employing homology modeling, we describe the putative structural molecular basis underlying our functional findings. These data uncover a critical role of RAMPs in the activation and signaling of a GPCR that may provide a new venue for highly specific modulation of GPCR function and advanced drug design.
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Mösslein N, Pohle LMG, Fuss A, Bünemann M, Krasel C. Residency time of agonists does not affect the stability of GPCR-arrestin complexes. Br J Pharmacol 2022; 179:4107-4116. [PMID: 35352338 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The interaction of arrestins with G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) desensitizes agonist-dependent receptor responses and often leads to receptor internalization. GPCRs that internalize without arrestin have been classified as "class A" GPCRs whereas "class B" GPCRs co-internalize with arrestin into endosomes. The interaction of arrestins with GPCRs requires both agonist activation and receptor phosphorylation. Here we ask the question whether agonists with very slow off-rate can cause the formation of particularly stable receptor-arrestin complexes. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The stability of GPCR-arrestin-3 complexes at two class A GPCRs, the β2 -adrenergic receptor and the μ-opioid receptor, was assessed using two different techniques, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) employing several ligands with very different off-rates. Arrestin trafficking was determined by confocal microscopy. KEY RESULTS Upon agonist washout, GPCR-arrestin-3 complexes showed markedly different dissociation rates in single-cell FRET experiments. In FRAP experiments, however, all full agonists led to the formation of receptor-arrestin complexes of identical stability whereas the complex between the μ-opioid receptor and arrestin-3 induced by the partial agonist morphine was less stable. Agonists with very slow off-rates could not mediate the co-internalization of arrestin-3 with class A GPCRs into endosomes. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Agonist off-rates do not affect the stability of GPCR-arrestin complexes but phosphorylation patterns do. Our results imply that orthosteric agonists will not be able to pharmacologically convert class A into class B GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Mösslein
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Lisa-Marie Geertje Pohle
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany.,current address: Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anneke Fuss
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Cornelius Krasel
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
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8
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Nanoluciferase-based complementation assay for systematic profiling of GPCR–GRK interactions. Methods Cell Biol 2022; 169:309-321. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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9
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Flöser A, Becker K, Kostenis E, König G, Krasel C, Kolb P, Bünemann M. Disentangling bias between G q, GRK2, and arrestin3 recruitment to the M 3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. eLife 2021; 10:58442. [PMID: 34851820 PMCID: PMC8635974 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transmit extracellular signals to the inside by activation of intracellular effector proteins. Different agonists can promote differential receptor-induced signaling responses – termed bias – potentially by eliciting different levels of recruitment of effector proteins. As activation and recruitment of effector proteins might influence each other, thorough analysis of bias is difficult. Here, we compared the efficacy of seven agonists to induce G protein, G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2), as well as arrestin3 binding to the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M3 by utilizing FRET-based assays. In order to avoid interference between these interactions, we studied GRK2 binding in the presence of inhibitors of Gi and Gq proteins and analyzed arrestin3 binding to prestimulated M3 receptors to avoid differences in receptor phosphorylation influencing arrestin recruitment. We measured substantial differences in the agonist efficacies to induce M3R-arrestin3 versus M3R-GRK2 interaction. However, the rank order of the agonists for G protein- and GRK2-M3R interaction was the same, suggesting that G protein and GRK2 binding to M3R requires similar receptor conformations, whereas requirements for arrestin3 binding to M3R are distinct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Flöser
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany.,Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Katharina Becker
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Evi Kostenis
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gabriele König
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Cornelius Krasel
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Peter Kolb
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
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10
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Tennakoon M, Senarath K, Kankanamge D, Ratnayake K, Wijayaratna D, Olupothage K, Ubeysinghe S, Martins-Cannavino K, Hébert TE, Karunarathne A. Subtype-dependent regulation of Gβγ signalling. Cell Signal 2021; 82:109947. [PMID: 33582184 PMCID: PMC8026654 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2021.109947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transmit information to the cell interior by transducing external signals to heterotrimeric G protein subunits, Gα and Gβγ subunits, localized on the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. Though the initial focus was mainly on Gα-mediated events, Gβγ subunits were later identified as major contributors to GPCR-G protein signalling. A broad functional array of Gβγ signalling has recently been attributed to Gβ and Gγ subtype diversity, comprising 5 Gβ and 12 Gγ subtypes, respectively. In addition to displaying selectivity towards each other to form the Gβγ dimer, numerous studies have identified preferences of distinct Gβγ combinations for specific GPCRs, Gα subtypes and effector molecules. Importantly, Gβ and Gγ subtype-dependent regulation of downstream effectors, representing a diverse range of signalling pathways and physiological functions have been found. Here, we review the literature on the repercussions of Gβ and Gγ subtype diversity on direct and indirect regulation of GPCR/G protein signalling events and their physiological outcomes. Our discussion additionally provides perspective in understanding the intricacies underlying molecular regulation of subtype-specific roles of Gβγ signalling and associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mithila Tennakoon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Kanishka Senarath
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Unit, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - Dinesh Kankanamge
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Kasun Ratnayake
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Dhanushan Wijayaratna
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Koshala Olupothage
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Sithurandi Ubeysinghe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | | | - Terence E Hébert
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, QC H3G 1Y6, Canada.
| | - Ajith Karunarathne
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA.
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11
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Jelinek V, Mösslein N, Bünemann M. Structures in G proteins important for subtype selective receptor binding and subsequent activation. Commun Biol 2021; 4:635. [PMID: 34045638 PMCID: PMC8160216 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02143-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) selectively couple to specific heterotrimeric G proteins comprised of four subfamilies in order to induce appropriate physiological responses. However, structural determinants in Gα subunits responsible for selective recognition by approximately 800 human GPCRs have remained elusive. Here, we directly compare the influence of subtype-specific Gα structures on the stability of GPCR-G protein complexes and the activation by two Gq-coupled receptors. We used FRET-assays designed to distinguish multiple Go and Gq-based Gα chimeras in their ability to be selectively bound and activated by muscarinic M3 and histaminic H1 receptors. We identify the N-terminus including the αN/β1-hinge, the β2/β3-loop and the α5 helix of Gα to be key selectivity determinants which differ in their impact on selective binding to GPCRs and subsequent activation depending on the specific receptor. Altogether, these findings provide new insights into the molecular basis of G protein-coupling selectivity even beyond the Gα C-terminus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Jelinek
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Nadja Mösslein
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany.
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12
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Sulon SM, Benovic JL. Targeting G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) to G protein-coupled receptors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 16:56-65. [PMID: 33718657 DOI: 10.1016/j.coemr.2020.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) interact with three protein families following agonist binding: heterotrimeric G proteins, G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) and arrestins. GRK-mediated phosphorylation of GPCRs promotes arrestin binding to uncouple the receptor from G protein, a process called desensitization, and for many GPCRs, arrestin binding also promotes receptor endocytosis and intracellular signaling. Thus, GRKs play a central role in modulating GPCR signaling and localization. Here we review recent advances in this field which include additional insight into how GRKs target GPCRs and bias signaling, and the development of specific inhibitors to dissect GRK function in model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Sulon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Benovic
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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13
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Gurevich EV, Gurevich VV. GRKs as Modulators of Neurotransmitter Receptors. Cells 2020; 10:cells10010052. [PMID: 33396400 PMCID: PMC7823573 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Many receptors for neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, and neuropeptides, belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). A general model posits that GPCRs undergo two-step homologous desensitization: the active receptor is phosphorylated by kinases of the G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) family, whereupon arrestin proteins specifically bind active phosphorylated receptors, shutting down G protein-mediated signaling, facilitating receptor internalization, and initiating distinct signaling pathways via arrestin-based scaffolding. Here, we review the mechanisms of GRK-dependent regulation of neurotransmitter receptors, focusing on the diverse modes of GRK-mediated phosphorylation of receptor subtypes. The immediate signaling consequences of GRK-mediated receptor phosphorylation, such as arrestin recruitment, desensitization, and internalization/resensitization, are equally diverse, depending not only on the receptor subtype but also on phosphorylation by GRKs of select receptor residues. We discuss the signaling outcome as well as the biological and behavioral consequences of the GRK-dependent phosphorylation of neurotransmitter receptors where known.
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14
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Gillis A, Gondin AB, Kliewer A, Sanchez J, Lim HD, Alamein C, Manandhar P, Santiago M, Fritzwanker S, Schmiedel F, Katte TA, Reekie T, Grimsey NL, Kassiou M, Kellam B, Krasel C, Halls ML, Connor M, Lane JR, Schulz S, Christie MJ, Canals M. Low intrinsic efficacy for G protein activation can explain the improved side effect profiles of new opioid agonists. Sci Signal 2020; 13:13/625/eaaz3140. [PMID: 32234959 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aaz3140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Biased agonism at G protein-coupled receptors describes the phenomenon whereby some drugs can activate some downstream signaling activities to the relative exclusion of others. Descriptions of biased agonism focusing on the differential engagement of G proteins versus β-arrestins are commonly limited by the small response windows obtained in pathways that are not amplified or are less effectively coupled to receptor engagement, such as β-arrestin recruitment. At the μ-opioid receptor (MOR), G protein-biased ligands have been proposed to induce less constipation and respiratory depressant side effects than opioids commonly used to treat pain. However, it is unclear whether these improved safety profiles are due to a reduction in β-arrestin-mediated signaling or, alternatively, to their low intrinsic efficacy in all signaling pathways. Here, we systematically evaluated the most recent and promising MOR-biased ligands and assessed their pharmacological profile against existing opioid analgesics in assays not confounded by limited signal windows. We found that oliceridine, PZM21, and SR-17018 had low intrinsic efficacy. We also demonstrated a strong correlation between measures of efficacy for receptor activation, G protein coupling, and β-arrestin recruitment for all tested ligands. By measuring the antinociceptive and respiratory depressant effects of these ligands, we showed that the low intrinsic efficacy of opioid ligands can explain an improved side effect profile. Our results suggest a possible alternative mechanism underlying the improved therapeutic windows described for new opioid ligands, which should be taken into account for future descriptions of ligand action at this important therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Gillis
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Arisbel B Gondin
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Andrea Kliewer
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Julie Sanchez
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, VIC 3052, Australia.,Division of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, School of Life Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Centre of Membrane Proteins and Receptors, Universities of Birmingham and Nottingham, Midlands, UK
| | - Herman D Lim
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Claudia Alamein
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Preeti Manandhar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Marina Santiago
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Sebastian Fritzwanker
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Frank Schmiedel
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Timothy A Katte
- School of Chemistry, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Tristan Reekie
- School of Chemistry, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Natasha L Grimsey
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Michael Kassiou
- School of Chemistry, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Barrie Kellam
- School of Pharmacy, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Cornelius Krasel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Philipps-University Marburg, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Michelle L Halls
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Mark Connor
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - J Robert Lane
- Division of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, School of Life Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Centre of Membrane Proteins and Receptors, Universities of Birmingham and Nottingham, Midlands, UK
| | - Stefan Schulz
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Macdonald J Christie
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Meritxell Canals
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, VIC 3052, Australia. .,Division of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, School of Life Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Centre of Membrane Proteins and Receptors, Universities of Birmingham and Nottingham, Midlands, UK
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15
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Kurz M, Krett AL, Bünemann M. Voltage Dependence of Prostanoid Receptors. Mol Pharmacol 2020; 97:267-277. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.119.118372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
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16
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Echeverría E, Velez Rueda AJ, Cabrera M, Juritz E, Burghi V, Fabián L, Davio C, Lorenzano Menna P, Fernández NC. Identification of inhibitors of the RGS homology domain of GRK2 by docking-based virtual screening. Life Sci 2019; 239:116872. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.116872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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17
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Kankanamge D, Tennakoon M, Weerasinghe A, Cedeno-Rosario L, Chadee DN, Karunarathne A. G protein αq exerts expression level-dependent distinct signaling paradigms. Cell Signal 2019; 58:34-43. [PMID: 30849518 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 02/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
G protein αq-coupled receptors (Gq-GPCRs) primarily signal through GαqGTP mediated phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ) stimulation and the subsequent hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4, 5 bisphosphate (PIP2). Though Gq-heterotrimer activation results in both GαqGTP and Gβγ, unlike Gi/o-receptors, it is unclear if Gq-coupled receptors employ Gβγ as a major signal transducer. Compared to Gi/o- and Gs-coupled receptors, we observed that most cell types exhibit a limited free Gβγ generation upon Gq-pathway and Gαq/11 heterotrimer activation. We show that cells transfected with Gαq or endogenously expressing more than average-levels of Gαq/11 compared to Gαs and Gαi exhibit a distinct signaling regime primarily characterized by recovery-resistant PIP2 hydrolysis. Interestingly, the elevated Gq-expression is also associated with enhanced free Gβγ generation and signaling. Furthermore, the gene GNAQ, which encodes for Gαq, has recently been identified as a cancer driver gene. We also show that GNAQ is overexpressed in tumor samples of patients with Kidney Chromophobe (KICH) and Kidney renal papillary (KIRP) cell carcinomas in a matched tumor-normal sample analysis, which demonstrates the clinical significance of Gαq expression. Overall, our data indicates that cells usually express low Gαq levels, likely safeguarding cells from excessive calcium as wells as from Gβγ signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinesh Kankanamge
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Mithila Tennakoon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Amila Weerasinghe
- McDonnell Genome Institute, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63108, USA
| | - Luis Cedeno-Rosario
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Deborah N Chadee
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Ajith Karunarathne
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA.
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18
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Mattern A, Machka F, Wickleder MS, Ilyaskina OS, Bünemann M, Diener M, Pouokam E. Potentiation of the activation of cholinergic receptors by multivalent presentation of ligands supported on gold nanoparticles. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 16:6680-6687. [PMID: 30177977 DOI: 10.1039/c8ob01686k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles (NP) with a functionalized ligand shell offer the possibility to potentiate the action of agonists at the receptor site by multivalency. In order to find out whether this can be realized for the pharmacologically important class of cholinergic receptors known to be involved in the regulation of most organ functions, carbachol-functionalized gold NPs (Au-MUDA-CCh) with an average diameter of 14 nm were synthesized. As functional read-out, cholinergic agonist-induced anion secretion was measured as increase in short-circuit current (Isc) across rat proximal colon in Ussing chambers. Similarly to the corresponding native agonist acetylcholine, Au-MUDA-CCh induced a concentration-dependent increase in Isc, which represents chloride secretion across the epithelium. This response was inhibited by atropine and hexamethonium indicating the activation of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors by the functionalized NPs. A strong potentiation of ligand-receptor interaction was a key benefit of functionalized NPs over native agonists. This was observed with physiological approaches as measurements of changes in Isc revealed a nearly equivalent response evoked by 1 pM Au-MUDA-CCh and 500 nM native CCh. To better determine this potentiation at the receptor level, pharmacological approaches based on the signaling cascade of ACh-induced activation of muscarinic receptors were used. FRET (Förster Resonance Energy Transfer) measurements performed on HEK293T cells transiently transfected with M3-R, Gαq-YFP, Gβ1-wt and CFP-Gγ2, revealed that both Au-MUDA-CCh and native CCh activated G-proteins with EC50 amounting to 127 ± 0.44 fM and 224 ± 7.12 nM, respectively. Thus, the functionalization of the NPs with CCh yields a potentiation by over 106, a property that could find usage in specific targeting, activation and compensation of pathologically reduced expression of receptors of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Mattern
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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19
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Miess E, Gondin AB, Yousuf A, Steinborn R, Mösslein N, Yang Y, Göldner M, Ruland JG, Bünemann M, Krasel C, Christie MJ, Halls ML, Schulz S, Canals M. Multisite phosphorylation is required for sustained interaction with GRKs and arrestins during rapid μ-opioid receptor desensitization. Sci Signal 2018; 11:11/539/eaas9609. [PMID: 30018083 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aas9609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
G protein receptor kinases (GRKs) and β-arrestins are key regulators of μ-opioid receptor (MOR) signaling and trafficking. We have previously shown that high-efficacy opioids such as DAMGO stimulate a GRK2/3-mediated multisite phosphorylation of conserved C-terminal tail serine and threonine residues, which facilitates internalization of the receptor. In contrast, morphine-induced phosphorylation of MOR is limited to Ser375 and is not sufficient to drive substantial receptor internalization. We report how specific multisite phosphorylation controlled the dynamics of GRK and β-arrestin interactions with MOR and show how such phosphorylation mediated receptor desensitization. We showed that GRK2/3 was recruited more quickly than was β-arrestin to a DAMGO-activated MOR. β-Arrestin recruitment required GRK2 activity and MOR phosphorylation, but GRK recruitment also depended on the phosphorylation sites in the C-terminal tail, specifically four serine and threonine residues within the 370TREHPSTANT379 motif. Our results also suggested that other residues outside this motif participated in the initial and transient recruitment of GRK and β-arrestins. We identified two components of high-efficacy agonist desensitization of MOR: a sustained component, which required GRK2-mediated phosphorylation and a potential soluble factor, and a rapid component, which was likely mediated by GRK2 but independent of receptor phosphorylation. Elucidating these complex receptor-effector interactions represents an important step toward a mechanistic understanding of MOR desensitization that leads to the development of tolerance and dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Miess
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jena University Hospital-Friedrich Schiller University Jena, D-07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Arisbel B Gondin
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Arsalan Yousuf
- Discipline of Pharmacology, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Ralph Steinborn
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jena University Hospital-Friedrich Schiller University Jena, D-07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Nadja Mösslein
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Philipps-University Marburg, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Yunshi Yang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Philipps-University Marburg, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Martin Göldner
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Philipps-University Marburg, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Julia G Ruland
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Philipps-University Marburg, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Philipps-University Marburg, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Cornelius Krasel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Philipps-University Marburg, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - MacDonald J Christie
- Discipline of Pharmacology, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Michelle L Halls
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Stefan Schulz
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jena University Hospital-Friedrich Schiller University Jena, D-07747 Jena, Germany.
| | - Meritxell Canals
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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20
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Samaradivakara S, Kankanamge D, Senarath K, Ratnayake K, Karunarathne A. G protein γ (Gγ) subtype dependent targeting of GRK2 to M3 receptor by Gβγ. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2018; 503:165-170. [PMID: 29864421 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.05.204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Interactions of cytosolic G protein coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) with activated G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) induce receptor phosphorylation and desensitization. GRK2 is recruited to active M3-muscarinic receptors (M3R) with the participation of the receptor, Gαq and Gβγ. Since we have shown that signaling efficacy of Gβγ is governed by its Gγ subtype identity, the present study examined whether recruitment of GRK2 to M3R is also Gγ subtype dependent. To capture the dynamics of GRK2-recruitment concurrently with GPCR-G protein activation, we employed live cell confocal imaging and a novel assay based on Gβγ translocation. Data show that M3R activation-induced GRK2 recruitment is Gγ subtype dependent in which Gβγ dimers with low PM-affinity Gγ9 exhibited a two-fold higher GRK2-recruitment compared to high PM affinity Gγ3 expressing cells. Since 12-mammalian Gγ types exhibit a cell and tissue specific expressions and the PM-affinity of a Gγ is linked to its subtype identity, our results indicate a mechanism by which Gγ profile of a cell controls GRK2 signaling and GPCR desensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saroopa Samaradivakara
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, 43606, USA
| | - Dinesh Kankanamge
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, 43606, USA
| | - Kanishka Senarath
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, 43606, USA
| | - Kasun Ratnayake
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, 43606, USA
| | - Ajith Karunarathne
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, 43606, USA.
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21
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Ilyaskina OS, Lemoine H, Bünemann M. Lifetime of muscarinic receptor-G-protein complexes determines coupling efficiency and G-protein subtype selectivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:5016-5021. [PMID: 29686069 PMCID: PMC5948956 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1715751115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are essential for the detection of extracellular stimuli by cells and transfer the encoded information via the activation of functionally distinct subsets of heterotrimeric G proteins into intracellular signals. Despite enormous achievements toward understanding GPCR structures, major aspects of the GPCR-G-protein selectivity mechanism remain unresolved. As this can be attributed to the lack of suitable and broadly applicable assays, we set out to develop a quantitative FRET-based assay to study kinetics and affinities of G protein binding to activated GPCRs in membranes of permeabilized cells in the absence of nucleotides. We measured the association and dissociation kinetics of agonist-induced binding of Gi/o, Gq/11, Gs, and G12/13 proteins to muscarinic M1, M2, and M3 receptors in the absence of nucleotides between fluorescently labeled G proteins and receptors expressed in mammalian cells. Our results show a strong quantitative correlation between not the on-rates of G-protein-M3-R interactions but rather the affinities of Gq and Go proteins to M3-Rs, their GPCR-G-protein lifetime and their coupling efficiencies determined in intact cells, suggesting that the G-protein subtype-specific affinity to the activated receptor in the absence of nucleotides is, in fact, a major determinant of the coupling efficiency. Our broadly applicable FRET-based assay represents a fast and reliable method to quantify the intrinsic affinity and relative coupling selectivity of GPCRs toward all G-protein subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga S Ilyaskina
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Horst Lemoine
- Department of Laser Medicine, Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany;
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22
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Senarath K, Kankanamge D, Samaradivakara S, Ratnayake K, Tennakoon M, Karunarathne A. Regulation of G Protein βγ Signaling. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 339:133-191. [PMID: 29776603 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2018.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) deliver external signals to the cell interior, upon activation by the external signal stimulated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).While the activated GPCRs control several pathways independently, activated G proteins control the vast majority of cellular and physiological functions, ranging from vision to cardiovascular homeostasis. Activated GPCRs dissociate GαGDPβγ heterotrimer into GαGTP and free Gβγ. Earlier, GαGTP was recognized as the primary signal transducer of the pathway and Gβγ as a passive signaling modality that facilitates the activity of Gα. However, Gβγ later found to regulate more number of pathways than GαGTP does. Once liberated from the heterotrimer, free Gβγ interacts and activates a diverse range of signaling regulators including kinases, lipases, GTPases, and ion channels, and it does not require any posttranslation modifications. Gβγ family consists of 48 members, which show cell- and tissue-specific expressions, and recent reports show that cells employ the subtype diversity in Gβγ to achieve desired signaling outcomes. In addition to activated GPCRs, which induce free Gβγ generation and the rate of GTP hydrolysis in Gα, which sequester Gβγ in the heterotrimer, terminating Gβγ signaling, additional regulatory mechanisms exist to regulate Gβγ activity. In this chapter, we discuss structure and function, subtype diversity and its significance in signaling regulation, effector activation, regulatory mechanisms as well as the disease relevance of Gβγ in eukaryotes.
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Leist M, Rinné S, Datunashvili M, Aissaoui A, Pape HC, Decher N, Meuth SG, Budde T. Acetylcholine-dependent upregulation of TASK-1 channels in thalamic interneurons by a smooth muscle-like signalling pathway. J Physiol 2017; 595:5875-5893. [PMID: 28714121 DOI: 10.1113/jp274527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS The ascending brainstem transmitter acetylcholine depolarizes thalamocortical relay neurons while it induces hyperpolarization in local circuit inhibitory interneurons. Sustained K+ currents are modulated in thalamic neurons to control their activity modes; for the interneurons the molecular nature of the underlying ion channels is as yet unknown. Activation of TASK-1 K+ channels results in hyperpolarization of interneurons and suppression of their action potential firing. The modulation cascade involves a non-receptor tyrosine kinase, c-Src. The present study identifies a novel pathway for the activation of TASK-1 channels in CNS neurons that resembles cholinergic signalling and TASK-1 current modulation during hypoxia in smooth muscle cells. ABSTRACT The dorsal part of the lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) is the main thalamic site for state-dependent transmission of visual information. Non-retinal inputs from the ascending arousal system and inhibition provided by γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic local circuit interneurons (INs) control neuronal activity within the dLGN. In particular, acetylcholine (ACh) depolarizes thalamocortical relay neurons by inhibiting two-pore domain potassium (K2P ) channels. Conversely, ACh also hyperpolarizes INs via an as-yet-unknown mechanism. By using whole cell patch-clamp recordings in brain slices and appropriate pharmacological tools we here report that stimulation of type 2 muscarinic ACh receptors induces IN hyperpolarization by recruiting the G-protein βγ subunit (Gβγ), class-1A phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase, and cellular and sarcoma (c-Src) tyrosine kinase, leading to activation of two-pore domain weakly inwardly rectifying K+ channel (TWIK)-related acid-sensitive K+ (TASK)-1 channels. The latter was confirmed by the use of TASK-1-deficient mice. Furthermore inhibition of phospholipase Cβ as well as an increase in the intracellular level of phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate facilitated the muscarinic effect. Our results have uncovered a previously unknown role of c-Src tyrosine kinase in regulating IN function in the brain and identified a novel mechanism by which TASK-1 channels are activated in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Leist
- Institut für Physiologie I, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Robert-Koch-Str. 27a, D-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Susanne Rinné
- Institut für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, AG Vegetative Physiologie, Philipps-Universität, Deutschhausstraße 1-2, D-35037, Marburg, Germany
| | - Maia Datunashvili
- Institut für Physiologie I, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Robert-Koch-Str. 27a, D-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Ania Aissaoui
- Institut für Physiologie I, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Robert-Koch-Str. 27a, D-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Christian Pape
- Institut für Physiologie I, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Robert-Koch-Str. 27a, D-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Niels Decher
- Institut für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, AG Vegetative Physiologie, Philipps-Universität, Deutschhausstraße 1-2, D-35037, Marburg, Germany
| | - Sven G Meuth
- Department of Neurology, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, D-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Thomas Budde
- Institut für Physiologie I, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Robert-Koch-Str. 27a, D-48149, Münster, Germany
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24
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Bodmann EL, Krett AL, Bünemann M. Potentiation of receptor responses induced by prolonged binding of Gα 13 and leukemia-associated RhoGEF. FASEB J 2017; 31:3663-3676. [PMID: 28465324 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201700026r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Diverse cellular functions are controlled by RhoA-GTPases, which are activated by trimeric G proteins via RhoGEFs, among others. In this study, we focused on the signaling from GPCRs to RhoA via Gα13 and leukemia-associated RhoGEF (LARG). The activation of Gα13 was elucidated in living cells with high temporal and spatial resolution by means of FRET. The inactivation after agonist withdrawal occurred in the same range (t1/2 = 25.3 ± 2.2 s; mean ± sem; n = 22) as described for other Gα proteins. The interaction of Gα13 and LARG and the thereby-induced LARG translocation to the plasma membrane were at least 1 order of magnitude more stable after agonist withdrawal, exceeding Gα13 deactivation in the absence of LARG several fold. Consequently, we observed an almost 100-fold higher agonist sensitivity of the Gα13 LARG interaction compared to the Gα13 activation in the absence of LARG.-Bodmann, E.-L., Krett, A.-L., Bünemann, M. Potentiation of receptor responses induced by prolonged binding of Gα13 and leukemia-associated RhoGEF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Lisa Bodmann
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Anna-Lena Krett
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
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Tóth AD, Gyombolai P, Szalai B, Várnai P, Turu G, Hunyady L. Angiotensin type 1A receptor regulates β-arrestin binding of the β 2-adrenergic receptor via heterodimerization. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 442:113-124. [PMID: 27908837 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/26/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Heterodimerization between angiotensin type 1A receptor (AT1R) and β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR) has been shown to modulate G protein-mediated effects of these receptors. Activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) leads to β-arrestin binding, desensitization, internalization and G protein-independent signaling of GPCRs. Our aim was to study the effect of heterodimerization on β-arrestin coupling. We found that β-arrestin binding of β2AR is affected by activation of AT1Rs. Costimulation with angiotensin II and isoproterenol markedly enhanced the interaction between β2AR and β-arrestins, by prolonging the lifespan of β2AR-induced β-arrestin2 clusters at the plasma membrane. While candesartan, a conventional AT1R antagonist, had no effect on the β-arrestin2 binding to β2AR, TRV120023, a β-arrestin biased agonist, enhanced the interaction. These findings reveal a new crosstalk mechanism between AT1R and β2AR, and suggest that enhanced β-arrestin2 binding to β2AR can contribute to the pharmacological effects of biased AT1R agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- András D Tóth
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, P. O. Box 2, H-1428 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Pál Gyombolai
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, P. O. Box 2, H-1428 Budapest, Hungary; MTA-SE Laboratory of Molecular Physiology, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Bence Szalai
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, P. O. Box 2, H-1428 Budapest, Hungary; MTA-SE Laboratory of Molecular Physiology, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Péter Várnai
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, P. O. Box 2, H-1428 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Turu
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, P. O. Box 2, H-1428 Budapest, Hungary; MTA-SE Laboratory of Molecular Physiology, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - László Hunyady
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, P. O. Box 2, H-1428 Budapest, Hungary; MTA-SE Laboratory of Molecular Physiology, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
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26
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Sun T, Yang L, Kaur H, Pestel J, Looso M, Nolte H, Krasel C, Heil D, Krishnan RK, Santoni MJ, Borg JP, Bünemann M, Offermanns S, Swiercz JM, Worzfeld T. A reverse signaling pathway downstream of Sema4A controls cell migration via Scrib. J Cell Biol 2016; 216:199-215. [PMID: 28007914 PMCID: PMC5223600 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201602002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 11/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Semaphorins comprise a large family of ligands that regulate key cellular functions through their receptors, plexins. In this study, we show that the transmembrane semaphorin 4A (Sema4A) can also function as a receptor, rather than a ligand, and transduce signals triggered by the binding of Plexin-B1 through reverse signaling. Functionally, reverse Sema4A signaling regulates the migration of various cancer cells as well as dendritic cells. By combining mass spectrometry analysis with small interfering RNA screening, we identify the polarity protein Scrib as a downstream effector of Sema4A. We further show that binding of Plexin-B1 to Sema4A promotes the interaction of Sema4A with Scrib, thereby removing Scrib from its complex with the Rac/Cdc42 exchange factor βPIX and decreasing the activity of the small guanosine triphosphatase Rac1 and Cdc42. Our data unravel a role for Plexin-B1 as a ligand and Sema4A as a receptor and characterize a reverse signaling pathway downstream of Sema4A, which controls cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianliang Sun
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Lida Yang
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Harmandeep Kaur
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Jenny Pestel
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Mario Looso
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Hendrik Nolte
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Cornelius Krasel
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Biochemical-Pharmacological Center, University of Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Heil
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Ramesh K Krishnan
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Marie-Josée Santoni
- Cell Polarity, Cell Signaling and Cancer, Equipe labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1068, 13009 Marseille, France.,Institut Paoli-Calmettes, 13009 Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, 13284 Marseille, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR7258, 13273 Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Paul Borg
- Cell Polarity, Cell Signaling and Cancer, Equipe labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1068, 13009 Marseille, France.,Institut Paoli-Calmettes, 13009 Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, 13284 Marseille, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR7258, 13273 Marseille, France
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Biochemical-Pharmacological Center, University of Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Offermanns
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany.,Medical Faculty, University of Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jakub M Swiercz
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Thomas Worzfeld
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany .,Institute of Pharmacology, Biochemical-Pharmacological Center, University of Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
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27
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Bodmann EL, Wolters V, Bünemann M. Dynamics of G protein effector interactions and their impact on timing and sensitivity of G protein-mediated signal transduction. Eur J Cell Biol 2015; 94:415-9. [PMID: 26074197 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2015.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein coupled receptors regulate numerous cellular functions primarily via coupling to heterotrimeric G proteins and subsequent regulation of effector proteins such as ion channels, enzymes or GTP exchange factors for small G proteins. The dynamics of interactions between G protein subunits and effectors have been difficult to study particularly in a cellular context. The introduction of Förster resonance energy transfer methods into the field of GPCR research led to interesting insights into the temporal patterns of interactions between G protein subunits and their effectors. In this review we specifically focus on the interaction of Gαi subunits with adenylyl cyclases and of Gαq subunits with p63RhoGEF or G protein coupled receptor kinases type 2. Comparing the dynamics of these interactions revealed remarkable differences between different G protein effectors regarding the ability to be modulated by members of the regulator of G protein signalling protein family as well as the sensitivity towards receptor activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Lisa Bodmann
- Institute for Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Karl-von-Frisch-Str. 1, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Valerie Wolters
- Institute for Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Karl-von-Frisch-Str. 1, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Institute for Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Philipps-University Marburg, Karl-von-Frisch-Str. 1, 35043 Marburg, Germany.
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28
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Zindel D, Butcher AJ, Al-Sabah S, Lanzerstorfer P, Weghuber J, Tobin AB, Bünemann M, Krasel C. Engineered hyperphosphorylation of the β2-adrenoceptor prolongs arrestin-3 binding and induces arrestin internalization. Mol Pharmacol 2014; 87:349-62. [PMID: 25425623 DOI: 10.1124/mol.114.095422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptor phosphorylation plays a major role in receptor desensitization and arrestin binding. It is, however, unclear how distinct receptor phosphorylation patterns may influence arrestin binding and subsequent trafficking. Here we engineer phosphorylation sites into the C-terminal tail of the β2-adrenoceptor (β2AR) and demonstrate that this mutant, termed β2AR(SSS), showed increased isoprenaline-stimulated phosphorylation and differences in arrestin-3 affinity and trafficking. By measuring arrestin-3 recruitment and the stability of arrestin-3 receptor complexes in real time using fluorescence resonance energy transfer and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, we demonstrate that arrestin-3 dissociated quickly and almost completely from the β2AR, whereas the interaction with β2AR(SSS) was 2- to 4-fold prolonged. In contrast, arrestin-3 interaction with a β2-adrenoceptor fused to the carboxyl-terminal tail of the vasopressin type 2 receptor was nearly irreversible. Further analysis of arrestin-3 localization revealed that by engineering phosphorylation sites into the β2-adrenoceptor the receptor showed prolonged interaction with arrestin-3 and colocalization with arrestin in endosomes after internalization. This is in contrast to the wild-type receptor that interacts transiently with arrestin-3 at the plasma membrane. Furthermore, β2AR(SSS) internalized more efficiently than the wild-type receptor, whereas recycling was very similar for both receptors. Thus, we show how the interaction between arrestins and receptors can be increased with minimal receptor modification and that relatively modest increases in receptor-arrestin affinity are sufficient to alter arrestin trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Zindel
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmazie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany (D.Z., M.B., C.K.); MRC Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom (A.J.B., A.B.T.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kuwait University, Kuwait (S.A.-S.); and University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Wels, Austria (P.L., J.W.)
| | - Adrian J Butcher
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmazie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany (D.Z., M.B., C.K.); MRC Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom (A.J.B., A.B.T.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kuwait University, Kuwait (S.A.-S.); and University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Wels, Austria (P.L., J.W.)
| | - Suleiman Al-Sabah
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmazie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany (D.Z., M.B., C.K.); MRC Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom (A.J.B., A.B.T.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kuwait University, Kuwait (S.A.-S.); and University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Wels, Austria (P.L., J.W.)
| | - Peter Lanzerstorfer
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmazie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany (D.Z., M.B., C.K.); MRC Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom (A.J.B., A.B.T.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kuwait University, Kuwait (S.A.-S.); and University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Wels, Austria (P.L., J.W.)
| | - Julian Weghuber
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmazie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany (D.Z., M.B., C.K.); MRC Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom (A.J.B., A.B.T.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kuwait University, Kuwait (S.A.-S.); and University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Wels, Austria (P.L., J.W.)
| | - Andrew B Tobin
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmazie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany (D.Z., M.B., C.K.); MRC Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom (A.J.B., A.B.T.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kuwait University, Kuwait (S.A.-S.); and University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Wels, Austria (P.L., J.W.)
| | - Moritz Bünemann
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmazie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany (D.Z., M.B., C.K.); MRC Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom (A.J.B., A.B.T.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kuwait University, Kuwait (S.A.-S.); and University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Wels, Austria (P.L., J.W.)
| | - Cornelius Krasel
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmazie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany (D.Z., M.B., C.K.); MRC Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom (A.J.B., A.B.T.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Kuwait University, Kuwait (S.A.-S.); and University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Wels, Austria (P.L., J.W.)
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