1
|
Hsu SJ, Deng H, Wang J, Dong H, Cheng B. Wing deformation improves aerodynamic performance of forward flight of bluebottle flies flying in a flight mill. J R Soc Interface 2024; 21:20240076. [PMID: 39016178 PMCID: PMC11253209 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2024.0076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Insect wings are flexible structures that exhibit deformations of complex spatiotemporal patterns. Existing studies on wing deformation underscore the indispensable role of wing deformation in enhancing aerodynamic performance. Here, we investigated forward flight in bluebottle flies, flying semi-freely in a magnetic flight mill; we quantified wing surface deformation using high-speed videography and marker-less surface reconstruction and studied the effects on aerodynamic forces, power and efficiency using computational fluid dynamics. The results showed that flies' wings exhibited substantial camber near the wing root and twisted along the wingspan, as they were coupled effects of deflection primarily about the claval flexion line. Such deflection was more substantial for supination during the upstroke when most thrust was produced. Compared with deformed wings, the undeformed wings generated 59-98% of thrust and 54-87% of thrust efficiency (i.e. ratio of thrust and power). Wing twist moved the aerodynamic centre of pressure proximally and posteriorly, likely improving aerodynamic efficiency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Jung Hsu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA16802, USA
| | - Hankun Deng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA16802, USA
| | - Junshi Wang
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA22904, USA
| | - Haibo Dong
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA22904, USA
| | - Bo Cheng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA16802, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yang AY, Wei BZ, Zeng CS, Xing DX. Measurement of wing motion, deformation, and inertial forces of a biomimetic butterfly. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2024; 95:075111. [PMID: 39058364 DOI: 10.1063/5.0207788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
This paper introduces a method for measuring wing motion, deformation, and inertial forces in bio-inspired aircraft research using a camera motion capture system. The method involves placing markers on the wing surface and fitting rigid planes to determine the wing's spatial axis. This allows for describing the wing's rigid motion and obtaining deformation characteristics, such as deflection, twist angle, and gap distance of the forewing and hindwing. An image-based method is proposed for determining wing mass distribution, mass blocks, and mass points for inertial force measurement. The study addresses wing motion, deformation, and inertial force measurement in a real butterfly-like flapping wing vehicle and demonstrates the effectiveness of the approach. The results reveal that inertial forces play a negligible role in the generation of lift peaks and contribute minimal lift during the entire flapping cycle. Furthermore, a transitional phase between downstroke and upstroke is found in flexible wing motion, which has high lift production. This measurement approach offers a rapid and effective solution to experimental challenges in bio-inspired aircraft design and optimization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Yunjie Yang
- College of Aerospace Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - B Zhen Wei
- College of Aerospace Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - C Siyao Zeng
- College of Aerospace Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - D Xiaoyu Xing
- College of Aerospace Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Uhrhan MJ, Bomphrey RJ, Lin HT. Flow sensing on dragonfly wings. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2024; 1536:107-121. [PMID: 38837424 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
One feature of animal wings is their embedded mechanosensory system that can support flight control. Insect wings are particularly interesting as they are highly deformable yet the actuation is limited to the wing base. It is established that strain sensors on insect wings can directly mediate reflexive control; however, little is known about airflow sensing by insect wings. What information can flow sensors capture and how can flow sensing benefit flight control? Here, we use the dragonfly (Sympetrum striolatum) as a model to explore the function of wing sensory bristles in the context of flight control. Combining our detailed anatomical reconstructions of both the sensor microstructures and wing architecture, we used computational fluid dynamics simulations to ask the following questions. (1) Are there strategic locations on wings that sample flow for estimating aerodynamically relevant parameters such as the local effective angle of attack? (2) Is the sensory bristle distribution on dragonfly wings optimal for flow sensing? (3) What is the aerodynamic effect of microstructures found near the sensory bristles on dragonfly wings? We discuss the benefits of flow sensing for flexible wings and how the evolved sensor placement affects information encoding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Myriam J Uhrhan
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Richard J Bomphrey
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
| | - Huai-Ti Lin
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Skandalis DA, Baliga VB, Goller B, Altshuler DL. The spatiotemporal richness of hummingbird wing deformations. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246223. [PMID: 38680114 PMCID: PMC11166462 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Animals exhibit an abundant diversity of forms, and this diversity is even more evident when considering animals that can change shape on demand. The evolution of flexibility contributes to aspects of performance from propulsive efficiency to environmental navigation. It is, however, challenging to quantify and compare body parts that, by their nature, dynamically vary in shape over many time scales. Commonly, body configurations are tracked by labelled markers and quantified parametrically through conventional measures of size and shape (descriptor approach) or non-parametrically through data-driven analyses that broadly capture spatiotemporal deformation patterns (shape variable approach). We developed a weightless marker tracking technique and combined these analytic approaches to study wing morphological flexibility in hoverfeeding Anna's hummingbirds (Calypte anna). Four shape variables explained >95% of typical stroke cycle wing shape variation and were broadly correlated with specific conventional descriptors such as wing twist and area. Moreover, shape variables decomposed wing deformations into pairs of in-plane and out-of-plane components at integer multiples of the stroke frequency. This property allowed us to identify spatiotemporal deformation profiles characteristic of hoverfeeding with experimentally imposed kinematic constraints, including through shape variables explaining <10% of typical shape variation. Hoverfeeding in front of a visual barrier restricted stroke amplitude and elicited increased stroke frequencies together with in-plane and out-of-plane deformations throughout the stroke cycle. Lifting submaximal loads increased stroke amplitudes at similar stroke frequencies together with prominent in-plane deformations during the upstroke and pronation. Our study highlights how spatially and temporally distinct changes in wing shape can contribute to agile fluidic locomotion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dimitri A. Skandalis
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Vikram B. Baliga
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Benjamin Goller
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
- College of Agriculture Data Services, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2053, USA
| | - Douglas L. Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lehmann FO, Gorb S, Moussian B. Spatio-temporal distribution and genetic background of elastic proteins inside the chitin/chitosan matrix of insects including their functional significance for locomotion. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 168:104089. [PMID: 38485097 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2024.104089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
In insects, cuticle proteins interact with chitin and chitosan of the exoskeleton forming crystalline, amorphic or composite material structures. The biochemical and mechanical composition of the structure defines the cuticle's physical properties and thus how the insect cuticle behaves under mechanical stress. The tissue-specific ratio between chitin and chitosan and its pattern of deacetylation are recognized and interpreted by cuticle proteins depending on their local position in the body. Despite previous research, the assembly of the cuticle composites in time and space including its functional impact is widely unexplored. This review is devoted to the genetics underlying the temporal and spatial distribution of elastic proteins and the potential function of elastic proteins in insects with a focus on Resilin in the fruit fly Drosophila. The potential impact and function of localized patches of elastic proteins is discussed for movements in leg joints, locomotion and damage resistance of the cuticle. We conclude that an interdisciplinary research approach serves as an integral example for the molecular mechanisms of generation and interpretation of the chitin/chitosan matrix, not only in Drosophila but also in other arthropod species, and might help to synthesize artificial material composites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fritz-Olaf Lehmann
- Fritz-Olaf Lehmann, Department of Animal Physiology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany.
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Stanislav Gorb, Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Bernard Moussian
- Bernard Moussian, Institute Sophia Agrobiotech, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, 38 Av. Emile Henriot, 06000, Nice, France.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhou Y, Bai L, Wan C. The mechanical properties of different cross-veins in the hind wing of locust Locusta migratoria under uniaxial tensile and stress relaxation tests. Interface Focus 2024; 14:20230068. [PMID: 38618239 PMCID: PMC11008960 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2023.0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Locust Locusta migratoria exhibits remarkable aerial performances, relying predominantly on its hind wings that generate most of lift and thrust for flight. The mechanical properties of the cross-veins determine the deformation of the hind wing, which greatly affect the aerodynamic performance of flapping flight. However, whether the mechanical behaviours of the locust cross-veins change with loading rate is still unknown. In this study, cross-veins in four physiological regions (anterior-medial, anterior-lateral, posterior-medial and posterior-lateral) of the hind wing from adult locusts were investigated using uniaxial tensile test, stress relaxation test and fluorescence microscopy. It was found that the cross-veins were a type of viscoelastic material (including rate-independent elastic modulus and obvious stress relaxation). The cross-veins in the two anterior regions of the hind wing had significantly higher elastic moduli and higher ultimate tensile stress than those of its two posterior regions. This difference might be attributed to different resilin distribution patterns in the cross-veins. These findings furnish new insights into the mechanical characteristics of the locust cross-veins, which might deepen our understanding of the aerodynamic mechanisms of locust flapping flight.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yizun Zhou
- Department of Mechanics, School of Aerospace Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Linxin Bai
- Department of Mechanics, School of Aerospace Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Wan
- Department of Mechanics, School of Aerospace Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bode-Oke AT, Menzer A, Dong H. Postural Change of the Annual Cicada ( Tibicen linnei) Helps Facilitate Backward Flight. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:233. [PMID: 38667244 PMCID: PMC11048523 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9040233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cicadas are heavy fliers well known for their life cycles and sound production; however, their flight capabilities have not been extensively investigated. Here, we show for the first time that cicadas appropriate backward flight for additional maneuverability. We studied this flight mode using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations based on three-dimensional reconstructions of high-speed videos captured in a laboratory. Backward flight was characterized by steep body angles, high angles of attack, and high wing upstroke velocities. Wing motion occurred in an inclined stroke plane that was fixed relative to the body. Likewise, the directions of the half-stroke-averaged aerodynamic forces relative to the body (local frame) were constrained in a narrow range (<20°). Despite the drastic difference of approximately 90° in body posture between backward and forward flight in the global frame, the aerodynamic forces in both flight scenarios were maintained in a similar direction relative to the body. The forces relative to the body were also oriented in a similar direction when observed during climbs and turns, although the body orientation and motions were different. Hence, the steep posture appropriated during backward flight was primarily utilized for reorienting both the stroke plane and aerodynamic force in the global frame. A consequence of this reorientation was the reversal of aerodynamic functions of the half strokes in backward flight when compared to forward flight. The downstroke generated propulsive forces, while the upstroke generated vertical forces. For weight support, the upstroke, which typically generates lesser forces in forward flight, is aerodynamically active in backward flight. A leading-edge vortex (LEV) was observed on the forewings during both half strokes. The LEV's effect, together with the high upstroke velocity, increased the upstroke's force contribution from 10% of the net forces in forward flight to 50% in backward flight. The findings presented in this study have relevance to the design of micro-aerial vehicles (MAVs), as backward flight is an important characteristic for MAV maneuverability or for taking off from vertical surfaces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Haibo Dong
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA; (A.T.B.-O.); (A.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Dong Y, Song B, Yang W, Xue D. A numerical study on the aerodynamic effects of dynamic twisting on forward flight flapping wings. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2024; 19:026013. [PMID: 38306681 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ad253b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
To better understand the secret of natural flying vertebrates such as how humming-birds twist their wings to achieve superb flight ability, we presented a numerical investigation of dynamic twisting based on a hummingbird-like flapping wing model. Computational fluid dynamic simulations were performed to examine the effects of dynamic twisting on the unsteady flow field, the generation of instantaneous aerodynamic forces, and the time-averaged aerodynamic performance. This research reveals the details of leading-edge vortices (LEVs) and the underlying mechanisms behind the positive effects of wing torsion. The results demonstrated that wing torsion can effectively maintain the favorable distribution of effective angle of attack along the wing spanwise, resulting in a higher time-averaged thrust and vertical force. Further, the proper parameters of dynamic twisting can also improve the propulsive efficiency in forward flight. Dynamic twisting also showed a superior ability in controlling the airflow separation over the wing surface and maintaining the stability of the LEV. The amplitudes of effective angle of attack associated with the highest peak thrust and the maximum thrust-to-power at different advanced ratios were also explored, and it was found that the amplitudes decrease with increasing advanced ratio. To improve the efficiency during larger advanced ratio, specific modifications to the pitching of the wing were proposed in this work. The research in this paper has promising implications for the bio-inspired flapping wing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanbo Dong
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aerodynamic Design and Research, School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
| | - Bifeng Song
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aerodynamic Design and Research, School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
- Research & Development Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, People's Republic of China
- Yangtze River Delta Research Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Taicang 215400, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenqing Yang
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aerodynamic Design and Research, School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
- Research & Development Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, People's Republic of China
- Yangtze River Delta Research Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Taicang 215400, People's Republic of China
| | - Dong Xue
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aerodynamic Design and Research, School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
- Research & Development Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, People's Republic of China
- Yangtze River Delta Research Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Taicang 215400, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Eraghi SH, Toofani A, Guilani RJA, Ramezanpour S, Bijma NN, Sedaghat A, Yasamandaryaei A, Gorb S, Rajabi H. Basal complex: a smart wing component for automatic shape morphing. Commun Biol 2023; 6:853. [PMID: 37591993 PMCID: PMC10435446 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05206-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Insect wings are adaptive structures that automatically respond to flight forces, surpassing even cutting-edge engineering shape-morphing systems. A widely accepted but not yet explicitly tested hypothesis is that a 3D component in the wing's proximal region, known as basal complex, determines the quality of wing shape changes in flight. Through our study, we validate this hypothesis, demonstrating that the basal complex plays a crucial role in both the quality and quantity of wing deformations. Systematic variations of geometric parameters of the basal complex in a set of numerical models suggest that the wings have undergone adaptations to reach maximum camber under loading. Inspired by the design of the basal complex, we develop a shape-morphing mechanism that can facilitate the shape change of morphing blades for wind turbines. This research enhances our understanding of insect wing biomechanics and provides insights for the development of simplified engineering shape-morphing systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sepehr H Eraghi
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
| | - Arman Toofani
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
| | - Ramin J A Guilani
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - Shayan Ramezanpour
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK
| | - Nienke N Bijma
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Alireza Sedaghat
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran
| | - Armin Yasamandaryaei
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Hamed Rajabi
- Mechanical Intelligence (MI) Research Group, South Bank Applied BioEngineering Research (SABER), School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK.
- Division of Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Fang YH, Tang CH, Lin YJ, Yeh SI, Yang JT. The Lift Effects of Chordwise Wing Deformation and Body Angle on Low-Speed Flying Butterflies. Biomimetics (Basel) 2023; 8:287. [PMID: 37504175 PMCID: PMC10807088 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics8030287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This work investigates the effects of body angle and wing deformation on the lift of free-flying butterflies. The flight kinematics were recorded using three high-speed cameras, and particle-image velocimetry (PIV) was used to analyze the transient flow field around the butterfly. Parametric studies via numerical simulations were also conducted to examine the force generation of the wing by fixing different body angles and amplifying the chordwise deformation. The results show that appropriately amplifying chordwise deformation enhances wing performance due to an increase in the strength of the vortex and a more stabilized attached vortex. The wing undergoes a significant chordwise deformation, which can generate a larger lift coefficient than that with a higher body angle, resulting in a 14% increase compared to a lower chordwise deformation and body angle. This effect is due to the leading-edge vortex attached to the curved wing, which alters the force from horizontal to vertical. It, therefore, produces more efficient lift during flight. These findings reveal that the chordwise deformation of the wing and the body angle could increase the lift of the butterfly. This work was inspired by real butterfly flight, and the results could provide valuable knowledge about lift generation for designing microaerial vehicles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Hung Fang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (Y.-H.F.); (C.-H.T.); (Y.-J.L.)
| | - Chia-Hung Tang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (Y.-H.F.); (C.-H.T.); (Y.-J.L.)
| | - You-Jun Lin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (Y.-H.F.); (C.-H.T.); (Y.-J.L.)
| | - Szu-I Yeh
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701401, Taiwan
| | - Jing-Tang Yang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (Y.-H.F.); (C.-H.T.); (Y.-J.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Weber AI, Babaei M, Mamo A, Brunton BW, Daniel TL, Bergbreiter S. Nonuniform structural properties of wings confer sensing advantages. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20220765. [PMID: 36946090 PMCID: PMC10031407 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Sensory feedback is essential to both animals and robotic systems for achieving coordinated, precise movements. Mechanosensory feedback, which provides information about body deformation, depends not only on the properties of sensors but also on the structure in which they are embedded. In insects, wing structure plays a particularly important role in flapping flight: in addition to generating aerodynamic forces, wings provide mechanosensory feedback necessary for guiding flight while undergoing dramatic deformations during each wingbeat. However, the role that wing structure plays in determining mechanosensory information is relatively unexplored. Insect wings exhibit characteristic stiffness gradients and are subject to both aerodynamic and structural damping. Here we examine how both of these properties impact sensory performance, using finite element analysis combined with sensor placement optimization approaches. We show that wings with nonuniform stiffness exhibit several advantages over uniform stiffness wings, resulting in higher accuracy of rotation detection and lower sensitivity to the placement of sensors on the wing. Moreover, we show that higher damping generally improves the accuracy with which body rotations can be detected. These results contribute to our understanding of the evolution of the nonuniform stiffness patterns in insect wings, as well as suggest design principles for robotic systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alison I Weber
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mahnoush Babaei
- Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Amanuel Mamo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Bingni W Brunton
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Thomas L Daniel
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Rahman A, Tafti D. Role of wing inertia in maneuvering bat flights. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 18:016007. [PMID: 36322982 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac9fb1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The role of aerodynamics and wing inertia on the motion dynamics for the maneuvering flight of two bats from two species of roundleaf bats,H. armigerandH. prattiare investigated. Comparative studies among a straight flight, two ascending sweeping right turns, and a U-turn reveal that inertial forces play an essential and sometimes crucial role in the maneuvers. The translational trajectory of the bat is mostly driven by aerodynamic forces generated by the wings along the flight path, whereas inertial forces for the most part drive the intra-cycle fluctuations. However, inertial forces are found to contribute non-trivially to the ascending motion of theH. armigerduring the sweeping turn and the U-turn. The roll maneuver is found to be primarily driven by aerodynamic asymmetries during flight, whereas the yaw maneuver is primarily driven by imbalances in wing inertial moments. Inertial moments resulting from Coriolis and centrifugal forces are found to play an important role in accurate yaw prediction. The moment due to Coriolis force plays a very prominent role in predicting the correct yaw angle during the extreme 180° U-turn.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aevelina Rahman
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
| | - Danesh Tafti
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Li X. Numerical Simulations of the Effect of the Asymmetrical Bending of the Hindwings of a Hovering C. buqueti Bamboo Weevil with Respect to the Aerodynamic Characteristics. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:1995. [PMID: 36422423 PMCID: PMC9698059 DOI: 10.3390/mi13111995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The airfoil structure and folding pattern of the hindwings of a beetle provide new transformation paths for improvements in the aerodynamic performance and structural optimization of flapping-wing flying robots. However, the explanation for the aerodynamic mechanism of the asymmetrical bending of a real beetle's hindwings under aerodynamic loads originating from the ventral and dorsal sides is unclear. To address this gap in our understanding, a computational investigation into the aerodynamic characteristics of the flight ability of C. buqueti and the large folding ratio of their hindwings when hovering is carried out in this article. A three-dimensional (3D) pressure-based SST k-ω turbulence model with a biomimetic structure was used for the detailed analysis, and a refined polyhedral mesh was used for the simulations. The results show that the fluid around the hindwings forms a vortex ring consisting of a leading-edge vortex (LEV), wing-tip vortex (TV) and trailing-edge vortex (TEV). Approximately 61% of the total lift is generated during the downstroke, which may be closely related to the asymmetric bending of the hindwings when they are subjected to pressure load.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Suqian University, Suqian 223800, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ben-Dov O, Beatus T. Model-Based Tracking of Fruit Flies in Free Flight. INSECTS 2022; 13:1018. [PMID: 36354842 PMCID: PMC9692569 DOI: 10.3390/insects13111018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Insect flight is a complex interdisciplinary phenomenon. Understanding its multiple aspects, such as flight control, sensory integration, physiology and genetics, often requires the analysis of large amounts of free flight kinematic data. Yet, one of the main bottlenecks in this field is automatically and accurately extracting such data from multi-view videos. Here, we present a model-based method for the pose estimation of free-flying fruit flies from multi-view high-speed videos. To obtain a faithful representation of the fly with minimum free parameters, our method uses a 3D model that includes two new aspects of wing deformation: A non-fixed wing hinge and a twisting wing surface. The method is demonstrated for free and perturbed flight. Our method does not use prior assumptions on the kinematics apart from the continuity of the wing pitch angle. Hence, this method can be readily adjusted for other insect species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Omri Ben-Dov
- The Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
- Center of Bioengineering, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
| | - Tsevi Beatus
- The Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
- Center of Bioengineering, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Takahashi H. MEMS-Based Micro Sensors for Measuring the Tiny Forces Acting on Insects. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22208018. [PMID: 36298366 PMCID: PMC9609827 DOI: 10.3390/s22208018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Small insects perform agile locomotion, such as running, jumping, and flying. Recently, many robots, inspired by such insect performance, have been developed and are expected to be smaller and more maneuverable than conventional robots. For the development of insect-inspired robots, understanding the mechanical dynamics of the target insect is important. However, evaluating the dynamics via conventional commercialized force sensors is difficult because the exerted force and insect itself are tiny in strength and size. Here, we review force sensor devices, especially fabricated for measuring the tiny forces acting on insects during locomotion. As the force sensor, micro-force plates for measuring the ground reaction force and micro-force probes for measuring the flying force have mainly been developed. In addition, many such sensors have been fabricated via a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) process, due to the process precision and high sensitivity. In this review, we focus on the sensing principle, design guide, fabrication process, and measurement method of each sensor, as well as the technical challenges in each method. Finally, the common process flow of the development of specialized MEMS sensors is briefly discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hidetoshi Takahashi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kouhoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Rojas S, Riley KS, Arrieta AF. Multistable bioinspired origami with reprogrammable self-folding. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220426. [PMCID: PMC9554512 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Origami has emerged as a design paradigm to realize morphing structures with rich kinematic and mechanical properties. Biological examples augment the potential design space by suggesting intriguing routes for achieving self-folding from architected materials. We introduce a class of multistable self-folding origami adaptable after fabrication inspired by the earwig wing. This is achieved by designing bilayer creases that display anisotropic shrinkage in response to external stimulation, enabling a mechanism for prestrain adaptation. We establish a bilayer model for stretchable straight and trapezoidal (β) creases to generate bistable origami structures. We adapt the topology of the structure’s energy landscapes by tuning the fold prestrain level as a function of the stimulation time. The proposed method and model allows for converting flat sheets with arranged facets and prestrained mountain-valley creases into self-folding multistable structures. Introducing multistability from self-folding avoids ambiguous folding branches present in the rich configuration space at the flat state. The obtained crease prestrain programming is leveraged to manufacture a biomimetic earwig wing featuring the complex crease pattern, structural stability and rapid closure of the biological counterpart. The presented method provides a route for encoding prestrain in self-folding origami, the multistability of which is adaptable after fabrication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Rojas
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Katherine S. Riley
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Andres F. Arrieta
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Gehrke A, Richeux J, Uksul E, Mulleners K. Aeroelastic characterisation of a bio-inspired flapping membrane wing. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 17:065004. [PMID: 35917821 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac8632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Natural fliers like bats exploit the complex fluid-structure interaction between their flexible membrane wings and the air with great ease. Yet, replicating and scaling the balance between the structural and fluid-dynamical parameters of unsteady membrane wings for engineering applications remains challenging. In this study, we introduce a novel bio-inspired membrane wing design and systematically investigate the fluid-structure interactions of flapping membrane wings. The membrane wing can passively camber, and its leading and trailing edges rotate with respect to the stroke plane. We find optimal combinations of the membrane properties and flapping kinematics that out-perform their rigid counterparts both in terms of increased stroke-average lift and efficiency, but the improvements are not persistent over the entire input parameter space. The lift and efficiency optima occur at different angles of attack and effective membrane stiffnesses which we characterise with the aeroelastic number. At optimal aeroelastic numbers, the membrane has a moderate camber between 15% and 20% and its leading and trailing edges align favourably with the flow. Higher camber at lower aeroelastic numbers leads to reduced aerodynamic performance due to negative angles of attack at the leading edge and an over-rotation of the trailing edge. Most of the performance gain of the membrane wings with respect to rigid wings is achieved in the second half of the stroke when the wing is decelerating. The stroke-maximum camber is reached around mid-stroke but is sustained during most of the remainder of the stroke which leads to an increase in lift and a reduction in power. Our results show that combining the effect of variable stiffness and angle of attack variation can significantly enhance the aerodynamic performance of membrane wings and has the potential to improve the control capabilities of micro air vehicles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Gehrke
- École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Unsteady Flow Diagnostics Laboratory, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jules Richeux
- École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Unsteady Flow Diagnostics Laboratory, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Esra Uksul
- École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Unsteady Flow Diagnostics Laboratory, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Karen Mulleners
- École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Unsteady Flow Diagnostics Laboratory, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Fan X, Swartz S, Breuer K. Power requirements for bat-inspired flapping flight with heavy, highly articulated and cambered wings. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220315. [PMID: 36128710 PMCID: PMC9490335 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bats fly with highly articulated and heavy wings. To understand their power requirements, we develop a three-dimensional reduced-order model, and apply it to flights of Cynopterus brachyotis, the lesser dog-faced fruit bat. Using previously measured wing kinematics, the model computes aerodynamic forces using blade element momentum theory, and incorporates inertial forces of the flapping wing using the measured mass distribution of the membrane wing and body. The two are combined into a Lagrangian equation of motion, and we performed Monte Carlo simulations to address uncertainties in measurement errors and modelling assumptions. We find that the camber of the armwing decreases with flight speed whereas the handwing camber is more independent of speed. Wing camber disproportionately impacts energetics, mainly during the downstroke, and increases the power requirement from 8% to 22% over flight speed U = 3.2-7.4 m s-1. We separate total power into aerodynamic and inertial components, and aerodynamic power into parasitic, profile and induced power, and find strong agreement with previous theoretical and experimental studies. We find that inertia of wings help to balance aerodynamic forces, alleviating the muscle power required for weight support and thrust generation. Furthermore, the model suggests aerodynamic forces assist in lifting the heavy wing during upstroke.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaozhou Fan
- Center for Fluid Mechanics, School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Sharon Swartz
- Center for Fluid Mechanics, School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Aeromechanics & Evolutionary Morphology Lab, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Kenneth Breuer
- Center for Fluid Mechanics, School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Aeromechanics & Evolutionary Morphology Lab, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Li Q, Ji A, Shen H, Han Q, Qin G. The forewing of a black cicada Cryptotympana atrata (Hemiptera, Homoptera: Cicadidae): Microscopic structures and mechanical properties. Microsc Res Tech 2022; 85:3153-3164. [PMID: 35656939 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.24173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Insects in nature flap their wings to generate lift force and driving torque to adjust their attitude and control stability. An insect wing is a biomaterial composed of flexible membranes and tough veins. In this paper, we study the microscopic structures and mechanical properties of the forewing of the black cicada, Cryptotympana atrata. The thickness of the wing membranes and the diameter of veins varied from the wing root to the tip. The thickness of the wing membranes ranged from 6.0 to 29.9 μm, and the diameter of the wing veins decreased in a gradient from the wing root to the tip, demonstrating that the forewing of the black cicada is a nonuniform biomaterial. The elastic modulus of the membrane near the wing root ranged from 4.45 to 5.03 GPa, which is comparable to that of some industrial membranes. The microstructure of the wing vein exhibited a hollow tubular structure with flocculent structure inside. The "fresh" sample stored more water than the "dry" sample, resulting in a significant difference in the elastic modulus between the fresh and dried veins. The different membrane thicknesses and elastic moduli of the wing veins near the root and tip resulted in varied degrees of deformation on both sides of the flexion line of the forewing during twisting. The measurements of the forewing of the cicada may serve as a guide for selecting airfoil materials for the bionic flapping-wing aircraft and promote the design and manufacture of more durable bionic wings in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Li
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Aihong Ji
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Huan Shen
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Qingfei Han
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Guodong Qin
- Institute of Bio-Inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Rahman A, Windes P, Tafti D. Turning-ascending flight of a Hipposideros pratti bat. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:211788. [PMID: 35706670 PMCID: PMC9174734 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.211788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Bats exhibit a high degree of agility and provide an excellent model system for bioinspired flight. The current study investigates an ascending right turn of a Hipposideros pratti bat and elucidates on the kinematic features and aerodynamic mechanisms used to effectuate the manoeuvre. The wing kinematics captured by a three-dimensional motion capture system is used as the boundary condition for the aerodynamic simulations featuring immersed boundary method. Results indicate that the bat uses roll and yaw rotations of the body to different extents synergistically to generate the centripetal force to initiate and sustain the turn. The turning moments are generated by drawing the wing inside the turn closer to the body, by introducing phase lags in force generation between the wings and redirecting force production to the outer part of the wing outside of the turn. Deceleration in flight speed, an increase in flapping frequency, shortening of the upstroke and thrust generation at the end of the upstroke were observed during the ascending manoeuvre. The bat consumes about 0.67 W power to execute the turning-ascending manoeuvre, which is approximately two times the power consumed by similar bats during level flight. Upon comparison with a similar manoeuvre by a Hipposideros armiger bat (Windes et al. 2020 Bioinspir. Biomim. 16, abb78d. (doi:10.1088/1748-3190/abb78d)), some commonalities, as well as differences, were observed in the detailed wing kinematics and aerodynamics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aevelina Rahman
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, 213E Goodwin Hall, 635 Prices Fork Road, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Peter Windes
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, 213E Goodwin Hall, 635 Prices Fork Road, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Danesh Tafti
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, 213E Goodwin Hall, 635 Prices Fork Road, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Ma Y, Quan C, Jiang H, He X, Yang F. Measurement of natural frequencies and mode shapes of transparent insect wings using common-path ESPI. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:18447-18460. [PMID: 36221645 DOI: 10.1364/oe.451968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a common-path electronic speckle pattern interferometry system which upholds the natural property of transparency of insect's wings has been developed to measure the wings' natural frequencies and mode shapes for the first time. A novel base-exciting method was designed to enable the simultaneous application of sinusoidal and static forces to excite wings and introduce an additional phase. The moiré effect induced by the amplitude modulation was employed to accurately recognize the resonance state. Subsequently, the mode shapes were visualized by phase-shifting and real-time frame subtraction. Eight pairs of forewings from cicadas were investigated. The first three order natural frequencies of the wings are approximately 145 Hz, 272 Hz and 394 Hz, respectively, which are dispersed to prevent modal coupling. The cambered mode shapes exhibit a strongly spanwise-chordwise anisotropy flexural stiffness distribution, generally dominated by bending and twisting deformation. The details of the high-order mode shapes show that the tip exhibits distinct deformation, indicating more flexibility to cope with external impact load, and the nodal lines usually comply with the direction of the wing veins in higher modes, substantiating the fact that the veins play an important role as stiffeners of the membrane. The results are in excellent agreement with the dynamic performance of previous studies, which will potentially affect a broader community of optical measurement specialists and entomologists to enhance our understanding of time-averaged interferograms and insect flights.
Collapse
|
22
|
Effect of Wing Membrane Material on the Aerodynamic Performance of Flexible Flapping Wing. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12094501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Flexible deformation of the insect wing has been proven to be beneficial to lift generation and power consumption. There is great potential for shared research between natural insects and bio-inspired Flapping wing Micro Aerial Vehicles (FWMAVs) for performance enhancement. However, the aerodynamic characteristics and deformation process of the flexible flapping wing, especially influenced by wing membrane material, are still lacking in-depth understanding. In this study, the flexible flapping wings with different membrane materials have been experimentally investigated. Power input and lift force were measured to evaluate the influence of membrane material. The rotation angles at different wing sections were extracted to analyze the deformation process. It was found that wings with higher elastic modulus membrane could generate more lift but at the cost of more power. A lower elastic modulus means the wing is more flexible and shows an advantage in power loading. Twisting deformation is more obvious for the wing with higher flexibility. Additionally, flexibility is also beneficial to attenuate the rotation angle fluctuation, which in turn enhances the aerodynamic efficiency. The research in this paper is helpful to further understand the aerodynamic characteristics of flexible flapping wing and to design bio-inspired FWMAVs with higher performance.
Collapse
|
23
|
Tanaka H, Nakata T, Yamasaki T. Biomimetic Soft Wings for Soft Robot Science. JOURNAL OF ROBOTICS AND MECHATRONICS 2022. [DOI: 10.20965/jrm.2022.p0223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Flight and swimming in nature can inspire the design of highly adaptive robots capable of working in complex environments. In this letter, we reviewed our work on robotic propulsion in the air and water, with a specific focus on the crucial functions of elastic components involved in the driving mechanism and flapping wings. Elasticity in the driving mechanism inspired by birds and insects can enhance both the aerodynamic efficiency of flapping wings and robustness against disturbances with appropriate design. A flapping wing surface with a stiffness distribution inspired by hummingbirds was fabricated by combining tapered spars and ribs with a thin film. The biomimetic flexible wing could generate more lift than the nontapered wing with a similar amount of power consumption. Underwater flapping-wing propulsion inspired by penguins was investigated by combining the 3-degree-of-freedom (DoF) flapping mechanism and hydrodynamic calculation, which indicates that wing bending increases the propulsion efficiency. This work demonstrates the importance of passive deformation of both wing surfaces and driving mechanisms for improving the fluid dynamic efficiency and robustness in flight and swimming, as well as providing biological insight from an engineering perspective.
Collapse
|
24
|
Fabian J, Siwanowicz I, Uhrhan M, Maeda M, Bomphrey RJ, Lin HT. Systematic characterization of wing mechanosensors that monitor airflow and wing deformations. iScience 2022; 25:104150. [PMID: 35465360 PMCID: PMC9018384 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal wings deform during flight in ways that can enhance lift, facilitate flight control, and mitigate damage. Monitoring the structural and aerodynamic state of the wing is challenging because deformations are passive, and the flow fields are unsteady; it requires distributed mechanosensors that respond to local airflow and strain on the wing. Without a complete map of the sensor arrays, it is impossible to model control strategies underpinned by them. Here, we present the first systematic characterization of mechanosensors on the dragonfly’s wings: morphology, distribution, and wiring. By combining a cross-species survey of sensor distribution with quantitative neuroanatomy and a high-fidelity finite element analysis, we show that the mechanosensors are well placed to perceive features of the wing dynamics relevant to flight. This work describes the wing sensory apparatus in its entirety and advances our understanding of the sensorimotor loop that facilitates exquisite flight control in animals with highly deformable wings. Dragonfly wings are innervated by an extensive collection of sensory neurons Mechanosensors are spread across the whole span of the wing with consistent patterns The axons of wing sensory neurons are scaled to compensate for transmission latencies Anatomically accurate models reveal wing strain fields that inform sensor distribution
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Fabian
- Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.,The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | - Huai-Ti Lin
- Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Boisseau RP, Büscher TH, Klawitter LJ, Gorb SN, Emlen DJ, Tobalske BW. Multi-modal locomotor costs favor smaller males in a sexually dimorphic leaf-mimicking insect. BMC Ecol Evol 2022; 22:39. [PMID: 35350992 PMCID: PMC8962604 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-022-01993-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In most arthropods, adult females are larger than males, and male competition is a race to quickly locate and mate with scattered females (scramble competition polygyny). Variation in body size among males may confer advantages that depend on context. Smaller males may be favored due to more efficient locomotion leading to higher mobility during mate searching. Alternatively, larger males may benefit from increased speed and higher survivorship. While the relationship between male body size and mobility has been investigated in several systems, how different aspects of male body morphology specifically affect their locomotor performance in different contexts is often unclear. Results Using a combination of empirical measures of flight performance and modelling of body aerodynamics, we show that large body size impairs flight performance in male leaf insects (Phyllium philippinicum), a species where relatively small and skinny males fly through the canopy in search of large sedentary females. Smaller males were more agile in the air and ascended more rapidly during flight. Our models further predicted that variation in body shape would affect body lift and drag but suggested that flight costs may not explain the evolution of strong sexual dimorphism in body shape in this species. Finally, empirical measurements of substrate adhesion and subsequent modelling of landing impact forces suggested that smaller males had a lower risk of detaching from the substrates on which they walk and land. Conclusions By showing that male body size impairs their flight and substrate adhesion performance, we provide support to the hypothesis that smaller scrambling males benefit from an increased locomotor performance and shed light on the evolution of sexual dimorphism in scramble competition mating systems. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12862-022-01993-z.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Romain P Boisseau
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, 32 Campus Dr, Missoula, MT, 59812, USA.
| | - Thies H Büscher
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24098, Kiel, Germany
| | - Lexi J Klawitter
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, 32 Campus Dr, Missoula, MT, 59812, USA
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24098, Kiel, Germany
| | - Douglas J Emlen
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, 32 Campus Dr, Missoula, MT, 59812, USA
| | - Bret W Tobalske
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, 32 Campus Dr, Missoula, MT, 59812, USA
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Hou D, Zhong Z. Comparative analysis of deformation behaviors of dragonfly wing under aerodynamic and inertial forces. Comput Biol Med 2022; 145:105421. [PMID: 35366473 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2022.105421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Insect wings are typically deformed under aerodynamic and inertial forces. Both the forces are related to kinematic and morphology parameters of the wing. However, how the insects utilize complex wing morphologies and kinematics to generate the forces, and what the exact contributions of the two forces in wing deformation are still unclear. In the study, the aerodynamic and inertial forces produced by a dragonfly forewing are compared quantitively. Then the dynamic deformation behaviors are studied with a three-dimensional finite element model. Finally, roles of the two forces in wing deformation are fully discussed. The two forces increase along the wingspan every moment and they reach maximal consistently near the pterostigma. Because of the asymmetry of angle of attack, the maximal resultant aerodynamic force is about 4 times of that in upstroke. By comparison, the normal component of aerodynamic force plays the leading role in downstroke while the inertial force works mainly in tangential in upstroke. The finite element simulation demonstrates the bending and twisting deformation behaviors of the wing considering both flapping and rotation. The average strain energy in one flapping cycle is 1.23×10-3 mJ under inertial force and 0.43×10-3 mJ under aerodynamics respectively. In addition, the rapid rotation can enhance inertial deformation by 6 times. As a result, deformation of dragonfly wing is dominated by its own inertia in flight. The deformation mechanism addressed could inspire the design of flexible flapping airfoils in morphology and kinematics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Hou
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Maritime University, Shanghai, 201306, PR China
| | - Zheng Zhong
- School of Science, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Zhilyaev I, Anerao N, Kottapalli AGP, Yilmaz MC, Murat M, Ranjbar M, Krushynska A. Fully-printed metamaterial-type flexible wings with controllable flight characteristics. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 17:025002. [PMID: 34905740 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac42e2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Insect wings are an outstanding example of how a proper interplay of rigid and flexible materials enables an intricate flapping flight accompanied by sound. The understanding of the aerodynamics and acoustics of insect wings has enabled the development of man-made flying robotic vehicles and explained basic mechanisms of sound generation by natural flyers. This work proposes the concept of artificial wings with a periodic pattern, inspired by metamaterials, and explores how the pattern geometry can be used to control the aerodynamic and acoustic characteristics of a wing. For this, we analyzed bio-inspired wings with anisotropic honeycomb patterns flapping at a low frequency and developed a multi-parameter optimization procedure to tune the pattern design in order to increase lift and simultaneously to manipulate the produced sound. Our analysis is based on the finite-element solution to a transient three-dimensional fluid-structure interactions problem. The two-way coupling is described by incompressible Navier-Stokes equations for viscous air and structural equations of motion for a wing undergoing large deformations. We 3D-printed three wing samples and validated their robustness and dynamics experimentally. Importantly, we showed that the proposed wings can sustain long-term resonance excitation that opens a possibility to implement resonance-type flights inherent to certain natural flyers. Our results confirm the feasibility of metamaterial patterns to control the flapping flight dynamics and can open new perspectives for applications of 3D-printed patterned wings, e.g. in the design of drones with target sound.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Igor Zhilyaev
- Institute of Polymer Engineering, University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland FHNW, Windisch, Switzerland
| | - Nitesh Anerao
- Engineering and Technology Institute of Groningen (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Mahmut Cihat Yilmaz
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, TC Ankara Yildirim Beyazit University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Murat
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, TC Ankara Yildirim Beyazit University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mostafa Ranjbar
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, TC Ankara Yildirim Beyazit University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Anastasiia Krushynska
- Engineering and Technology Institute of Groningen (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Computational Approach for the Fluid-Structure Interaction Design of Insect-Inspired Micro Flapping Wings. FLUIDS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fluids7010026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A flight device for insect-inspired flapping wing nano air vehicles (FWNAVs), which consists of the micro wings, the actuator, and the transmission, can use the fluid-structure interaction (FSI) to create the characteristic motions of the flapping wings. This design will be essential for further miniaturization of FWNAVs, since it will reduce the mechanical and electrical complexities of the flight device. Computational approaches will be necessary for this biomimetic concept because of the complexity of the FSI. Hence, in this study, a computational approach for the FSI design of insect-inspired micro flapping wings is proposed. This approach consists of a direct numerical modeling of the strongly coupled FSI, the dynamic similarity framework, and the design window (DW) search. The present numerical examples demonstrated that the dynamic similarity framework works well to make different two FSI systems with the strong coupling dynamically similar to each other, and this framework works as the guideline for the systematic investigation of the effect of characteristic parameters on the FSI system. Finally, an insect-inspired micro flapping wing with the 2.5-dimensional structure was designed using the proposed approach such that it can create the lift sufficient to support the weight of small insects. The existing area of satisfactory design solutions or the DW increases the fabricability of this wing using micromachining techniques based on the photolithography in the micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology. Hence, the proposed approach will contribute to the further miniaturization of FWNAVs.
Collapse
|
29
|
Lyu YZ, Sun M. Power requirements for the hovering flight of insects with different sizes. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 134:104293. [PMID: 34389411 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2021.104293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Winged insects vary greatly in size, from tiny wasps (0.015 mg) to large moths (1.6 g). Previous studies on the power requirements of insect flight focused on relatively large insects; those of miniature insects remain relatively unknown. In this study the power requirements of a series of miniature insects were calculated, and changes with size across a range of insect sizes were investigated. Aerodynamic power was computed by numerically solving the Navier-Stokes equation, and inertial power was computed analytically. Comparison analysis was then conducted on the power requirements of miniature and large insects. Despite a 100,000-fold weight difference, the required power per unit insect mass, referred to as mass-specific power, was approximately equal for all the insects examined. This finding is explained as follows. Power is approximately proportional to the product of the wing speed and the wing drag per unit weight (i.e., "drag-to-lift ratio"). When insect size decreased, wing speed decreased (due to reduced wing-length), while wing drag increased (due to increased air-viscosity), resulting in an approximately unchanged mass-specific power. For large or small insects, flight power is derived from the same type of muscles (striated). Assuming that the mean power per unit muscle mass is the same under the same type of muscle, the above size/specific-power relation indicates that the ratio of flight-muscle mass to insect mass is the same for different sized insects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhu Lyu
- Ministry-of-Education Key Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics, Institute of Fluid Mechanics, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Mao Sun
- Ministry-of-Education Key Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics, Institute of Fluid Mechanics, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Bayiz YE, Cheng B. State-space aerodynamic model reveals high force control authority and predictability in flapping flight. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20210222. [PMID: 34343451 PMCID: PMC8331236 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2021.0222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Flying animals resort to fast, large-degree-of-freedom motion of flapping wings, a key feature that distinguishes them from rotary or fixed-winged robotic fliers with limited motion of aerodynamic surfaces. However, flapping-wing aerodynamics are characterized by highly unsteady and three-dimensional flows difficult to model or control, and accurate aerodynamic force predictions often rely on expensive computational or experimental methods. Here, we developed a computationally efficient and data-driven state-space model to dynamically map wing kinematics to aerodynamic forces/moments. This model was trained and tested with a total of 548 different flapping-wing motions and surpassed the accuracy and generality of the existing quasi-steady models. This model used 12 states to capture the unsteady and nonlinear fluid effects pertinent to force generation without explicit information of fluid flows. We also provided a comprehensive assessment of the control authority of key wing kinematic variables and found that instantaneous aerodynamic forces/moments were largely predictable by the wing motion history within a half-stroke cycle. Furthermore, the angle of attack, normal acceleration and pitching motion had the strongest effects on the aerodynamic force/moment generation. Our results show that flapping flight inherently offers high force control authority and predictability, which can be key to developing agile and stable aerial fliers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yagiz E. Bayiz
- Mechanical Engineering Department, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA
| | - Bo Cheng
- Mechanical Engineering Department, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
The damping and structural properties of dragonfly and damselfly wings during dynamic movement. Commun Biol 2021; 4:737. [PMID: 34131288 PMCID: PMC8206215 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02263-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
For flying insects, stability is essential to maintain the orientation and direction of motion in flight. Flight instability is caused by a variety of factors, such as intended abrupt flight manoeuvres and unwanted environmental disturbances. Although wings play a key role in insect flight stability, little is known about their oscillatory behaviour. Here we present the first systematic study of insect wing damping. We show that different wing regions have almost identical damping properties. The mean damping ratio of fresh wings is noticeably higher than that previously thought. Flight muscles and hemolymph have almost no 'direct' influence on the wing damping. In contrast, the involvement of the wing hinge can significantly increase damping. We also show that although desiccation reduces the wing damping ratio, rehydration leads to full recovery of damping properties after desiccation. Hence, we expect hemolymph to influence the wing damping indirectly, by continuously hydrating the wing system.
Collapse
|
32
|
Isakhani H, Xiong C, Chen W, Yue S. Towards locust-inspired gliding wing prototypes for micro aerial vehicle applications. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:202253. [PMID: 34234953 PMCID: PMC8242835 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.202253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In aviation, gliding is the most economical mode of flight explicitly appreciated by natural fliers. They achieve it by high-performance wing structures evolved over millions of years in nature. Among other prehistoric beings, locust is a perfect example of such natural glider capable of endured transatlantic flights that could inspire a practical solution to achieve similar capabilities on micro aerial vehicles. An investigation in this study demonstrates the effects of haemolymph on the flexibility of several flying insect wings proving that many species exist with further simplistic yet well-designed wing structures. However, biomimicry of such aerodynamic and structural properties is hindered by the limitations of modern as well as conventional fabrication technologies in terms of availability and precision, respectively. Therefore, here we adopt finite-element analysis to investigate the manufacturing-worthiness of a three-dimensional digitally reconstructed locust wing, and propose novel combinations of economical and readily available manufacturing methods to develop the model into prototypes that are structurally similar to their counterparts in nature while maintaining the optimum gliding ratio previously obtained in the aerodynamic simulations. The former is assessed here via an experimental analysis of the flexural stiffness and maximum deformation rate as EI s = 1.34 × 10-4 Nm2, EI c = 5.67 × 10-6 Nm2 and greater than 148.2%, respectively. Ultimately, a comparative study of the mechanical properties reveals the feasibility of each prototype for gliding micro aerial vehicle applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Isakhani
- The Computational Intelligence Lab (CIL), School of Computer Science, University of Lincoln, LN6 7TS Lincoln, UK
| | - Caihua Xiong
- The State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wenbin Chen
- The State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shigang Yue
- The Computational Intelligence Lab (CIL), School of Computer Science, University of Lincoln, LN6 7TS Lincoln, UK
- Machine Life and Intelligence Research Centre, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Koizumi S, Nakata T, Liu H. Flexibility Effects of a Flapping Mechanism Inspired by Insect Musculoskeletal System on Flight Performance. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:612183. [PMID: 33968909 PMCID: PMC8100246 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.612183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Flying animals such as insects display great flight performances with high stability and maneuverability even under unpredictable disturbances in natural and man-made environments. Unlike man-made mechanical systems like a drone, insects can achieve various flapping motions through their flexible musculoskeletal systems. However, it remains poorly understood whether flexibility affects flight performances or not. Here, we conducted an experimental study on the effects of the flexibility associated with the flapping mechanisms on aerodynamic performance with a flexible flapping mechanism (FFM) inspired by the flexible musculoskeletal system of insects. Based on wing kinematic and force measurements, we found an appropriate combination of the flexible components could improve the aerodynamic efficiency by increasing the wingbeat amplitude. Results of the wind tunnel experiments suggested that, through some passive adjustment of the wing kinematics in concert with the flexible mechanism, the disturbance-induced effects could be suppressed. Therefore, the flight stability under the disturbances is improved. While the FFM with the most rigid spring was least efficient in the static experiments, the model was most robust against the wind within the range of the study. Our results, particularly regarding the trade-off between the efficiency and the robustness, point out the importance of the passive response of the flapping mechanisms, which may provide a functional biomimetic design for the flapping micro air vehicles (MAVs) capable of achieving high efficiency and stability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sakito Koizumi
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | | | - Hao Liu
- Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
A review: Learning from the flight of beetles. Comput Biol Med 2021; 133:104397. [PMID: 33895456 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Some Coleoptera (popularly referred to as beetles) can fly at a low Reynolds number with their deployable hind wings, which directly enables a low body weight-a good bioinspiration strategy for miniaturization of micro-air vehicles (MAVs). The hind wing is a significant part of the body and has a folding/unfolding mechanism whose unique function benefits from different structures and materials. This review summarizes the actions, factors, and mechanisms of beetle flight and bioinspired MAVs with deployable wings. The elytron controlled by muscles is the protected part for the folded hind wing and influences flight performance. The resilin, the storage material for elasticity, is located in the folding parts. The hind wings' folding/unfolding mechanism and flight performance can be influenced by vein structures of hollow, solid and wrinkled veins, the hemolymph that flows in hollow veins and its hydraulic mechanism, and various mechanical properties of veins. The action of beetle flight includes flapping flight, hovering, gliding, and landing. The hind wing is passively deformed through force and hemolymph, and the attack angle of the hind wing and the nanomechanics of the veins, muscles and mass body determine the flight performance. Based these factors, bioinspired MAVs with a new deployable wing structure and new materials will be designed to be much more effective and miniaturized. The new fuels and energy supply are significant aspects of MAVs.
Collapse
|
35
|
Walker SM, Taylor GK. A semi-empirical model of the aerodynamics of manoeuvring insect flight. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20210103. [PMID: 33906387 PMCID: PMC8086888 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2021.0103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Blade element modelling provides a quick analytical method for estimating the aerodynamic forces produced during insect flight, but such models have yet to be tested rigorously using kinematic data recorded from free-flying insects. This is largely because of the paucity of detailed free-flight kinematic data, but also because analytical limitations in existing blade element models mean that they cannot incorporate the complex three-dimensional movements of the wings and body that occur during insect flight. Here, we present a blade element model with empirically fitted aerodynamic force coefficients that incorporates the full three-dimensional wing kinematics of manoeuvring Eristalis hoverflies, including torsional deformation of their wings. The two free parameters were fitted to a large free-flight dataset comprising N = 26 541 wingbeats, and the fitted model captured approximately 80% of the variation in the stroke-averaged forces in the sagittal plane. We tested the robustness of the model by subsampling the data, and found little variation in the parameter estimates across subsamples comprising 10% of the flight sequences. The simplicity and generality of the model that we present is such that it can be readily applied to kinematic datasets from other insects, and also used for the study of insect flight dynamics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon M. Walker
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Graham K. Taylor
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Review on System Identification and Mathematical Modeling of Flapping Wing Micro-Aerial Vehicles. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11041546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a thorough review on the system identification techniques applied to flapping wing micro air vehicles (FWMAVs). The main advantage of this work is to provide a solid background and domain knowledge of system identification for further investigations in the field of FWMAVs. In the system identification context, the flapping wing systems are first categorized into tailed and tailless MAVs. The most recent developments related to such systems are reported. The system identification techniques used for FWMAVs can be classified into time-response based identification, frequency-response based identification, and the computational fluid-dynamics based computation. In the system identification scenario, least mean square estimation is used for a beetle mimicking system recognition. In the end, this review work is concluded and some recommendations for the researchers working in this area are presented.
Collapse
|
37
|
Meresman Y, Ribak G. Elastic wing deformations mitigate flapping asymmetry during manoeuvres in rose chafers ( Protaetia cuprea). J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb225599. [PMID: 33168594 PMCID: PMC7774887 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.225599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
To manoeuvre in air, flying animals produce asymmetric flapping between contralateral wings. Unlike the adjustable vertebrate wings, insect wings lack intrinsic musculature, preventing active control over wing shape during flight. However, the wings elastically deform as a result of aerodynamic and inertial forces generated by the flapping motions. How these elastic deformations vary with flapping kinematics and flight performance in free-flying insects is poorly understood. Using high-speed videography, we measured how contralateral wings elastically deform during free-flight manoeuvring in rose chafer beetles (Protaetia cuprea). We found that asymmetric flapping during aerial turns was associated with contralateral differences in chord-wise wing deformations. The highest instantaneous difference in deformation occurred during stroke reversals, resulting from differences in wing rotation timing. Elastic deformation asymmetry was also evident during mid-strokes, where wing compliance increased the angle of attack of both wings, but reduced the asymmetry in the angle of attack between contralateral wings. A biomechanical model revealed that wing compliance can increase the torques generated by each wing, providing higher potential for manoeuvrability, while concomitantly contributing to flight stability by attenuating steering asymmetry. Such stability may be adaptive for insects such as flower chafers that need to perform delicate low-speed landing manoeuvres among vegetation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yonatan Meresman
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Gal Ribak
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
- The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Israel National Center for Biodiversity Studies, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Liu H. Simulation-based insect-inspired flight systems. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2020; 42:105-109. [PMID: 33068784 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2020.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Insects power and control their flight by flapping their wings. By controlling their aerodynamic forces and torques, they can generate precise and agile aerial manoeuvres. From an engineer's perspective, their closed-loop, flight control system depends on an overarching external mechanical 'frame' consisting of wings and thoracic shell, which is actuated by an internal system consisting of flight muscles and a complex nervous system. Insect flights are diverse but robust relying on the integration of different flexible structures including wings, exoskeletal elements, wing-hinges, musculoskeletal elements, and sensors. Computational modelling of biomechanics in insect-inspired flight systems can offer a powerful and feasible tool to unravel a passive and active mechanism (PAM) strategy, that is, how these flexible structures work interactively and complementarily to achieve a systematically efficient and robust flapping-wing dynamics and aerodynamics as well as flight control in various natural environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Liu
- Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Addo-Akoto R, Han JS, Han JH. Aerodynamic performance of flexible flapping wings deformed by slack angle. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2020; 15:066005. [PMID: 32702672 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aba8ac] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Wing flexibility is unavoidable for flapping wing flyers to ensure a lightweight body and for higher payload allowances on board. It also effectively minimizes the inertia force from high-frequency wingbeat motion. However, related studies that attempt to clarify the essence of wing flexibility remain insufficient. Here, a parametric study of a flexible wing was conducted as part of the effort to build an aerodynamic model and analyze its aerodynamic performance. The quasi-steady modeling was adopted with experimentally determined translational forces. These forces were determined from 84 flexible wing cases while varying the angle of attack at the wing rootαrand the flexibility parameter, slack angleθS, with 19 additional rigid wing cases. This study foundαrfor optimum lift generation to exceed 45° irrespective ofθS. The coefficient curves were well-fitted with a cubed-sine function. The model was rigorously validated with various wing kinematics, giving a good estimation of the experimental results. The estimated error was less than 5%, 6%, and 8% for the lift, drag, and moment, respectively, considering fast to moderate wing kinematics. The study was extended to analyze the pure aerodynamic performance of the flexible wing. The most suitable wing for a flapping-wing micro-aerial vehicle wing design with a simple vein structure was found to be the 5° slack-angled wing. The inference from this study further shows that a small amount of deformation is needed to increase the lift, as observed in natural flyers. Thus, wing deformation could allow living flyers to undertake less pitching motion in order to reduce the mechanical power and increase the efficiency of their wings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reynolds Addo-Akoto
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Seob Han
- Chair of Aerodynamics and Fluid Mechanics, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstr. 15, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Jae-Hung Han
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Urca T, Debnath AK, Stefanini J, Gurka R, Ribak G. The Aerodynamics and Power Requirements of Forward Flapping Flight in the Mango Stem Borer Beetle ( Batocera rufomaculata). Integr Org Biol 2020; 2:obaa026. [PMID: 33796817 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obaa026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The need for long dispersal flights can drive selection for behavioral, physiological, and biomechanical mechanisms to reduce the energy spent flying. However, some energy loss during the transfer of momentum from the wing to the fluid is inevitable, and inherent to the fluid-wing interaction. Here, we analyzed these losses during the forward flight of the mango stem borer (Batocera rufomaculata). This relatively large beetle can disperse substantial distances in search of new host trees, and laboratory experiments have demonstrated continuous tethered flights that can last for up to an hour. We flew the beetles tethered in a wind tunnel and used high-speed videography to estimate the aerodynamic power from their flapping kinematics and particle image velocimetry (PIV) to evaluate drag and kinetic energy from their unsteady wakes. To account for tethering effects, we measured the forces applied by the beetles on the tether arm holding them in place. The drag of the flying beetle over the flapping cycle, estimated from the flow fields in the unsteady wake, showed good agreement with direct measurement of mean horizontal force. Both measurements showed that total drag during flight is ∼5-fold higher than the parasite drag on the body. The aerodynamic power estimated from both the motion of the wings, using a quasi-steady blade-element model, and the kinetic energy in the wake, gave mean values of flight-muscle mass-specific power of 87 and 65 W kg muscle-1, respectively. A comparison of the two values suggests that ∼25% of the energy is lost within the fluid due to turbulence and heat. The muscle mass-specific power found here is low relative to the maximal power output reported for insect flight muscles. This can be attributed to reduce weight support during tethered flight or to operation at submaximal output that may ensure a supply of metabolic substrates to the flight muscles, thus delaying their fatigue during long-distance flights.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomer Urca
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 6997801, Israel
| | - Anup Kumar Debnath
- Department of Physics and Engineering, Coastal Carolina University, SC, USA
| | | | - Roi Gurka
- Department of Physics and Engineering, Coastal Carolina University, SC, USA
| | - Gal Ribak
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 6997801, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Su M, Huang Z, Liu J, Li Y, Pan Q, Zhang Z, Li Z, Cai Z, Chen B, Chen S, Li F, Song Y. Recognition and location of motile microorganisms by shape-matching photoluminescence micropatterns. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:2975-2980. [PMID: 32686816 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00465k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The typical dimensions of bacterial and microorganism cells match well with the scales at which nanomaterial-based architectures can influence the environment. However, it is one of the most formidable challenges to achieve designed patterns at the microscale for studying microorganisms. Here, we present a method to recognize and locate motile microorganisms at the microscale. The micro-printing strategy via droplet manipulation achieves functional molecule patterning with accurate positions and orientations at the microscale. It is controlled under the interplay between the macroscopic driving forces and the microscopic interfacial dynamics. Photoluminescence patterns have the character of shape matching and uniform light guiding for phototactic microorganisms. The strong attraction among motile microorganisms and photoluminescence patterns prompts microscale artificial selection and location, which will promote the development of self-organized bio-patterning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meng Su
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Waldrop LD, He Y, Hedrick TL, Rader JA. Functional Morphology of Gliding Flight I: Modeling Reveals Distinct Performance Landscapes Based on Soaring Strategies. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:1283-1296. [PMID: 32766844 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The physics of flight influences the morphology of bird wings through natural selection on flight performance. The connection between wing morphology and performance is unclear due to the complex relationships between various parameters of flight. In order to better understand this connection, we present a holistic analysis of gliding flight that preserves complex relationships between parameters. We use a computational model of gliding flight, along with analysis by uncertainty quantification, to (1) create performance landscapes of gliding based on output metrics (maximum lift-to-drag ratio, minimum gliding angle, minimum sinking speed, and lift coefficient at minimum sinking speed) and (2) predict what parameters of flight (chordwise camber, wing aspect ratio [AR], and Reynolds number) would differ between gliding and nongliding species of birds. We also examine performance based on the soaring strategy for possible differences in morphology within gliding birds. Gliding birds likely have greater ARs than non-gliding birds, due to the high sensitivity of AR on most metrics of gliding performance. Furthermore, gliding birds can use two distinct soaring strategies based on performance landscapes. First, maximizing distance traveled (maximizing lift-to-drag ratio and minimizing gliding angle) should result in wings with high ARs and middling-to-low wing chordwise camber. Second, maximizing lift extracted from updrafts should result in wings with middling ARs and high wing chordwise camber. Following studies can test these hypotheses using morphological measurements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay D Waldrop
- Schmid College of Science and Technology, Chapman University, Orange, CA 92866, USA
| | - Yanyan He
- Department of Mathematics, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA.,Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Tyson L Hedrick
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jonathan A Rader
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Krishna S, Cho M, Wehmann HN, Engels T, Lehmann FO. Wing Design in Flies: Properties and Aerodynamic Function. INSECTS 2020; 11:E466. [PMID: 32718051 PMCID: PMC7469158 DOI: 10.3390/insects11080466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The shape and function of insect wings tremendously vary between insect species. This review is engaged in how wing design determines the aerodynamic mechanisms with which wings produce an air momentum for body weight support and flight control. We work out the tradeoffs associated with aerodynamic key parameters such as vortex development and lift production, and link the various components of wing structure to flight power requirements and propulsion efficiency. A comparison between rectangular, ideal-shaped and natural-shaped wings shows the benefits and detriments of various wing shapes for gliding and flapping flight. The review expands on the function of three-dimensional wing structure, on the specific role of wing corrugation for vortex trapping and lift enhancement, and on the aerodynamic significance of wing flexibility for flight and body posture control. The presented comparison is mainly concerned with wings of flies because these animals serve as model systems for both sensorimotor integration and aerial propulsion in several areas of biology and engineering.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Fritz-Olaf Lehmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany; (S.K.); (M.C.); (H.-N.W.); (T.E.)
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Wootton R. The Geometry and Mechanics of Insect Wing Deformations in Flight: A Modelling Approach. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11070446. [PMID: 32709085 PMCID: PMC7412480 DOI: 10.3390/insects11070446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The nature, occurrence, morphological basis and functions of insect wing deformation in flight are reviewed. The importance of relief in supporting the wing is stressed, and three types are recognized, namely corrugation, an M-shaped section and camber, all of which need to be overcome if wings are to bend usefully in the morphological upstroke. How this is achieved, and how bending, torsion and change in profile are mechanically interrelated, are explored by means of simple physical models which reflect situations that are visible in high speed photographs and films. The shapes of lines of transverse flexion are shown to reflect the timing and roles of bending, and their orientation is shown to determine the extent of the torsional component of the deformation process. Some configurations prove to allow two stable conditions, others to be monostable. The possibility of active remote control of wing rigidity by the thoracic musculature is considered, but the extent of this remains uncertain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robin Wootton
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Address for correspondence 61 Thornton Hill, Exeter EX4 4NR, UK
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Vincent L, Zheng M, Costello JH, Kanso E. Enhanced flight performance in non-uniformly flexible wings. J R Soc Interface 2020. [DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The flexibility of biological propulsors such as wings and fins is believed to contribute to the higher performance of flying and swimming animals compared with their engineered peers. Flexibility seems to follow a universal design rule that induces bending patterns at about one-third from the distal tip of the propulsor’s span. However, the aerodynamic mechanisms that shaped this convergent design and the potential improvement in performance are not well understood. Here, we analyse the effect of heterogeneous flexibility on the flight performance (range and descent angle) of passively tumbling wings. Using experiments, numerical simulations, and scaling analysis, we demonstrate that spanwise tip flexibility that follows this empirical rule leads to improved flight performance. Improvement in flight range seems to be related to flutter-induced drag reduction. This mechanism is independent of the wing’s auto-rotation and represents a more general trait of wings with non-uniform tip flexibility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Vincent
- Aerospace & Mechanical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Min Zheng
- Aerospace & Mechanical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - John H. Costello
- Biology Department, Providence College, Providence, RI 02918, USA
- Whitman Center, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Eva Kanso
- Aerospace & Mechanical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Bode-Oke AT, Dong H. The reverse flight of a monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus) is characterized by a weight-supporting upstroke and postural changes. J R Soc Interface 2020; 17:20200268. [PMID: 32574538 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Butterflies are agile fliers which use inactive and active upstrokes (US). The active US plays a secondary role to the downstroke (DS), generating both thrust and negative vertical force. However, whether their active halfstroke function is fixed or facultative has not been clarified. We showed that during multiple backward flights of an individual, postural adjustments via body angles greater than 90°, with pitch-down and pitch-up motions in the DS and US, respectively, reoriented the stroke plane and caused the reversal of the aerodynamic functions of the halfstrokes compared with forward flight. The US and DS primarily provided weight support and horizontal force, respectively, and a leading edge vortex (LEV) was formed in both halfstrokes. The US's LEV was a Class II LEV extending from wingtip to wingtip, previously reported albeit during the DS in forward flight. The US's net force contribution increased from 32% in forward to 60% in backward flight. Likewise, US weight support increased from 8 to 85%. Despite different trajectories, body postures and force orientations among flight sequences in the global frame, the halfstroke-average forces pointed in a uniform direction relative to the body in both forward and backward flight.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ayodeji T Bode-Oke
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA
| | - Haibo Dong
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Abstract
Mosquitoes' exceptional sensitivity to sound and airflow inspires new collision avoidance technology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John Young
- School of Engineering and Information Technology, University of New South Wales, Canberra, ACT 2610, Australia.
| | - Matthew Garratt
- School of Engineering and Information Technology, University of New South Wales, Canberra, ACT 2610, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Rajabi H, Dirks JH, Gorb SN. Insect wing damage: causes, consequences and compensatory mechanisms. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:223/9/jeb215194. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.215194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The evolution of wings has played a key role in the success of insect species, allowing them to diversify to fill many niches. Insect wings are complex multifunctional structures, which not only have to withstand aerodynamic forces but also need to resist excessive stresses caused by accidental collisions. This Commentary provides a summary of the literature on damage-reducing morphological adaptations in wings, covering natural causes of wing collisions, their impact on the structural integrity of wings and associated consequences for both insect flight performance and life expectancy. Data from the literature and our own observations suggest that insects have evolved strategies that (i) reduce the likelihood of wing damage and (ii) allow them to cope with damage when it occurs: damage-related fractures are minimized because wings evolved to be damage tolerant and, in the case of wing damage, insects compensate for the reduced aerodynamic efficiency with dedicated changes in flight kinematics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Rajabi
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Jan-Henning Dirks
- Biomimetics-Innovation-Centre, Hochschule Bremen–City University of Applied Sciences, 28199 Bremen, Germany
| | - Stanislav N. Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Ma Y, Ma T, Ning J, Gorb S. Structure and tensile properties of the forewing costal vein of the honeybee Apis mellifera. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:4057-4064. [PMID: 32285868 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm02364j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the morphological features and tensile properties of the forewing costal vein of the honeybee (Apis mellifera) under fresh, dry and in vitro-time varied conditions. The costal vein is composed of an outer sub-vein and an inner vein starting from the wing base to nearly 50% of the wing span and then they are fused into one vein extending to the wing tip. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that the outer sub-vein with red autofluorescence is stiffer than the inner one with green autofluorescence, and the membrane in the gap between the sub-veins exhibited a long blue-autofluorescence resilin stripe. Considering the irregular cross-sectional shape of the costal vein, cross-sections of the tested specimens after tensile failure were analysed using scanning electron microscopy, to precisely calculate their cross-sectional areas by a customized MATLAB program. The Young's modulus and tensile strength of fresh specimens were ∼4.78 GPa and ∼119.84 MPa, which are lower than those of dry specimens (∼9.08 GPa and ∼154.45 MPa). However, the tensile strain had the opposite relationship (fresh: ∼0.031, dry: ∼0.018). Thus, specimen desiccation results in increasing stiffness and brittleness. The morphological features and material properties of the costal vein taken together represent a tradeoff between both deformability and stiffness. Our study provides guidance for material selection and bionic design of the technical wings of flapping micro aerial vehicles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China. and Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Kiel 24118, Germany
| | - Tianbao Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Jianguo Ning
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Kiel 24118, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Flight Muscle and Wing Mechanical Properties are Involved in Flightlessness of the Domestic Silkmoth, Bombyx mori. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11040220. [PMID: 32252362 PMCID: PMC7240457 DOI: 10.3390/insects11040220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Flight loss has occurred in many winged insect taxa. The flightless silkmoth Bombyx mori, is domesticated from the wild silkmoth, Bombyx mandarina, which can fly. In this paper, we studied morphological characteristics attributed to flightlessness in silkmoths. Three domestic flightless B. mori strains and one B. mandarina population were used to compare morphological components of the flight apparatus, including wing characteristics (shape, forewing area, loading, and stiffness), flight muscle (weight, ratio, and microscopic detail) and body mass. Compared with B. mandarina, B. mori strains have a larger body, greater wing loading, more flexible wings and a lower flight muscle ratio. The arrangement in microscopy of dorsal longitudinal flight muscles (DLFMs) of B. mori was irregular. Comparative analysis of the sexes suggests that degeneration of flight muscles and reduction of wing mechanical properties (stiffness) are associated with silkmoth flightlessness. The findings provide important clues for further research of the molecular mechanisms of B. mori flight loss.
Collapse
|