1
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Subbotin V, Fiksel G. Aquatic Ferrous Solutions of Prebiotic Mineral Salts as Strong UV Protectants and Possible Loci of Life Origin. ASTROBIOLOGY 2023; 23:741-745. [PMID: 37327365 PMCID: PMC10354304 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2023.0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Liposomes are lipid-bilayer vesicles that spontaneously self-assemble from fatty acids (or other amphiphiles) in water by encapsulating surrounding aqueous media. After British scientist Alec Bangham described this phenomenon in the early 1960s, they became a prominent participant in the hypotheses on life origin, particularly in the Lipid World model. A novel scenario of self-sustained Darwinian liposome evolution is based on ever-present natural phenomena of cyclic day/night solar UV radiation and gravitational submersion of liposomes in the Archean aqueous media. One of the assumptions of the hypothesis is the UV-shielding ability of the Archean waters that could protect the submerged liposomes from the damaging solar UV radiation. To corroborate the idea, we measured UV absorption in aquatic solutions of several ferrous mineral salts assumed to be present in Archean pools. Single-agent solutions of simple salts such as FeCl2-iron dichloride, FeCl3-iron trichoride, Fe(NO3)3-ferric nitride, NH4Fe(SO4)2-ferric ammonium sulfate, and (NH4)5[Fe(C6H4O7)2]-ferric ammonium citrate were tested. These direct measurements of UV light absorption supplement and reinforce the proposed hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Subbotin
- Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Gennady Fiksel
- Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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2
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Organophosphorus Compound Formation Through the Oxidation of Reduced Oxidation State Phosphorus Compounds on the Hadean Earth. J Mol Evol 2023; 91:60-75. [PMID: 36576533 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-022-10086-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Reduced oxidation state phosphorus compounds may have been brought to the early Earth via meteorites or could have formed through geologic processes. These compounds could have played a role in the origin of biological phosphorus (P, hereafter) compounds. Reduced oxidation state P compounds are generally more soluble in water and are more reactive than orthophosphate and its associated minerals. However, to date no facile routes to generate C-O-P type compounds using reduced oxidation state P compounds have been reported under prebiotic conditions. In this study, we investigate the reactions between reduced oxidation state P compounds-and their oxidized products generated via Fenton reactions-with the nucleosides uridine and adenosine. The inorganic P compounds generated via Fenton chemistry readily react with nucleosides to produce organophosphites and organophosphates, including phosphate diesters via one-pot syntheses. The reactions were facilitated by NH4+ ions and urea as a condensation agent. We also present the results of the plausible stability of the organic compounds such as adenosine in an environment containing an abundance of H2O2. Such results have direct implications on finding organic compounds in Martian environments and other rocky planets (including early Earth) that were richer in H2O2 than O2. Finally, we also suggest a route for the sink of these inorganic P compounds, as a part of a plausible natural P cycle and show the possible formation of secondary phosphate minerals such as struvite and brushite on the early Earth.
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3
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Guo X, Fu S, Ying J, Zhao Y. Prebiotic chemistry: a review of nucleoside phosphorylation and polymerization. Open Biol 2023; 13:220234. [PMID: 36629018 PMCID: PMC9832566 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.220234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The phosphorylation of nucleosides and their polymerization are crucial issues concerning the origin of life. The question of how these plausible chemical processes took place in the prebiotic Earth is still perplexing, despite several studies that have attempted to explain these prebiotic processes. The purpose of this article is to review these chemical reactions with respect to chemical evolution in the primeval Earth. Meanwhile, from our perspective, the chiral properties and selection of biomolecules should be considered in the prebiotic chemical origin of life, which may contribute to further research in this field to some extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofan Guo
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Songsen Fu
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianxi Ying
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yufen Zhao
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China,Department of Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, Fujian, People's Republic of China
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4
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Brady MP, Tostevin R, Tosca NJ. Marine phosphate availability and the chemical origins of life on Earth. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5162. [PMID: 36056017 PMCID: PMC9440033 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32815-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Prebiotic systems chemistry suggests that high phosphate concentrations were necessary to synthesise molecular building blocks and sustain primitive cellular systems. However, current understanding of mineral solubility predicts negligible phosphate concentrations for most natural waters, yet the role of Fe2+, ubiquitous on early Earth, is poorly quantified. Here we determine the solubility of Fe(II)-phosphate in synthetic seawater as a function of pH and ionic strength, integrate these observations into a thermodynamic model that predicts phosphate concentrations across a range of aquatic conditions, and validate these predictions against modern anoxic sediment pore waters. Experiments and models show that Fe2+ significantly increases the solubility of all phosphate minerals in anoxic systems, suggesting that Hadean and Archean seawater featured phosphate concentrations ~103–104 times higher than currently estimated. This suggests that seawater readily met the phosphorus requirements of emergent cellular systems and early microbial life, perhaps fueling primary production during the advent of oxygenic photosynthesis. Phosphate is critical for all life on Earth but its origins have remained enigmatic. Experiments indicate that phosphate may have been abundant in ancient Fe-rich seawater, providing a crucial ingredient for the origins of life on Earth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew P Brady
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, UK
| | - Rosalie Tostevin
- Department of Geological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa
| | - Nicholas J Tosca
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, UK.
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5
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Lozoya-Colinas A, Clifton BE, Grover MA, Hud NV. Urea and Acetamide Rich Solutions Circumvent the Strand Inhibition Problem to Allow Multiple Rounds of DNA and RNA Copying. Chembiochem 2021; 23:e202100495. [PMID: 34797020 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
For decades prebiotic chemists have attempted to achieve replication of RNA under prebiotic conditions with only limited success. One of the long-recognized impediments to achieving true replication of a duplex (copying of both strands) is the so-called strand inhibition problem. Specifically, while the two strands of an RNA (or DNA) duplex can be separated by heating, upon cooling the strands of a duplex will reanneal before mononucleotide or oligonucleotide substrates can bind to the individual strands. Here we demonstrate that a class of plausible prebiotic solvents, when coupled with thermal cycling and varying levels of hydration, circumvents the strand inhibition problem, and allows multiple rounds of information transfer from both strands of a duplex (replication). Replication was achieved by simultaneous ligation of oligomers that bind to their templates with the aid of the solvents. The solvents used consisted of concentrated solutions of urea and acetamide in water (UAcW), components that were likely abundant on the early Earth. The UAcW solvent system favors the annealing of shorter strands over the re-annealing of long strands, thereby circumventing strand inhibition. We observed an improvement of DNA and RNA replication yields by a factor of 100× over aqueous buffer. Information transfer in the UAcW solvent system is robust, being achieved for a range of solvent component ratios, various drying conditions, and in the absence or presence of added salts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Lozoya-Colinas
- NSF/NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, GA 30332, Atlanta, USA.,School of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, GA 30332, Atlanta, USA
| | - Bryce E Clifton
- NSF/NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, GA 30332, Atlanta, USA.,School of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, GA 30332, Atlanta, USA
| | - Martha A Grover
- NSF/NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, GA 30332, Atlanta, USA.,School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive NW, GA 30332, Atlanta, USA
| | - Nicholas V Hud
- NSF/NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, GA 30332, Atlanta, USA.,School of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, GA 30332, Atlanta, USA
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6
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Gaylor MO, Miro P, Vlaisavljevich B, Kondage AAS, Barge LM, Omran A, Videau P, Swenson VA, Leinen LJ, Fitch NW, Cole KL, Stone C, Drummond SM, Rageth K, Dewitt LR, González Henao S, Karanauskus V. Plausible Emergence and Self Assembly of a Primitive Phospholipid from Reduced Phosphorus on the Primordial Earth. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2021; 51:185-213. [PMID: 34279769 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-021-09613-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
How life arose on the primitive Earth is one of the biggest questions in science. Biomolecular emergence scenarios have proliferated in the literature but accounting for the ubiquity of oxidized (+ 5) phosphate (PO43-) in extant biochemistries has been challenging due to the dearth of phosphate and molecular oxygen on the primordial Earth. A compelling body of work suggests that exogenous schreibersite ((Fe,Ni)3P) was delivered to Earth via meteorite impacts during the Heavy Bombardment (ca. 4.1-3.8 Gya) and there converted to reduced P oxyanions (e.g., phosphite (HPO32-) and hypophosphite (H2PO2-)) and phosphonates. Inspired by this idea, we review the relevant literature to deduce a plausible reduced phospholipid analog of modern phosphatidylcholines that could have emerged in a primordial hydrothermal setting. A shallow alkaline lacustrine basin underlain by active hydrothermal fissures and meteoritic schreibersite-, clay-, and metal-enriched sediments is envisioned. The water column is laden with known and putative primordial hydrothermal reagents. Small system dimensions and thermal- and UV-driven evaporation further concentrate chemical precursors. We hypothesize that a reduced phospholipid arises from Fischer-Tropsch-type (FTT) production of a C8 alkanoic acid, which condenses with an organophosphinate (derived from schreibersite corrosion to hypophosphite with subsequent methylation/oxidation), to yield a reduced protophospholipid. This then condenses with an α-amino nitrile (derived from Strecker-type reactions) to form the polar head. Preliminary modeling results indicate that reduced phospholipids do not aggregate rapidly; however, single layer micelles are stable up to aggregates with approximately 100 molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael O Gaylor
- Department of Chemistry, Dakota State University, Madison, SD, 57042, USA.
| | - Pere Miro
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, 57069, USA
| | - Bess Vlaisavljevich
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, 57069, USA
| | | | - Laura M Barge
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA
| | - Arthur Omran
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA.,Department of Chemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Patrick Videau
- Department of Biology, Southern Oregon University, Ashland, OR, 97520, USA.,Bayer Crop Science, Chesterfield, MO, 63017, USA
| | - Vaille A Swenson
- Department of Chemistry, Dakota State University, Madison, SD, 57042, USA.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Lucas J Leinen
- Department of Chemistry, Dakota State University, Madison, SD, 57042, USA
| | - Nathaniel W Fitch
- Department of Chemistry, Dakota State University, Madison, SD, 57042, USA
| | - Krista L Cole
- Department of Chemistry, Dakota State University, Madison, SD, 57042, USA
| | - Chris Stone
- Department of Biology, Southern Oregon University, Ashland, OR, 97520, USA
| | - Samuel M Drummond
- Department of Chemistry, Dakota State University, Madison, SD, 57042, USA
| | - Kayli Rageth
- Department of Chemistry, Dakota State University, Madison, SD, 57042, USA
| | - Lillian R Dewitt
- Department of Chemistry, Dakota State University, Madison, SD, 57042, USA
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7
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Gull M, Omran A, Feng T, Pasek MA. Silicate-, Magnesium Ion-, and Urea-Induced Prebiotic Phosphorylation of Uridine via Pyrophosphate; Revisiting the Hot Drying Water Pool Scenario. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:life10080122. [PMID: 32722517 PMCID: PMC7459484 DOI: 10.3390/life10080122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The availability of nucleotides on the early Earth is of great significance for the origin of a self-replicating system capable of undergoing evolution. We hereby report the successful phosphorylation reactions of the nucleoside uridine under heating in the "drying pool" prebiotic model at temperatures ranging from 60-75 °C, and by using pyrophosphate as a phosphorylation agent. Uridine monophosphates (UMP) such as uridine-5'-monophosphate (5'-UMP), 2'-UMP, and 3'-UMP, as well as cyclic 2'-3'-UMP, were identified by 31P-NMR. In addition to the above-mentioned products, a dimer of uridine-phosphate-uridine (U-P-U) was also observed. The reactions were promoted by white quartz sand, Mg2+, and by using urea as a condensation agent. The reactions also proceeded without this mixture; however, the yields increased remarkably with the presence of the above-mentioned materials. The results suggest that a hot/evaporating-drying pool of water containing organics, salts, and reactive phosphorus could be sufficient to form significant phosphate esters.
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8
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Piast RW, Garstka M, Misicka A, Wieczorek RM. Small Cyclic Peptide for Pyrophosphate Dependent Ligation in Prebiotic Environments. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:life10070103. [PMID: 32630714 PMCID: PMC7400013 DOI: 10.3390/life10070103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
All life on Earth uses one universal biochemistry stemming from one universal common ancestor of all known living organisms. One of the most striking features of this universal biochemistry is its utter dependence on phosphate group transfer between biochemical molecules. Both nucleic acid and peptide biological synthesis relies heavily on phosphate group transfer. Such dependents strongly indicate very early incorporation of phosphate chemistry in the origin of life. Perhaps as early as prebiotic soup stage. We report here on a short cyclic peptide, c(RPDDHR), designed rationally for pyrophosphate interaction, which is able to create a new amide bond dependent on the presence of pyrophosphate. We believe this result to be a first step in the exploration of Phosphate Transfer Catalysts that must have been present and active in prebiotic soup and must have laid down foundations for the universal bioenergetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radosław W. Piast
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (R.W.P.); (A.M.)
| | - Maciej Garstka
- Department of Metabolic Regulation, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Aleksandra Misicka
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (R.W.P.); (A.M.)
| | - Rafał M. Wieczorek
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (R.W.P.); (A.M.)
- Correspondence:
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9
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Toner JD, Catling DC. A carbonate-rich lake solution to the phosphate problem of the origin of life. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:883-888. [PMID: 31888981 PMCID: PMC6969521 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1916109117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphate is central to the origin of life because it is a key component of nucleotides in genetic molecules, phospholipid cell membranes, and energy transfer molecules such as adenosine triphosphate. To incorporate phosphate into biomolecules, prebiotic experiments commonly use molar phosphate concentrations to overcome phosphate's poor reactivity with organics in water. However, phosphate is generally limited to micromolar levels in the environment because it precipitates with calcium as low-solubility apatite minerals. This disparity between laboratory conditions and environmental constraints is an enigma known as "the phosphate problem." Here we show that carbonate-rich lakes are a marked exception to phosphate-poor natural waters. In principle, modern carbonate-rich lakes could accumulate up to ∼0.1 molal phosphate under steady-state conditions of evaporation and stream inflow because calcium is sequestered into carbonate minerals. This prevents the loss of dissolved phosphate to apatite precipitation. Even higher phosphate concentrations (>1 molal) can form during evaporation in the absence of inflows. On the prebiotic Earth, carbonate-rich lakes were likely abundant and phosphate-rich relative to the present day because of the lack of microbial phosphate sinks and enhanced chemical weathering of phosphate minerals under relatively CO2-rich atmospheres. Furthermore, the prevailing CO2 conditions would have buffered phosphate-rich brines to moderate pH (pH 6.5 to 9). The accumulation of phosphate and other prebiotic reagents at concentration and pH levels relevant to experimental prebiotic syntheses of key biomolecules is a compelling reason to consider carbonate-rich lakes as plausible settings for the origin of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D Toner
- Department of Earth & Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - David C Catling
- Department of Earth & Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
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10
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Burcar B, Castañeda A, Lago J, Daniel M, Pasek MA, Hud NV, Orlando TM, Menor‐Salván C. A Stark Contrast to Modern Earth: Phosphate Mineral Transformation and Nucleoside Phosphorylation in an Iron‐ and Cyanide‐Rich Early Earth Scenario. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201908272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley Burcar
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
| | - Alma Castañeda
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
| | - Jennifer Lago
- School of Geosciences University of South Florida, Tampa Tampa FL 33620 USA
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
| | - Mischael Daniel
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
| | - Matthew A. Pasek
- School of Geosciences University of South Florida, Tampa Tampa FL 33620 USA
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
| | - Nicholas V. Hud
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
| | - Thomas M. Orlando
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
| | - César Menor‐Salván
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 33000 USA
- Dep. de Biología de Sistemas-Instituto de Investigación Química Andrés del Río (IQAR) Universidad de Alcalá 28805 Alcalá de Henares Spain
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11
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A. Pasek
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue NES 204, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
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12
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Burcar B, Castañeda A, Lago J, Daniel M, Pasek MA, Hud NV, Orlando TM, Menor-Salván C. A Stark Contrast to Modern Earth: Phosphate Mineral Transformation and Nucleoside Phosphorylation in an Iron- and Cyanide-Rich Early Earth Scenario. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:16981-16987. [PMID: 31460687 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201908272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Organophosphates were likely an important class of prebiotic molecules. However, their presence on the early Earth is strongly debated because the low availability of phosphate, which is generally assumed to have been sequestered in insoluble calcium and iron minerals, is widely viewed as a major barrier to organophosphate generation. Herein, we demonstrate that cyanide (an essential prebiotic precursor) and urea-based solvents could promote nucleoside phosphorylation by transforming insoluble phosphate minerals in a "warm little pond" scenario into more soluble and reactive species. Our results suggest that cyanide and its derivatives (metal cyanide complexes, urea, ammonium formate, and formamide) were key reagents for the participation of phosphorus in chemical evolution. These results allow us to propose a holistic scenario in which an evaporitic environment could concentrate abiotically formed organics and transform the underlying minerals, allowing significant organic phosphorylation under plausible prebiotic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley Burcar
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA.,NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA
| | - Alma Castañeda
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA.,NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA
| | - Jennifer Lago
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA.,NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA
| | - Mischael Daniel
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA
| | - Matthew A Pasek
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA.,NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA
| | - Nicholas V Hud
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA.,NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA
| | - Thomas M Orlando
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA.,NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA
| | - César Menor-Salván
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 33000, USA.,Dep. de Biología de Sistemas-Instituto de Investigación Química Andrés del Río (IQAR), Universidad de Alcalá, 28805, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
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13
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Tian T, Chu XY, Yang Y, Zhang X, Liu YM, Gao J, Ma BG, Zhang HY. Phosphates as Energy Sources to Expand Metabolic Networks. Life (Basel) 2019; 9:life9020043. [PMID: 31121973 PMCID: PMC6617280 DOI: 10.3390/life9020043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphates are essential for modern metabolisms. A recent study reported a phosphate-free metabolic network and suggested that thioesters, rather than phosphates, could alleviate thermodynamic bottlenecks of network expansion. As a result, it was considered that a phosphorus-independent metabolism could exist before the phosphate-based genetic coding system. To explore the origin of phosphorus-dependent metabolism, the present study constructs a protometabolic network that contains phosphates prebiotically available using computational systems biology approaches. It is found that some primitive phosphorylated intermediates could greatly alleviate thermodynamic bottlenecks of network expansion. Moreover, the phosphorus-dependent metabolic network exhibits several ancient features. Taken together, it is concluded that phosphates played a role as important as that of thioesters during the origin and evolution of metabolism. Both phosphorus and sulfur are speculated to be critical to the origin of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Tian
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Xin-Yi Chu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Yi Yang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Beijing National Center for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Ye-Mao Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Jun Gao
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Bin-Guang Ma
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Hong-Yu Zhang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
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14
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Menor-Salván C. From the Dawn of Organic Chemistry to Astrobiology: Urea as a Foundational Component in the Origin of Nucleobases and Nucleotides. PREBIOTIC CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-93584-3_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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15
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Karki M, Gibard C, Bhowmik S, Krishnamurthy R. Nitrogenous Derivatives of Phosphorus and the Origins of Life: Plausible Prebiotic Phosphorylating Agents in Water. Life (Basel) 2017; 7:E32. [PMID: 28758921 PMCID: PMC5617957 DOI: 10.3390/life7030032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2017] [Revised: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphorylation under plausible prebiotic conditions continues to be one of the defining issues for the role of phosphorus in the origins of life processes. In this review, we cover the reactions of alternative forms of phosphate, specifically the nitrogenous versions of phosphate (and other forms of reduced phosphorus species) from a prebiotic, synthetic organic and biochemistry perspective. The ease with which such amidophosphates or phosphoramidate derivatives phosphorylate a wide variety of substrates suggests that alternative forms of phosphate could have played a role in overcoming the "phosphorylation in water problem". We submit that serious consideration should be given to the search for primordial sources of nitrogenous versions of phosphate and other versions of phosphorus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megha Karki
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA.
| | - Clémentine Gibard
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA.
| | - Subhendu Bhowmik
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA.
| | - Ramanarayanan Krishnamurthy
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA.
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Fernández-García C, Coggins AJ, Powner MW. A Chemist's Perspective on the Role of Phosphorus at the Origins of Life. Life (Basel) 2017; 7:E31. [PMID: 28703763 PMCID: PMC5617956 DOI: 10.3390/life7030031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The central role that phosphates play in biological systems, suggests they also played an important role in the emergence of life on Earth. In recent years, numerous important advances have been made towards understanding the influence that phosphates may have had on prebiotic chemistry, and here, we highlight two important aspects of prebiotic phosphate chemistry. Firstly, we discuss prebiotic phosphorylation reactions; we specifically contrast aqueous electrophilic phosphorylation, and aqueous nucleophilic phosphorylation strategies, with dry-state phosphorylations that are mediated by dissociative phosphoryl-transfer. Secondly, we discuss the non-structural roles that phosphates can play in prebiotic chemistry. Here, we focus on the mechanisms by which phosphate has guided prebiotic reactivity through catalysis or buffering effects, to facilitating selective transformations in neutral water. Several prebiotic routes towards the synthesis of nucleotides, amino acids, and core metabolites, that have been facilitated or controlled by phosphate acting as a general acid-base catalyst, pH buffer, or a chemical buffer, are outlined. These facile and subtle mechanisms for incorporation and exploitation of phosphates to orchestrate selective, robust prebiotic chemistry, coupled with the central and universally conserved roles of phosphates in biochemistry, provide an increasingly clear message that understanding phosphate chemistry will be a key element in elucidating the origins of life on Earth.
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Burcar B, Pasek M, Gull M, Cafferty BJ, Velasco F, Hud NV, Menor‐Salván C. Darwin's Warm Little Pond: A One‐Pot Reaction for Prebiotic Phosphorylation and the Mobilization of Phosphate from Minerals in a Urea‐Based Solvent. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201606239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley Burcar
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30033 USA
| | - Matthew Pasek
- School of Geosciences University of South Florida Tampa FL USA
| | - Maheen Gull
- School of Geosciences University of South Florida Tampa FL USA
| | - Brian J. Cafferty
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30033 USA
| | - Francisco Velasco
- Department of Mineralogy and Petrology Universidad del País Vasco Campus de Leioa Vizcaya Spain
| | - Nicholas V. Hud
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30033 USA
| | - César Menor‐Salván
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30033 USA
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18
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Burcar B, Pasek M, Gull M, Cafferty BJ, Velasco F, Hud NV, Menor‐Salván C. Darwin's Warm Little Pond: A One‐Pot Reaction for Prebiotic Phosphorylation and the Mobilization of Phosphate from Minerals in a Urea‐Based Solvent. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:13249-13253. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201606239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley Burcar
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30033 USA
| | - Matthew Pasek
- School of Geosciences University of South Florida Tampa FL USA
| | - Maheen Gull
- School of Geosciences University of South Florida Tampa FL USA
| | - Brian J. Cafferty
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30033 USA
| | - Francisco Velasco
- Department of Mineralogy and Petrology Universidad del País Vasco Campus de Leioa Vizcaya Spain
| | - Nicholas V. Hud
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30033 USA
| | - César Menor‐Salván
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30033 USA
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Pasek M, Herschy B, Kee TP. Phosphorus: a case for mineral-organic reactions in prebiotic chemistry. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2015; 45:207-18. [PMID: 25773584 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-015-9420-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquity of phosphorus (P) in modern biochemistry suggests that P may have participated in prebiotic chemistry prior to the emergence of life. Of the major biogenic elements, phosphorus alone lacks a substantial volatile phase and its ultimate source therefore had to have been a mineral. However, as most native P minerals are chemically un-reactive within the temperature-pressure-pH regimes of contemporary life, it begs the question as to whether the most primitive early living systems on earth had access to a more chemically reactive P-mineral inventory. The meteoritic mineral schreibersite has been proposed as an important source of reactive P on the early earth. The chemistry of schreibersite as a P source is summarized and reviewed here. Recent work has also shown that reduced oxidation state P compounds were present on the early earth; these compounds lend credence to the relevance of schreibersite as a prebiotic mineral. Ultimately, schreibersite will oxidize to phosphate, but several high-energy P intermediates may have provided the reactive material necessary for incorporating P into prebiotic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Pasek
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, 4202 E Fowler Ave, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA,
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Gull M, Zhou M, Fernández FM, Pasek MA. Prebiotic phosphate ester syntheses in a deep eutectic solvent. J Mol Evol 2013; 78:109-17. [PMID: 24368625 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-013-9605-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We report a route to synthesize a wide range of organophosphates of biological significance in a deep eutectic solvent (2:1 urea and choline chloride), utilizing various orthophosphate sources. Heating an organic alcohol in the solvent along with a soluble phosphorus source yields phosphorus esters of choline as well as that of the added organic in yields between 15 to 99 %. In addition, phosphite analogs of biological phosphates and peptides were also formed by the simple mixing of reagents and heating at 60-70 °C in the deep eutectic solvent. The presented dehydration reactions are relevant to prebiotic and green chemistry in alternative solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maheen Gull
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, NES 107, 4202 East Fowler Ave, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA,
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21
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Evidence for reactive reduced phosphorus species in the early Archean ocean. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:10089-94. [PMID: 23733935 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1303904110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been hypothesized that before the emergence of modern DNA-RNA-protein life, biology evolved from an "RNA world." However, synthesizing RNA and other organophosphates under plausible early Earth conditions has proved difficult, with the incorporation of phosphorus (P) causing a particular problem because phosphate, where most environmental P resides, is relatively insoluble and unreactive. Recently, it has been proposed that during the Hadean-Archean heavy bombardment by extraterrestrial impactors, meteorites would have provided reactive P in the form of the iron-nickel phosphide mineral schreibersite. This reacts in water, releasing soluble and reactive reduced P species, such as phosphite, that could then be readily incorporated into prebiotic molecules. Here, we report the occurrence of phosphite in early Archean marine carbonates at levels indicating that this was an abundant dissolved species in the ocean before 3.5 Ga. Additionally, we show that schreibersite readily reacts with an aqueous solution of glycerol to generate phosphite and the membrane biomolecule glycerol-phosphate under mild thermal conditions, with this synthesis using a mineral source of P. Phosphite derived from schreibersite was, hence, a plausible reagent in the prebiotic synthesis of phosphorylated biomolecules and was also present on the early Earth in quantities large enough to have affected the redox state of P in the ocean. Phosphorylated biomolecules like RNA may, thus, have first formed from the reaction of reduced P species with the prebiotic organic milieu on the early Earth.
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22
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Gull M, Pasek MA. Is struvite a prebiotic mineral? Life (Basel) 2013; 3:321-30. [PMID: 25369744 PMCID: PMC4187136 DOI: 10.3390/life3020321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The prebiotic relevance of mineral struvite, MgNH4PO4·6H2O, was studied experimentally as a phosphorylating reagent and, theoretically, to understand the geochemical requirements for its formation. The effectiveness of phosphorylation by the phosphate mineral, monetite, CaHPO4, was also studied to compare to the efficiency of struvite. The experiments focused on the phosphorylation reactions of the minerals with organic compounds, such as nucleosides, glycerol and choline chloride, and heat at 75 °C for about 7-8 days and showed up to 28% phosphorylation of glycerol. In contrast, the compositional requirements for the precipitation of struvite are high ammonium and phosphate concentrations, as well as a little Ca2+ dissolved in the water. Combined, these requirements suggest that it is not likely that struvite was present in excess on the early Earth to carry out phosphorylation reactions. The present study focuses on the thermodynamic aspects of struvite formation, complementing the results given by Orgel and Handschuh (1973), which were based on the kinetic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maheen Gull
- Geology Department, University of South Florida, 4202 E Fowler Ave., SCA 528, Tampa, FL 33620, USA.
| | - Matthew A Pasek
- Geology Department, University of South Florida, 4202 E Fowler Ave., SCA 528, Tampa, FL 33620, USA.
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Song XP, Maiti M, Herdewijn P. Enzymatic synthesis of DNA employing pyrophosphate-linked dinucleotide substrates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1186/1759-2208-2-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
One of the remaining questions in the understanding of the origin of Nature's information system is the way the first nucleic acids have been synthesized. This could have been realized using nucleoside triphosphates or imidazolides of nucleoside monophosphates as building blocks. Alternatively, dinucleoside pyrophosphates could have been used for this purpose. The advantage of using building blocks, composed of pyrophosphate-linked dinucleotides, could be that exponential growth of initial information (dinucleotides) without product inhibition might become possible.
Results
Herein, we demonstrate that dinucleoside pyrophosphates are able to act as substrate for HIV-1 RT and several thermostable DNA polymerases. In single incorporation assay, compound dAppdA was able to give a 100% conversion to the (P+1) strand by Therminator DNA polymerase and at a substrate concentration above 100 μM. Full-length elongation was obtained in a chain elongation experiment, with over 95% yield of (P+7) product by Taq and Vent (exo-) DNA polymerase. Interestingly, using heterodimer dAppdT addition of either nucleotide component of the dinucleotide substrate into the DNA chain can occur, which is defined by the template program.
Conclusions
This study shows that dinucleoside pyrophosphates can be considered as a new type of substrate for polymerases in the template-directed DNA synthesis. Using heterodimers as substrate, theoretically, it is possible to synthesize DNA enzymatically using two building blocks (dAppdT and dGppdC) instead of four. Given the poor Km value for the nucleotide incorporation, evolution of polymerases will become necessary to make this process of practical use.
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Bryant DE, Marriott KER, Macgregor SA, Kilner C, Pasek MA, Kee TP. On the prebiotic potential of reduced oxidation state phosphorus: the H-phosphinate–pyruvate system. Chem Commun (Camb) 2010; 46:3726-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c002689a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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25
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Hagan WJ, Parker A, Steuerwald A, Hathaway M. Phosphate solubility and the cyanate-mediated synthesis of pyrophosphate. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2007; 37:113-22. [PMID: 17136436 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-006-9020-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2005] [Accepted: 07/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The justification for a less alkaline primordial ocean (than present) is briefly reviewed, along with constraints on aqueous phosphate under such conditions. Based on the assumption that CaHPO(4) dihydrate determined the availability of phosphorus species, we have carried out laboratory simulations to determine equilibrium concentrations as a function of pH (in PIPES buffer) with added NaCl and CaCl(2). Consistent with expectations, solubility declines with higher pH and [CaCl(2)], but increases only slightly with [NaCl]. Significantly, PIPES shows no specific effect on the dissolution beyond its influence on pH and ionic strength. Data are also presented on the synthesis of pyrophosphate from the NaOCN/CaHPO(4).2H(2)O system, which could have provided a source of this phosphate anhydride on the early Earth.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Hagan
- New York Center for Studies on the Origins of Life, School of Mathematics and Sciences, The College of St. Rose, 432 Western Avenue, Albany, NY 12203-1490, USA.
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Abstract
The prebiotic synthesis of phosphorus-containing compounds-such as nucleotides and polynucleotides-would require both a geologically plausible source of the element and pathways for its incorporation into chemical systems on the primitive Earth. The mineral apatite, which is the only significant source of phosphate on Earth, has long been thought to be problematical in this respect due to its low solubility and reactivity. However, in the last decade or so, at least two pathways have been demonstrated which would circumvent these perceived problems. In addition, recent results would seem to suggest an additional, extraterrestrial source of reactive phosphorus. It appears that the 'phosphorus problem' is no longer the stumbling block which it was once thought to be.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan W Schwartz
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen 6500, The Netherlands.
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27
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Pasek MA, Lauretta DS. Aqueous corrosion of phosphide minerals from iron meteorites: a highly reactive source of prebiotic phosphorus on the surface of the early Earth. ASTROBIOLOGY 2005; 5:515-35. [PMID: 16078869 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2005.5.515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
We present the results of an experimental study of aqueous corrosion of Fe-phosphide under conditions relevant to the early Earth. The results strongly suggest that iron meteorites were an important source of reactive phosphorus (P), a requirement for the formation of P-based life. We further demonstrate that iron meteorites were an abundant source of phosphide minerals early in Earth history. Phosphide corrosion was studied in five different solutions: deionized water, deionized water buffered with sodium bicarbonate, deionized water with dissolved magnesium and calcium chlorides, deionized water containing ethanol and acetic acid, and deionized water containing the chlorides, ethanol, and acetic acid. Experiments were performed in the presence of both air and pure Ar gas to evaluate the effect of atmospheric chemistry. Phosphide corrosion in deionized water results in a metastable mixture of mixed-valence, P-bearing ions including pyrophosphate and triphosphate, key components for metabolism in modern life. In a pH-buffered solution of NaHCO(3), the condensed and reduced species diphosphonate is an abundant corrosion product. Corrosion in ethanol- and acetic acid-containing solutions yields additional P-bearing organic molecules, including acetyl phosphonate and a cyclic triphosphorus molecule. Phosphonate is a major corrosion product of all experiments and is the only P-bearing molecule that persists in solutions with high concentrations of magnesium and calcium chlorides, which suggests that phosphonate may have been a primitive oceanic source of P. The stability and reactivity of phosphonate and hypophosphite in solution were investigated to elucidate reaction mechanisms and the role of mineral catalysts on P-solution chemistry. Phosphonate oxidation is rapid in the presence of Fe metal but negligible in the presence of magnetite and in the control sample. The rate of hypophosphite oxidation is independent of reaction substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Pasek
- Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
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28
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De Graaf RM, Schwartz AW. Thermal synthesis of nucleoside H-phosphonates under mild conditions. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2005; 35:1-10. [PMID: 15889646 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-005-0093-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2003] [Accepted: 08/27/2003] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Nucleosides react rapidly with ammonium phosphite ((NH4)2HPO3) at 60 degrees C to produce good yields of nucleoside-5'-phosphite monoesters within 24 h. Under the same conditions, ammonium phosphate is unreactive, producing low yields of nucleotide only after extended reactions. These results confirm earlier suggestions that nucleoside H-phosphonates and their possible condensation products may have been produced on the primitive earth more easily than nucleotides.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M De Graaf
- Evolutionary Biology Research Group, Faculty of Science, University of Nijmegen, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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29
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Abstract
Electrical discharges in water-saturated N2 containing 1-10% CH4 were shown earlier to reduce phosphate to phosphite. This mechanism was suggested as a possible source of water-soluble phosphorus-containing compounds in volcanic environments on the prebiotic Earth. We have now extended our investigations to gas mixtures in which CO2 and N2 are the main components, and studied the effect of introducing small amounts of H2 and CO. We show that surprisingly high conversions to phosphite occur in reducing mixtures and that several percent reduction of apatite occurs even in the presence of as little as 1% each of H2 and CO. We were also able to confirm a previous report of polyphosphate production as a result of heating the mineral apatite in the presence of other minerals.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M De Graaf
- Evolutionary Biology Research Group, Faculty of Science, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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30
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Kolb V, Zhang S, Xu Y, Arrhenius G. Mineral induced phosphorylation of glycolate ion--a metaphor in chemical evolution. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 1997; 27:485-503. [PMID: 11536838 DOI: 10.1023/a:1006582526535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Bilateral surface-active minerals with excess positive charge concentrate glycolate and trimetaphosphate ion from l0(-3) m aqueous solution to half-saturation of the internal surface sites, and induce phosphorylation of glycolate ion in the mineral with trimetaphosphate, sorbed from l0(-2) m solution. By utilizing reactants from dilute solution at near-neutral pH, and eliminating the need for participating organic nitrogen compounds, the reaction comprises several elements considered necessary for geochemical realism in models for molecular evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Kolb
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Parkside, Kenosha 53141, USA
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Abstract
The available evidence indicates that the origin of life on Earth certainly occurred earlier than 3.5 billion years ago and perhaps substantially earlier. The time available for the chemical evolution which must have preceded this event is more difficult to estimate. Both endogenic and exogenic contributions to chemical evolution have been considered; i.e., from chemical reactions in a primitive atmosphere, or by introduction in the interiors of comets and/or meteorites. It is argued, however, that the phosphorus chemistry of Earth's earliest hydrosphere, whether primarily exogenic or endogenic in origin, was most likely dominated by compounds less oxidized than phosphoric acid and its esters. A scenario is presented for the early production of a suite of reactive phosphonic acid derivatives, the properties of which may have foreshadowed the later appearance of biophosphates.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Schwartz
- Evolutionary Biology Research Group, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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32
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Schwartz AW. Exogenous phosphorus compounds in early chemical evolution. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02459732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
It is widely held that there was a phosphate compound in prebiotic chemistry that played the role of adenosine triphosphate and that the first living organisms had ribose-phosphate in the backbone of their genetic material. However, there are no known efficient prebiotic synthesis of high-energy phosphates or phosphate esters. We review the occurrence of phosphates in Nature, the efficiency of the volcanic synthesis of P4O10, the efficiency of polyphosphate synthesis by heating phosphate minerals under geological conditions, and the use of high-energy organic compounds such as cyanamide or hydrogen cyanide. These are shown to be inefficient processes especially when the hydrolysis of the polyphosphates is taken into account. For example, if a whole atmosphere of methane or carbon monoxide were converted to cyanide which somehow synthesized polyphosphates quantitatively, the polyphosphate concentration in the ocean would still have been insignificant. We also attempted to find more efficient high-energy polymerizing agents by spark discharge syntheses, but without success. There may still be undiscovered robust prebiotic syntheses of polyphosphates, or mechanisms for concentrating them, but we conclude that phosphate esters may not have been constituents of the first genetic material. Phosphoanhydrides are also unlikely as prebiotic energy sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Keefe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0317, USA
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Schwartz AW. Minimal requirements for molecular information transfer. ADVANCES IN SPACE RESEARCH : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE COMMITTEE ON SPACE RESEARCH (COSPAR) 1986; 6:23-27. [PMID: 11537226 DOI: 10.1016/0273-1177(86)90270-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The information transfer properties of nucleic acids are largely due to the properties of the bases themselves, for which it would appear evolution has selected a highly favorable set of molecules. In aqueous solution, it is possible that this task can only be carried out efficiently by heterocyclic, condensed-ring structures fairly similar to the purines and pyrimidines. Alterations in backbone structure, however, whether in the mode of linkage or in the nature of the sugar residue, are much less critical. Such alternatives could have played a role in the emergence of life on Earth and should be considered likely in extraterrestrial environments. The possible existence of low-efficiency, information transfer systems based on other structures entirely (proteins, clay minerals, etc), remains an interesting speculation for which no evidence is presently available.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Schwartz
- Laboratory for Exobiology, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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35
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Mulkins-Phillips GJ, Stewart JE. Effect of environmental parameters on bacterial degradation of Bunker C oil, Crude oils, and hydrocarbons. Appl Microbiol 1974; 28:915-22. [PMID: 4451374 PMCID: PMC186856 DOI: 10.1128/am.28.6.915-922.1974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Mixed microbial cultures, previously enriched on Bunker C fuel oil, grew on and degraded Bunker C fuel oil at temperatures ranging from 5 to 28 C. At 15 C, 41 to 85% of the benzene-soluble components of Bunker C disappeared after incubation for 7 days; at 5 C the values ranged from 21 to 52% after 14 days of incubation. A Nocardia sp. isolated from a culture enriched on Bunker C oil grew on Venezuelan crude oil, Bunker C, hexadecane, and a hydrocarbon mixture at temperatures of 5 and 15 C. The 10-C decrease in temperature resulted in an average 2.2-fold decrease in generation time of the bacteria. Gas-liquid chromatographic measurements of Venezuelan and Arabian crude oils which had been incubated with the Nocardia sp. showed significant degradation of the n-alkane portion and the chromatographically unresolved components of the oils. The concentration of elemental nitrogen required to bring about the disappearance of 1 mg of hexadecane by the Nocardia sp. was 0.5 mg. The results confirm suggestions that the rate of natural biodegradation of oil in marine temperate-to-polar zones is probably limited by low temperatures and phosphorus concentrations, but suggest that the concentrations of nitrogen occurring naturally are probably not rate-limiting factors.
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37
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Schwartz AW, van der Veen M, Bisseling T, Chittenden GJ. Prebiotic phosphorylation. II. Nucleotide synthesis in the reaction system apatite-cyanogen-water. CURRENTS IN MODERN BIOLOGY 1973; 5:119-22. [PMID: 4780979 DOI: 10.1016/0303-2647(73)90003-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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38
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Handschuh GJ, Lohrmann R, Orgel LE. The effect of Mg2+ and Ca2+ on urea-catalyzed phosphorylation reactions. J Mol Evol 1973; 2:251-62. [PMID: 4377772 DOI: 10.1007/bf01654094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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39
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McConnell D. Precipitation of Phosphates in a Primeval Sea. Science 1973. [DOI: 10.1126/science.181.4099.582-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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40
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Abstract
Vasectomy was performed on 63 rats at age 81 to 105 days. Examination 28 to 58 days later disclosed no significant reductions in testis size with respect to preoperative testis length and to testis length and weight in unoperated controls. The fact that the minimal atrophy observed was primarily left-sided sugested that these effects were artifacts of the procedure or systemic left-right differences in the animals.
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41
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McConnell D. Precipitation of Phosphates in a Primeval Sea. Science 1973. [DOI: 10.1126/science.181.4099.582.a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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