Oncogene from human EJ bladder carcinoma is located on the short arm of chromosome 11

Recent Aspects in the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Bladder Cancer

Epidemiologic studies have stated the progressive increase of bladder tumors during the last decades. The aim of our review is to refer to factors implicated in bladder carcinogenesis (such as activated oncogenes, growth factors and chromosomal aberrations) and to resistance to drug uptake (i.e., multidrug resistance gene and P-glycoprotein). The review also provides information of diagnostic and prognostic significance, based on DNA analysis of transitional cancer cells. In addition to cytometric data, alternative counterings for estimation of the S-phase fraction, useful in indicating the biologic behavior of bladder cancer, are presented. Knowledge of such mechanisms results in a better approach to the diagnosis, prognosis and prevention of bladder carcinomas, especially those that do not respond to systemic intravesical chemotherapy. We have tried to mention all significant factors related to the development of bladder cancer. We conclude that the progress made in understanding the pathogenesis of bladder cancer has been significant. However, more studies are needed in order to introduce and adopt reliable criteria to accurately predict the clinical behavior.

p48 Activates a UV-damaged-DNA binding factor and is defective in xeroderma pigmentosum group E cells that lack binding activity

A subset of xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) group E cells lack a factor that binds to DNA damaged by UV radiation. This factor can be purified to homogeneity as p125, a 125-kDa polypeptide. However, when cDNA encoding p125 is translated in vitro, only a small fraction binds to UV-damaged DNA, suggesting that a second factor is required for the activation of p125. We discovered that most hamster cell lines expressed inactive p125, which was activated in somatic cell hybrids containing human chromosome region 11p11.2-11cen. This region excluded p125 but included p48, which encodes a 48-kDa polypeptide known to copurify with p125 under some conditions. Expression of human p48 activated p125 binding in hamster cells and increased p125 binding in human cells. No such effects were observed from expression of p48 containing single amino acid substitutions from XP group E cells that lacked binding activity, demonstrating that the p48 gene is defective in those cells. Activation of p125 occurred by a "hit-and-run" mechanism, since the presence of p48 was not required for subsequent binding. Nevertheless, p48 was capable of forming a complex with p125 either bound to UV-damaged DNA or in free solution. It is notable that hamster cells fail to efficiently repair cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers in nontranscribed DNA and fail to express p48, which contains a WD motif with homology to proteins that reorganize chromatin. We propose that p48 plays a role in repairing lesions that would otherwise remain inaccessible in nontranscribed chromatin.

Delineation of the centromeric and telomeric chromosome segment 11p15.5 lung cancer suppressor regions LOH11A and LOH11B

We have reported frequent allele loss for two separate regions identified by the markers D11S12 and HRAS on chromosome 11p15.5. D11S12 allele loss was associated with tumor stage and type and HRAS allele loss with cigarette consumption, sex, and survival. To positionally clone the putative tumor suppressor genes located in these regions, we here report a reduction in the size of these intervals to approximately 250 kb. The markers used, ordered from centromere to telomere, were D11S932 -D11S1331-D11S1760-D11S1323-D11S4891 (HBB)-D11S1758-D11S12-D11S988-D11S860-D11S131 8-TH-HRAS-D11S1363-D11S2071. We analyzed 44 tissue pairs from patients with primary lung cancer. The smallest common regions of allele loss were located between D11S1758 and D11S12 in the centromeric region of chromosome segment 11p15.5 (region of LOH on chromosome 11 in lung cancer, LOH11A) and between HRAS and D11S1363 in the telomeric region (region of LOH on chromosome 11 in lung cancer, LOH11B). Loss of heterozygosity was observed in 24/39 (62%) primary lung cancers informative for LOH11A and in 17/34 (50%) informative for LOH11B. The pattern of allele loss strongly suggests that two lung cancer suppressor genes are located on chromosome segment 11p15.5, one between D11S1758 and D11S12 and the other between HRAS and D11S1363. The estimated physical size of each of these regions is 250 kb.

Amplified met gene linked to double minutes in human glioblastoma

The met proto-oncogene was found to be amplified in a human glioblastoma cell line (T3095) established from a glioblastoma multiform WHO grade IV. Amplification of epidermal growth factor receptor, transforming growth factor alpha and N-myc which have been described previously in glioblastoma were not observed in T3095. There was, however, an 8-fold met amplification. Giemsa-stained metaphases of T3095 cells revealed multiple (> 5) double minutes (dmins) in the majority of cells. Following xenografting in nude mice there was a significant increase in the number and frequency of dmins. The increase in dmins correlates with the level of met amplification (50-fold), suggesting localisation of the amplified met on dmins. Here we report the first case of met amplification in glioblastoma. Correlation between met amplification and extrachromosomal elements (dmins) has not been reported previously.

Molecular cytogenetic analysis discloses complex genetic imbalance in a t(11;21) myelodysplastic syndrome

Three cases of t(11;21)(q24;q11.2) myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) showed karyotypic evolution resulting in the presence of two der(11)t(11;21) without normal chromosome 11 and with partial trisomy 21q. In one of these, we performed further molecular cytogenetic investigations which showed 1) that this rearrangement led to changes in the dosage and location of both c-ets 1 and c-ets 2 protooncogenes; and 2) that the presence of two 11q + chromosomes did not result from a nondisjunction, but that a second chromosome rearrangement had occurred. The final genetic imbalance resulting from this cytogenetic change involves at least hemizygosity for some sequences on the long arm of chromosome 11, including c-ets 1, plus trisomy for the most part of the long arm of chromosome 21, including c-ets 2.

Deletion of the c-Ha-ras-1 allele in human skin cancers

Previous studies have shown that c-Ha-ras-1 and other genes located on the short arm of chromosome 11 are frequently lost in a number of human tumors. We investigated whether similar losses of the c-Ha-ras-1 allele occurred in human squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) and basal cell carcinomas (BCCs). DNAs were isolated from 35 pairs of skin tumors (25 BCCs and 10 SCCs) and matching normal skin from the same patients and analyzed for c-Ha-ras gene polymorphism by Southern blot hybridization. Sixteen BCC patients and 1 SCC patient were constitutionally heterozygous for the c-Ha-ras gene in their normal skin DNA. Of these 17 patients, five patients (four with BCC and one with SCC) (29%) showed loss of one of the c-Ha-ras alleles in their tumor DNA. One of the constitutionally heterozygous BCC patients exhibited deletion of the 6.6-kb c-Ha-ras allele and an extra copy of the 7.8-kb allele. In summary, loss of heterozygosity at the c-Ha-ras locus occurred frequently (29%) in the 17 human skin cancers studied. However, our finding that 90% of the patients with SCC, as opposed to 36% of the patients with BCC, had only one of the c-Ha-ras alleles in their normal skin tissue requires further study. Whether c-Ha-ras homozygosity has any bearing on genetic susceptibility to SCC remains to be established.

Human tyrosinase gene, mapped to chromosome 11 (q14----q21), defines second region of homology with mouse chromosome 7

The enzyme tyrosinase (monophenol,L-dopa:oxygen oxidoreductase; EC 1.14.18.1) catalyzes the first two steps in the conversion of tyrosine to melanin, the major pigment found in melanocytes. Some forms of oculocutaneous albinism, characterized by the absence of melanin in skin and eyes and by a deficiency of tyrosinase activity, may result from mutations in the tyrosinase structural gene. A recently isolated human tyrosinase cDNA was used to map the human tyrosinase locus (TYR) to chromosome 11, region q14----q21, by Southern blot analysis of somatic cell hybrid DNA and by in situ chromosomal hybridization. A second site of tyrosinase-related sequences was detected on the short arm of chromosome 11 near the centromere (p11.2----cen). Furthermore, we have confirmed the localization of the tyrosinase gene in the mouse at or near the c locus on chromosome 7. Comparison of the genetic maps of human chromosome 11 and mouse chromosome 7 leads to hypotheses regarding the evolution of human chromosome 11.

Ki-ras-2 in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells with chromosome change at 12p12

Cytogenetic and molecular investigations were performed on a pre-B-lymphoblastic acute leukemic cell line (NALM-6). The NALM-6 cells contained a del(5)(q32) and an ins(12)(p12;?), chromosomal material of unknown origin being inserted between subbands 12p12.1 and 12p12.2. Chromosomal in situ hybridization using a 3.0-kb c-Ki-ras-2 probe showed a significant accumulation of grains on the proximal portion of the inserted chromosomal material (12p12.1), as well as on the normal chromosome #12 with a peak at 12p11p12. The signal intensity obtained after hybridization of the c-Ki-ras-2 specific probe to the NALM-6 cells DNA is comparable with the intensity of the signal after hybridization of the same probe with the control cell line (MC/B) DNA. The findings indicate that the c-Ki-ras-2 gene is neither amplified nor transposed in the NALM-6 cells.

Cytogenetic findings in two cases of carcinoma in situ of the cervix uterus

Karyotypic analysis of two cases of carcinoma in situ of the cervix uterus, studied on direct preparations by G-banding, revealed numerical and structural abnormalities characteristic of invasive cancers. Abnormalities of chromosome No. 1 were present in both cases. The chromosome No. 1 changes involved isochromosome formation of the long arm (i(1q)) in one case and monosomy in the other. The other chromosomes showing structural aberrations were Nos. 8, 11, and 21. One case revealed the presence of double minute chromatin bodies. The prognosis in both cases was good following excision of the tumor.

Cytogenetic evaluation of human endothelial cell cultures

Cytogenetic evaluation of serially subcultivated human endothelial cells revealed significant differences between cultures derived from fetal umbilical cords and cultures derived from various vessel sites in adults. A rapid increase in the prevalence of polyploid cells, to levels of 100% in many cases, was detected in human umbilical vein endothelial cell cultures but not in endothelial cell cultures from adult vessels. Because the development of polyploidy has been viewed as one signpost of in vitro senescence, it may be that these in vitro observations of high levels of polyploidy are a reflection of the fact that umbilical tissue is at the end of its in vivo developmental lifespan when studied. Consistent karyotypic alterations also were observed in two clones from adult human abdominal aorta, even though these cultures exhibited low percentages of polyploid cells. Cultures of one clone exhibited a trisomy of chromosome 11, on which there are at least three onc gene loci, and a deletion of chromosome 13 through band q14. A loss of band 13q14 is a prezygotic chromosomal lesion known to predispose to retinoblastoma. In the other clone, two cell populations were observed, and each displayed a chromosomal abnormality. A trisomy of the long arm of chromosome 2 was noted in one cell population via a marker chromosome involving 2 and 14. The other cell population exhibited an abnormality of chromosome 2. Neither of these karyotypic alterations was detected in the parent culture from which the clones were derived. The results reported in this study have both practical and theoretical implications. The high incidence of polyploidy in serially cultivated umbilical cultures as well as the occurrence of chromosomal changes in umbilical and aortic cultures testify to the need for cytogenetic monitoring of cell cultures even though they are derived from presumably normal tissue. Cytogenetic changes in the endothelium may be important in atherogenesis and other pathologic states. The conversion of diploid endothelial cells into polyploid endothelial cells may provide a convenient model cell system for studying mechanisms of the development of polyploidy in cells and their relationship to in vitro senescence.

Cytogenetic analysis in urothelial cell carcinoma

Tissue specimens from 96 patients with urothelial cell carcinoma were subjected to cytogenetic examination to determine whether there is a correlation between chromosomal abnormalities and tumor behavior. Recognizable metaphases were found in 43 patients (45 per cent). The range in chromosomal counts appeared to be a better reflection of invasion than the modal number. Noninvasive tumors nearly always were hypodiploid or diploid. All invasive tumors showed hyperploid cells. Cytogenetically, there was no difference between invasive grade 2 and grade 3 tumors. During our limited followup tumor progression was found only in tumors with hyperploid cells. With a direct technique we found no difference in the frequency of marker chromosomes according to tumor stage and grade.

Characterization and chromosome assignment of the human homolog of int-2, a potential proto-oncogene

int-2 is one of two cellular genes (int-1 and int-2) currently implicated in the genesis of mammary carcinomas by mouse mammary tumor virus and may constitute a novel cellular proto-oncogene. Using low-stringency hybridization with mouse int-2 probes, we established that homologous genes exist in a variety of mammalian species, including humans, but failed to detect related sequences in other classes and phyla. Recombinant bacteriophage clones and a single cosmid encompassing the human int-2 gene were isolated and characterized by restriction enzyme mapping. A survey of nine primary human breast tumors, three breast tumor cell lines, and three normal individuals revealed no evidence for gross amplification or rearrangement of the int-2 locus. Three distinct restriction fragment length polymorphisms were observed which could prove useful in future linkage studies. By a combination of in situ hybridization of metaphase chromosomes and somatic cell genetics, the human int-2 gene was mapped to chromosome 11, band q13.

Differentiation-linked leukemogenesis in lymphocytes

Most human lymphoid malignancies preserve a pattern of gene expression reflecting their proliferative activity and the development level of clonal expansion and maturation arrest. Characteristics of leukemia and other cancer cells frequently considered to reflect aberrant differentiation may more often reflect clonal selection of cell types that are normally infrequent and transitory. The differentiation status of progenitor or mature lymphoid cells influences which genetic elements are at risk of being exploited, via mutation, recombination, or deletion, for clonal advantage. These alterations may frequently arise spontaneously as a consequence of the unique developmental and functional programs of lymphoid cells and have as a major phenotypic consequence the stabilization of transitory cellular phenotypes.

Aniridia and Wilms' tumor in a child constitutionally mosaic for 11p-;12q+: a new chromosomal change also present in Wilms' tumor cells of the blastema type

A child with congenital aniridia was assessed closely, by repeated abdominal ultrasound examinations, beginning at birth. The Wilms' tumor subsequently discovered and removed was analyzed karyotypically and found to have some cells with a terminal deletion of chromosome 11; in other cells this deletion was associated with a duplication in the long arm of chromosome 12. These findings were identical to those observed in the patient's peripheral blood mononuclear cells. This case further substantiates the association between changes in chromosome 11 and Wilms' tumor and demonstrates how chromosomal abnormalities in early infancy may lead to the development of Wilms' tumor.

Cytogenetic findings in a primary leiomyosarcoma of the prostate

Cytogenetic analysis of a primary leiomyosarcoma of the prostate revealed a clonal chromosomal rearrangement involving chromosomes #2, #3, #9, #11, and #19. The results are discussed in relation to the cytogenetic findings in other solid tumors, especially those of the prostate and leiomyosarcoma at other sites.

Loss of alleles at polymorphic loci on chromosome 2 in uveal melanoma

The loss of alleles at loci on specific chromosomes in some malignant tumors, such as retinoblastoma and Wilms' tumor, suggests that recessive mutations are important in their oncogenesis. We postulate that similar mechanisms may be involved in the formation of uveal melanomas. We studied alleles at autosomal loci in uveal melanoma cells and in the constitutional cells from 19 patients who developed the tumors. We observed loss of alleles only at loci on chromosome #2. This suggests that recessive alleles at some chromosome #2 locus may be important in the oncogenesis of uveal melanomas.

Linkage analysis in a family with dominantly inherited torsion dystonia: exclusion of the pro-opiomelanocortin and glutamic acid decarboxylase genes and other chromosomal regions using DNA polymorphisms

A search for the defective gene causing torsion dystonia has been carried out in a family manifesting an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance of this movement disorder. Complete neurologic examination and establishment of lymphoblast lines have been carried out for over 50 members. Linkage analysis, using cloned DNA sequences and restriction fragment length polymorphisms, was evaluated by the LOD score method with requisite assumptions for mode of inheritance, age-of-onset and incomplete gene penetrance. Genes for pro-opiomelanocortin and glutamic acid decarboxylase, which have been implicated in the etiology of the disease in rat models, were excluded as being responsible for the disease state in this family. Other regions of the genome were also excluded using DNA probes for other genes and random "unique" sequences.

Wilms' tumor, overgrowth, and fetal growth factors: a hypothesis

A hypothesis is advanced suggesting that the association between high birthweight, overgrowth features of certain congenital malformations, and Wilms' tumor may be due to the action of loci in addition to the putative Wilms' tumor locus on the short arm of chromosome #11. These genes include insulin, insulin-like growth factor II and the c-Ha-ras 1 oncogene. The possible role of environmental factors in the oncogenesis of Wilms' tumor is discussed.

Trisomy 11 in a patient with Ph-negative chronic myelogenous leukemia

A case of Ph-negative chronic myelogenous leukemia associated with functional reduction of platelets is described. Bone marrow cells examined in the blastic phase showed a stem line karyotype of 47,XY,+11.

Characterization and chromosome assignment of the human homolog of int-2, a potential proto-oncogene

int-2 is one of two cellular genes (int-1 and int-2) currently implicated in the genesis of mammary carcinomas by mouse mammary tumor virus and may constitute a novel cellular proto-oncogene. Using low-stringency hybridization with mouse int-2 probes, we established that homologous genes exist in a variety of mammalian species, including humans, but failed to detect related sequences in other classes and phyla. Recombinant bacteriophage clones and a single cosmid encompassing the human int-2 gene were isolated and characterized by restriction enzyme mapping. A survey of nine primary human breast tumors, three breast tumor cell lines, and three normal individuals revealed no evidence for gross amplification or rearrangement of the int-2 locus. Three distinct restriction fragment length polymorphisms were observed which could prove useful in future linkage studies. By a combination of in situ hybridization of metaphase chromosomes and somatic cell genetics, the human int-2 gene was mapped to chromosome 11, band q13.

A possible specific chromosome change in transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder

Chromosome changes were ascertained in nine tumor samples from seven untreated patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder. All tumors analyzed showed abnormal karyotypes. In one tumor, a single numerical abnormality (+7) was the sole detectable change. From 1 to 19 structurally abnormal chromosomes could be identified in the remaining 8 tumors. The same abnormality, an isochromosome of the short arm of chromosome #5, was found in five tumors from four patients. We have previously described the presence of this marker chromosome in three of nine cases of transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. We therefore conclude that i(5p) constitutes the most consistent nonrandom chromosome abnormality in this malignancy. Other chromosomes most frequently involved in structural changes in the present series of tumors were chromosomes #1, #6, #11, and #13.

The cytogenetics of Wilms' tumor

A close association has been demonstrated between the congenital deletion 11p13 and predisposition to Wilms' tumor. Recent cytogenetic studies on Wilms' tumor cells from normal children strongly suggests that somatic changes in the short arm of chromosome #11 play an important role in the development of this tumor. The application of improved cytogenetic techniques coupled with molecular biologic analysis may help resolve questions regarding the requirement of additional changes (to alterations of 11p13) in order to evoke complete transformation leading to malignancy.

Chromosome changes in bladder cancer: clinical and other correlations

The chromosome changes in bladder cancer are reviewed with particular emphasis on the application of recent advances in techniques for cytogenetic analyses of bladder cancer and the establishment of nonrandom (specific) karyotypic changes characterizing a significant number of bladder cancers. At present, these groups are characterized by one of the following cytogenetic changes: i(5p), +7, or -9. The results are discussed in relation to the significance of these changes and possible involvement of some oncogenes and other gene loci.

Theoretical mechanisms for synthesis of carcinogen-induced embryonic proteins: XIV. Mutational and non-mutational mechanisms as subsets of a more general mechanism. Part C. A defined cancer mutation

The results of applying a mechanism of ethionine-induced embryonic gene derepressions to explain similar features found in hereditary tyrosinemia have been extended to a well defined cancer mutation. In all three cases, the described mechanism is compatible with the explanation for the etiology of embryonic like phenotypic expressions in cells and potentially for the carcinogenic process. The essence of the formulated process for a human bladder carcinoma mutation in the ras gene for a protein phosphokinase states that a specific proto-oncogene is mutated to an oncogene by various known processes. The protein phosphokinase that has an altered specificity resulting in anomalous phosphorylation of important regulating proteins by a non-mutation mechanism, i.e. by ethionine, would produce the same effect in a hypomethylated state of deoxyribonucleic acid causing an embryonic type protein phosphokinase gene to become activated. These embryonic oncogenes are supersensitive to methylation control mechanisms--thus the link between non-mutation and mutation type mechanisms.

Gene order on the short arm of human chromosome 11: regional assignment of the LDH A gene distal to catalase in two translocations

Leukemic cells with reciprocal translocations involving 11p13 and 14q13 were obtained from two patients with T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia and fused with mouse Ltk- cells. DNA from independent hybrid clones was screened by Southern blot and hybridization to molecular probes for the human catalase and Ha-ras-1 genes. Several clones showed segregation of these two genes, indicating the presence of either the der11 or der14 human chromosomes. When DNA from these hybrid clones was examined for the presence of the human genes for calcitonin and gamma-globin, both genes were found to segregate with the Ha-ras-1 gene and the der14 chromosome indicating that they lie distal to catalase. When the hybrid clones were examined for the presence of human lactate dehydrogenase A (LDH A) activity, only those clones containing the der14 chromosome expressed activity indicating that the LDH A gene is also distal to catalase on the short arm of chromosome 11.

Deletion in chromosome 11p associated with a hepatitis B integration site in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatitis B virus (HBV), a virus with known carcinogenic potential, integrates into cellular DNA during long-term persistent infection in man. Hepatocellular carcinomas isolated from viral carriers often contain clonally propagated viral DNA integrations. As small chromosomal deletions are associated with several types of carcinomas, the occurrence of chromosomal deletions in association with HBV integration in hepatocellular carcinoma was studied. HBV integration was accompanied by a deletion of at least 13.5 kilobases of cellular sequences in a human hepatocellular carcinoma. The viral DNA integration and deletion of cellular sequences occurred on the short arm of chromosome 11 at location 11p13-11p14. The cellular sequences that were deleted at the site of HBV integration were lost from the tumor cells, leaving only a single copy of the remaining cellular allele.

Linkage map of the short arm of human chromosome 11: location of the genes for catalase, calcitonin, and insulin-like growth factor II

The following order of genes on the short arm of human chromosome 11 (11p) was determined previously: parathyroid hormone (PTH)-the beta-globin gene cluster (HBBC)-HRAS1/insulin. Although it is generally agreed that HRAS1 (formerly termed c-Ha-ras-1) and the insulin gene are close to each other [1-4 centimorgans (cM)], their order on chromosome 11p is still in question. We have now added three other genes, those for catalase, calcitonin, and insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II), to this map of chromosome 11p by use of restriction site polymorphisms adjacent to these genes in classical linkage analysis. Most importantly, we find no evidence of linkage between the catalase and HBBC loci. In addition, our data indicate that the calcitonin gene is located between the catalase gene and the PTH gene. Our best estimate of the distance between the catalase and calcitonin gene is approximately 16 cM, while that between the calcitonin and PTH genes is approximately equal to 8 cM. In agreement, very loose linkage was found between the catalase and PTH loci (approximately 26 cM). Since the catalase locus has been mapped to 11p13, these data support the view that the PTH, HBBC, HRAS1, and insulin loci are located on the distal short arm of chromosome 11. The IGF-II gene is tightly linked to both the HRAS1 oncogene and the insulin gene since no recombinants were observed between the IGF-II and the HRAS1/insulin loci. Thus, based on our linkage analysis we propose that the most likely gene order for the short arm of chromosome 11 is centromere-catalase-calcitonin-PTH-HBBC-HRAS1/insulin-tel ome re and that the IGF-II gene is very close to both the HRAS1 and the insulin genes.

Insulin-like growth factors and insulin: comparative aspects

IGF I and IGF II are two insulin-like growth factors resembling insulin in many respects. They stem from a common precursor, act through receptors similar to the insulin receptor with which they cross-react. When administered in large amounts they produce hypoglycemia. Their major effects, however, are on replication and differentiation of cells of mesodermal origin. IGF I is the major growth promoting factor in vivo. The synthesis and secretion of IGF I by the liver depend on the growth hormone status, insulin and nutrition. In contrast to insulin, the IGFs circulate in blood bound to the carrier proteins. Their half-life in man is in the order of 16 h. IGF I deficiency results in dwarfism (pygmy, Laron dwarf, toy poodle) despite normal or elevated growth hormone secretion. The anabolic actions of insulin and of the IGFs appear to complement each other as shown in Figure 7.

Assignment of the structural gene for subunit M1 of human ribonucleotide reductase to the short arm of chromosome 11

By using a species-specific monoclonal antibody that recognizes subunit M1 of ribonucleotide reductase from human but not hamster origin, we have been able to assign the structural gene for the human protein M1 to the short arm of chromosome 11. Protein extracts from a panel of human-Chinese hamster somatic cell hybrids were subjected to electrophoresis in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) denaturating polyacrylamide gels, and then transferred and coupled covalently to diazobenzyloxymethyl paper. These were screened for human protein M1 by incubation with the mouse monoclonal anti-M1 antibody AD 203, followed by rabbit anti-mouse IgG, 125I-labelled Staphylococcus protein A and finally autoradiography. In all tested hybrids the detection of human protein M1 was correlated with the presence of chromosome 11, specifically with the short arm of this chromosome. This region also contains the human genes for insulin, insulin-like growth factor II, and the c-Harvey-ras 1 oncogene.

Nucleic acid sequence database VI: Retroviral oncogenes and cellular proto-oncogenes

The databases of the Protein Identification Resource at the National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF) contain nucleic acid and protein sequences from 18 retroviral oncogenes (v-onc) and 8 cellular proto-oncogenes (c-onc). Comparison of the sequences between the v-onc and c-onc genes reveals: (i) The c-src, c-abl, c-mos, c-fos, c-ras, c-myb, c-myc, and c-sis genes contain coding regions that are highly conserved in the respective v-onc genes with a small number of base changes. (ii) There are more transitions than transversions. (iii) Some of these base changes are silent mutations and others generate amino acid substitutions in the viral proteins. The causes of these base changes in the coding sequences and the significance to oncogenic transformation of the amino acid substitutions in the viral proteins remain to be determined.

Chromosomal localization of three human ras genes by in situ molecular hybridization

Three human ras family protooncogenes, c-Ki-ras-1, and c-Ki-ras-2, and N-ras, have been mapped to chromosome bands 6p11-12, 12p11.1-12.1, and 1p11-13, respectively by in situ molecular hybridization. Certain human cancers display consistent and specific alterations involving chromosomes 1, 6, and 12. The precise chromosomal localization of ras genes will permit evaluation of the possible effect of these chromosome changes on the structure and activities of ras protooncogenes in human neoplasia.

Germ-line chromosomal localization of genes in chromosome 11p linkage: parathyroid hormone, beta-globin, c-Ha-ras-1, and insulin

The chromosomal localization of genes for parathyroid hormone (PTH), beta-globin cluster, c-Ha-ras-1, and insulin, all of which have previously been assigned to the short arm of chromosome 11, generated considerable interest because of their association with development of disease states. Furthermore, the availability of recombination data from family studies made the determination of their physical location on the chromosome necessary. Several investigators have attempted this; however, controversy has arisen concerning the location of beta-globin, insulin, and c-Ha-ras-1 genes. Thus, while the results of some investigators suggested that all three genes are situated in the 11p15 region, data of other investigators placed the beta-globin and insulin genes close to the centromere and c-Ha-ras-1 in a more proximal region than 11p15. The subchromosomal position of the PTH gene remains to be determined. We have performed in situ hybridization of meiotic pachytene bivalents with 3H-labeled cloned genomic probes of PTH, beta-globin, and insulin genes and find their germ-line positions to be the following: PTH at 11p11.21, beta-globin at 11p11.22, and insulin at 11p14.1. These data, when considered with our recent germ-line assignment of the c-Ha-ras-1 gene to 11p14.1, indicate the following relative order on 11p: cen-PTH-beta-globin-c-Ha-ras-insulin or cen-PTH-beta-globin-insulin-c-Ha-ras. The former order is consistent with genetic evidence from linkage analysis of DNA polymorphisms adjacent to these genes segregating in families.

Cytogenetic study of ten carcinomas of the bladder: involvement of chromosomes 1 and 11

In direct preparations of ten untreated transitional cell carcinomas of the bladder, chromosomes #1 and #11 were most frequently involved in structural changes (in at least seven tumors each). Three tumors had one or two 11p- chromosomes, and, in other tumors, chromosome #11 had taken part in translocations or isochromosome formation, which, except in one tumor, resulted in a loss of short arm material. Also, there was a tendency for the presence of fewer than expected normal chromosomes #11. Chromosome #1 anomalies are common in most types of tumor; however, chromosome #11 abnormalities, particularly the loss of short arm material, are not common and may thus characterize carcinoma of the bladder, a finding that is of interest in view of the location of an oncogene, c-Ha-ras1, on 11p. Translocations probably involved chromosome #17 in four tumors. Structurally changed chromosomes #3 were seen in four tumors, including one or two 3q- chromosomes in two or possibly three tumors.

Localization of the oncogene c-Ha-ras1 outside the aniridia-Wilms' tumor-associated deletion of chromosome 11(del 11p13) using somatic cell hybrids

Hybrid cell lines, obtained after fusion of rodent cells with leukocytes from a patient with the aniridia-Wilms' tumor syndrome and carrying a specific constitutional deletion in chromosome #11 (del.11p13), were assayed for the presence of the c-Ha-ras1 oncogene. This sequence has recently been assigned to the p-arm of chromosome #11 and, hence, has been suggested to be involved in the development of renal tumors in patients with this syndrome. Positive hybridization of a cellular Ha-ras1 probe to hybrid cell DNA was observed, irrespective of whether the normal chromosome #11 or its deleted homologue was present. The results presented here suggest that c-Ha-ras1 is located outside the region 11p12-11p14, bounded by the chromosomal breakpoints observed in the patient used. Therefore, we conclude that predisposition of aniridia patients to develop Wilms' tumors is not due to a constitutional deletion of one of the c-Ha-ras1 alleles.

Trisomy 11 in preleukemia

The clinical and cytogenetic findings of a patient with a preleukemic state and trisomy 11 are reported. Trisomy 11 was present as the sole karyotypic alteration at the time of overt leukemia. Trisomy 11 presents an additional chromosomal abnormality not previously described in preleukemia.

DNA methylation and regulation of the human beta-globin-like genes in mouse erythroleukemia cells containing human chromosome 11

The human beta-globin gene is expressed--but the human fetal (gamma) and embryonic (epsilon) globin genes are not--in an induced mouse erythroleukemia cell line (M11-X) that contains most of human chromosome 11. A 24-hr exposure of M11-X cells to 5-azacytidine before induction causes "global" DNA hypomethylation but selective activation of the human gamma-globin genes. Genomic DNA is remethylated 2-3 days after exposure to 5-azacytidine, but sequences near the human and mouse globin genes remain hypomethylated, suggesting that the remethylation process is inhibited in these regions.

Nonrandom chromosome changes in carcinoma of the cervix uteri. II. Ten tumors in the triploid-tetraploid range

Nonrandom chromosome changes in direct preparations of 10 cervical carcinomas with modal numbers in the range of 60-82 were similar to those found in a previous study on near-diploid tumors: Chromosomes 1 (seven tumors) and 11 (five tumors) were most often involved in structural rearrangements and a small metacentric, often present in duplicate, was seen in six tumors. The appearances of the small metacentric again suggested an origin from a chromosome #4 or #5: either a long arm deletion or a short arm isochromosome; in one tumor, Giemsa-11 banding was more compatible with a #4 than a #5. Chromosome #17 anomalies were probably present in four tumors, and two tumors had markers, probably derived from chromosome #2, containing homogeneously staining regions.

Human chromosomal mapping of genes for insulin-like growth factors I and II and epidermal growth factor

Many of the actions previously attributed to pituitary-derived growth hormone are mediated by polypeptide growth factors. These include the insulin-like growth factors I and II (IGF-I and IGF-II), which are members of the insulin family of proteins. We report here the chromosomal mapping of the human genes for IGF-I and IGF-II. IGF-II maps to the short arm of chromosome 11, which also contains the gene for insulin and the proto-oncogene c-Ha-ras1 (ref. 9). IGF-I maps to chromosome 12, which is evolutionarily related to chromosome 11 and carries the gene for the proto-oncogene c-Ki-ras2 (refs 10,44). We have also localized the human gene for an unrelated polypeptide hormone, epidermal growth factor, to chromosome 4q, in the same region as another specialized growth factor, T-cell growth factor. We speculate that these map assignments reflect the existence of gene families involved in growth control.

Regional localization of two human cellular Kirsten ras genes on chromosomes 6 and 12

Human cellular Kirsten ras1 and ras2 genes were localized to chromosomes 6p23 ----q12 and 12p12 .05----pter, respectively, using human-rodent cell hybrids. Thus, the short arms of human chromosomes 11 (encoding lactate dehydrogenase-A and the proto-oncogene c-Ha- ras1 ) and 12 (encoding lactate dehydrogenase B and c-Ki- ras2 ) share at least two pairs of genes that probably evolved from common ancestral genes.

Some questions on the significance of chromosome alterations in leukemias and lymphomas: a review

Recent improvement in the methods of chromosome analysis has allowed recognition of consistent chromosome alterations in several human cancers, especially leukemias and lymphomas. At the same time, newly discovered human cellular oncogenes have been mapped to individual chromosomes, with precise band assignment. Some of the assignments are coincident with the breakpoints of translocations observed in particular tumors. In fact, a relocation of the corresponding oncogenes has been observed in the cells of some of these tumors. Two notable examples are that of the t(9;22) translocation of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), causing the transfer of the oncogene c-abl from chromosome 9 to chromosome 22, and that of the t(8;14) translocation of Burkitt lymphoma, causing the transfer of the oncogene c-myc from chromosome 8 to chromosome 14. These findings can be taken as indicative of a critical role of chromosome alterations in the origin of cancer, through the activation of one or more cellular oncogenes, although there is no firm evidence that such an activation actually occurs. In addition, some concern exists over the validity of accepting in vitro transformation of a cell line by oncogenes as a model of carcinogenesis in man. For these reasons the question on the significance of chromosome alterations in leukemias and lymphomas should not be considered entirely settled yet. Useful models, whose study may lead to the clarification of this important point, are represented by premalignant conditions, such as the myeloproliferative disorders, where chromosome abnormalities are present before the development of a bona fide neoplasm, and by the aneuploidy syndromes, in which there exists an association between a constitutional chromosome anomaly and an increased risk of cancer.

Harvey-ras allele deletion detected by in situ hybridization to Wilms' tumor chromosomes

We have examined the chromosomes from a case of sporadic Wilms' tumor using in situ hybridization to determine whether the Ha-ras (c-Ha-ras 1) oncogene had been deleted as the result of a reciprocal chromosomal translocation between the short arm of chromosome 11 (breakpoint 11p13) and the long arm of chromosome 12 (breakpoint 12q13). Neither the derivative 11 nor derivative 12 chromosome hybridized significantly to the Ha-ras probe, which indicated that this cellular oncogene was deleted as a consequence of the translocation. This conclusion is supported by a Southern blot analysis which demonstrates loss of a Harvey-ras allele. These results support the view that the Ha-ras oncogene may be functionally involved in Wilms' tumor development.

The human calcitonin gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 11

By molecular hybridization of human calcitonin cDNA probes to DNA from human-rodent hybrid cells containing identified human chromosomes, we have mapped the human calcitonin gene to the short arm of chromosome 11. This location has been confirmed by in situ hybridization, which further localized the calcitonin gene to region 11p13-15. The significance of this region regarding gene linkage and possible markers for inherited cancers is discussed.

Wilms' tumour: association with cellular sensitivity to mitomycin C in patients and first-degree relatives

To investigate whether predisposition to Wilms' tumour is associated with a particular defect in the handling of DNA damage, cell-lines from families in which the tumour had occurred were tested for sensitivity to a variety of DNA-damaging agents. Lymphoblastoid lines from both Wilms' tumour patients and their first-degree relatives showed increased sensitivity to the cross-linking agent, mitomycin C, but normal sensitivity to ultraviolet (UV) and gamma irradiation. Thus sensitivity to mitomycin C damage can be associated with the Wilms'-tumour-susceptible genotype and could be a genetic factor responsible for the modification of expression of this genotype.