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Kaur M, Mingeot-Leclercq MP. Maintenance of bacterial outer membrane lipid asymmetry: insight into MlaA. BMC Microbiol 2024; 24:186. [PMID: 38802775 PMCID: PMC11131202 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-03138-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria acts as an effective barrier to protect against toxic compounds. By nature, the OM is asymmetric with the highly packed lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at the outer leaflet and glycerophospholipids at the inner leaflet. OM asymmetry is maintained by the Mla system, in which is responsible for the retrograde transport of glycerophospholipids from the OM to the inner membrane. This system is comprised of six Mla proteins, including MlaA, an OM lipoprotein involved in the removal of glycerophospholipids that are mis-localized at the outer leaflet of the OM. Interestingly, MlaA was initially identified - and called VacJ - based on its role in the intracellular spreading of Shigella flexneri.Many open questions remain with respect to the Mla system and the mechanism involved in the translocation of mislocated glycerophospholipids at the outer leaflet of the OM, by MlaA. After summarizing the current knowledge on MlaA, we focus on the impact of mlaA deletion on OM lipid composition and biophysical properties of the OM. How changes in OM lipid composition and biophysical properties can impact the generation of membrane vesicles and membrane permeability is discussed. Finally, we explore whether and how MlaA might be a candidate for improving the activity of antibiotics and as a vaccine candidate.Efforts dedicated to understanding the relationship between the OM lipid composition and the mechanical strength of the bacterial envelope and, in turn, how such properties act against external stress, are needed for the design of new targets or drugs for Gram-negative infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kaur
- Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Unité de Pharmacologie cellulaire et moléculaire, B1.73.05; 73 Av E. Mounier, Brussels, 1200, Belgium
| | - M-P Mingeot-Leclercq
- Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Unité de Pharmacologie cellulaire et moléculaire, B1.73.05; 73 Av E. Mounier, Brussels, 1200, Belgium.
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2
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Akshay SD, Deekshit VK, Mohan Raj J, Maiti B. Outer Membrane Proteins and Efflux Pumps Mediated Multi-Drug Resistance in Salmonella: Rising Threat to Antimicrobial Therapy. ACS Infect Dis 2023; 9:2072-2092. [PMID: 37910638 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.3c00408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Despite colossal achievements in antibiotic therapy in recent decades, drug-resistant pathogens have remained a leading cause of death and economic loss globally. One such WHO-critical group pathogen is Salmonella. The extensive and inappropriate treatments for Salmonella infections have led from multi-drug resistance (MDR) to extensive drug resistance (XDR). The synergy between efflux-mediated systems and outer membrane proteins (OMPs) may favor MDR in Salmonella. Differential expression of the efflux system and OMPs (influx) and positional mutations are the factors that can be correlated to the development of drug resistance. Insights into the mechanism of influx and efflux of antibiotics can aid in developing a structurally stable molecule that can be proficient at escaping from the resistance loops in Salmonella. Understanding the strategic responsibilities and developing policies to address the surge of drug resistance at the national, regional, and global levels are the needs of the hour. In this Review, we attempt to aggregate all the available research findings and delineate the resistance mechanisms by dissecting the involvement of OMPs and efflux systems. Integrating major OMPs and the efflux system's differential expression and positional mutation in Salmonella may provide insight into developing strategic therapies for one health application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadanand Dangari Akshay
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Department of Bio & Nano Technology, Paneer Campus, Deralakatte, Mangalore-575018, India
| | - Vijaya Kumar Deekshit
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Department of Infectious Diseases & Microbial Genomics, Paneer Campus, Deralakatte, Mangalore-575018, India
| | - Juliet Mohan Raj
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Department of Infectious Diseases & Microbial Genomics, Paneer Campus, Deralakatte, Mangalore-575018, India
| | - Biswajit Maiti
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Department of Bio & Nano Technology, Paneer Campus, Deralakatte, Mangalore-575018, India
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3
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Zhou G, Wang Q, Wang Y, Wen X, Peng H, Peng R, Shi Q, Xie X, Li L. Outer Membrane Porins Contribute to Antimicrobial Resistance in Gram-Negative Bacteria. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1690. [PMID: 37512863 PMCID: PMC10385648 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11071690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Gram-negative bacteria depend on their cell membranes for survival and environmental adaptation. They contain two membranes, one of which is the outer membrane (OM), which is home to several different outer membrane proteins (Omps). One class of important Omps is porins, which mediate the inflow of nutrients and several antimicrobial drugs. The microorganism's sensitivity to antibiotics, which are predominantly targeted at internal sites, is greatly influenced by the permeability characteristics of porins. In this review, the properties and interactions of five common porins, OmpA, OmpC, OmpF, OmpW, and OmpX, in connection to porin-mediated permeability are outlined. Meanwhile, this review also highlighted the discovered regulatory characteristics and identified molecular mechanisms in antibiotic penetration through porins. Taken together, uncovering porins' functional properties will pave the way to investigate effective agents or approaches that use porins as targets to get rid of resistant gram-negative bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Yingsi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Xia Wen
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Hong Peng
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Ruqun Peng
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Qingshan Shi
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Xiaobao Xie
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Liangqiu Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
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4
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Safi AUR, Bendixen E, Rahman H, Khattak B, Wu W, Ullah W, Khan N, Ali F, Yasin N, Qasim M. Molecular identification and differential proteomics of drug resistant Salmonella Typhi. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2023; 105:115883. [PMID: 36731197 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2022.115883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to elucidate differentially expressed proteins in drug resistant Salmonella Typhi. Among 100 samples, S. typhi were identified in 43 samples. In drug susceptibility profile, 95.3% (41/43), 80% (35/43) and 70% (30/43) resistances were observed against Nalidixic acid, Ampicillin, and Chloramphenicol respectively. No resistance was observed against Imipenum and Azithromycin while only 11% (5/43) isolates were found resistant to Ceftriaxone. Mass spectrometric differential analysis resulted in 23 up-regulated proteins in drug resistant isolates. Proteins found up-regulated are involved in virulence (vipB, galU, tufA, and lpp1), translation (rpsF, rpsG, rplJ, and rplR), antibiotic resistance (zwf, phoP, and ompX), cell metabolism (metK, ftsZ, pepD, and secB), stress response (ridA, rbfA, and dps), housekeeping (gapA and eno) and hypothetical proteins including ydfZ, t1802, and yajQ. These proteins are of diverse nature and functions but highly interconnected. Further characterization may be helpful for elucidation of new biomarker proteins and therapeutic drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aziz Ur Rehman Safi
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat Pakistan
| | - Emoke Bendixen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Hazir Rahman
- Department of Microbiology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan Pakistan
| | - Baharullah Khattak
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat Pakistan
| | - Wei Wu
- College of Animal Sciences and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing China
| | - Waheed Ullah
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat Pakistan
| | - Nasar Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Kohsar University Murree, Kashmir Point, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Farhad Ali
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat Pakistan
| | - Nusrat Yasin
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Qasim
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat Pakistan.
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5
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Chaudhari R, Singh K, Kodgire P. Biochemical and molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella spp. Res Microbiol 2023; 174:103985. [PMID: 35944794 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2022.103985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Salmonella is a diverse Gram-negative bacterium that represents the major disease burden worldwide. According to WHO, Salmonella is one of the fourth global causes of diarrhoeal disease. Antibiotic resistance is a worldwide health concern, and Salmonella spp. is one of the microorganisms that can evade the toxicity of antimicrobials via antibiotic resistance. This review aims to deliver in-depth knowledge of the molecular mechanisms and the underlying biochemical alterations perceived in antibiotic resistance in Salmonella. This information will help understand and mitigate the impact of antibiotic-resistant bacteria on humans and contribute to the state-of-the-art research developing newer and more potent antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Chaudhari
- Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, Simrol, Khandwa Road, Indore 453552, India
| | - Kanika Singh
- Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, Simrol, Khandwa Road, Indore 453552, India
| | - Prashant Kodgire
- Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, Simrol, Khandwa Road, Indore 453552, India.
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ompX contribute to biofilm formation, osmotic response and swimming motility in Citrobacter werkmanii. Gene X 2022; 851:147019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2022.147019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
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7
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Ko D, Choi SH. Mechanistic understanding of antibiotic resistance mediated by EnvZ/OmpR two-component system in Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2022; 77:2419-2428. [PMID: 35781339 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkac223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Outer membrane porins (OMPs) are a major route for the entry of small hydrophilic antibiotics. Thus, compositional modulation of OMPs is often accompanied by multidrug resistance in a human pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. OBJECTIVES The role of EnvZ/OmpR two-component system in antibiotic resistance has not been established except that it regulates the expression of two OMPs, OmpC and OmpF. Here, we have gained mechanistic insight into EnvZ/OmpR-mediated antibiotic resistance in S. Enteritidis. METHODS The envZP248L and envZH243A strains, mimicking the S. Enteritidis strains with active and inactive states of EnvZ/OmpR, were used in this study. Antibiotic resistance was determined by the broth microdilution method and the spot plating assay. Transcriptomes of the S. Enteritidis strains were analysed by RNA-seq. Western blot, quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, electrophoretic mobility shift assays and β-galactosidase activity assays were performed. RESULTS The active state of EnvZ/OmpR induced a differential expression of multiple OMP genes including SEN1522, SEN2875, ompD and ompW, enhancing resistance to β-lactams in S. Enteritidis. OmpR directly activated SEN1522 and SEN2875 but repressed ompD and ompW. Interestingly, an increased cellular level of OmpR determined the expression of the four OMP genes, and phosphorylation of OmpR was even not necessary for the repression of ompD and ompW. EnvZ/OmpR increased its own expression in response to β-lactams, decreasing outer membrane permeability and providing S. Enteritidis with benefits for survival upon exposure to the antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS EnvZ/OmpR remodels OMP composition in response to β-lactams and thereby enhances antibiotic resistance in S. Enteritidis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duhyun Ko
- National Research Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Toxicology, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Center for Food and Bioconvergence, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Ho Choi
- National Research Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Toxicology, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Center for Food and Bioconvergence, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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8
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Wang Y, Ge H, Wei X, Zhao X. Research progress on antibiotic resistance of Salmonella. FOOD QUALITY AND SAFETY 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/fqsafe/fyac035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Antibiotic abuse results in various antibiotic resistance among a number of foodborne bacteria, posing a severe threat to food safety. Antibiotic resistance genes are commonly detected in foodborne pathogens, which has sparked much interest in finding solutions to these issues. Various strategies against these drug-resistant pathogens have been studied, including new antibiotics and phages. Recently, a powerful tool has been introduced in the fight against drug-resistant pathogens, namely, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR associated (CRISPR-Cas) system aggregated by a prokaryotic defense mechanism. This review summarized the mechanism of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella and resistance to common antibiotics, analysed the relationship between Salmonella CRISPR-Cas and antibiotic resistance, discussed the changes in antibiotic resistance on the structure and function of CRISPR-Cas, and finally predicted the mechanism of CRISPR-Cas intervention in Salmonella antibiotic resistance. In the future, CRISPR-Cas is expected to become an important tool to reduce the threat of antibiotic-resistant pathogens in food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yizhe Wang
- Research Center for Environmental Ecology and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology, School of Environmental Ecology and Biological Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, China
| | - Hengwei Ge
- Research Center for Environmental Ecology and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology, School of Environmental Ecology and Biological Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, China
| | - Xinyue Wei
- Research Center for Environmental Ecology and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology, School of Environmental Ecology and Biological Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, China
| | - Xihong Zhao
- Research Center for Environmental Ecology and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Process of Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Novel Reactor and Green Chemical Technology, School of Environmental Ecology and Biological Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, China
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9
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Wójcicki M, Świder O, Daniluk KJ, Średnicka P, Akimowicz M, Roszko MŁ, Sokołowska B, Juszczuk-Kubiak E. Transcriptional Regulation of the Multiple Resistance Mechanisms in Salmonella-A Review. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10070801. [PMID: 34202800 PMCID: PMC8308502 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10070801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The widespread use of antibiotics, especially those with a broad spectrum of activity, has resulted in the development of multidrug resistance in many strains of bacteria, including Salmonella. Salmonella is among the most prevalent causes of intoxication due to the consumption of contaminated food and water. Salmonellosis caused by this pathogen is pharmacologically treated using antibiotics such as fluoroquinolones, ceftriaxone, and azithromycin. This foodborne pathogen developed several molecular mechanisms of resistance both on the level of global and local transcription modulators. The increasing rate of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella poses a significant global concern, and an improved understanding of the multidrug resistance mechanisms in Salmonella is essential for choosing the suitable antibiotic for the treatment of infections. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge of molecular mechanisms that control gene expression related to antibiotic resistance of Salmonella strains. We characterized regulators acting as transcription activators and repressors, as well as two-component signal transduction systems. We also discuss the background of the molecular mechanisms of the resistance to metals, regulators of multidrug resistance to antibiotics, global regulators of the LysR family, as well as regulators of histone-like proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Wójcicki
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Molecular Engineering, Department of Microbiology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36 Street, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (M.W.); (P.Ś.); (M.A.)
| | - Olga Świder
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36 Street, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (O.Ś.); (M.Ł.R.)
| | - Kamila J. Daniluk
- Department of Microbiology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36 Street, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (K.J.D.); (B.S.)
| | - Paulina Średnicka
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Molecular Engineering, Department of Microbiology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36 Street, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (M.W.); (P.Ś.); (M.A.)
| | - Monika Akimowicz
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Molecular Engineering, Department of Microbiology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36 Street, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (M.W.); (P.Ś.); (M.A.)
| | - Marek Ł. Roszko
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36 Street, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (O.Ś.); (M.Ł.R.)
| | - Barbara Sokołowska
- Department of Microbiology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36 Street, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (K.J.D.); (B.S.)
| | - Edyta Juszczuk-Kubiak
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Molecular Engineering, Department of Microbiology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36 Street, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland; (M.W.); (P.Ś.); (M.A.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-22-6063605
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10
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von Mentzer A, Blackwell GA, Pickard D, Boinett CJ, Joffré E, Page AJ, Svennerholm AM, Dougan G, Sjöling Å. Long-read-sequenced reference genomes of the seven major lineages of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) circulating in modern time. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9256. [PMID: 33927221 PMCID: PMC8085198 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88316-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is an enteric pathogen responsible for the majority of diarrheal cases worldwide. ETEC infections are estimated to cause 80,000 deaths annually, with the highest rates of burden, ca 75 million cases per year, amongst children under 5 years of age in resource-poor countries. It is also the leading cause of diarrhoea in travellers. Previous large-scale sequencing studies have found seven major ETEC lineages currently in circulation worldwide. We used PacBio long-read sequencing combined with Illumina sequencing to create high-quality complete reference genomes for each of the major lineages with manually curated chromosomes and plasmids. We confirm that the major ETEC lineages all harbour conserved plasmids that have been associated with their respective background genomes for decades, suggesting that the plasmids and chromosomes of ETEC are both crucial for ETEC virulence and success as pathogens. The in-depth analysis of gene content, synteny and correct annotations of plasmids will elucidate other plasmids with and without virulence factors in related bacterial species. These reference genomes allow for fast and accurate comparison between different ETEC strains, and these data will form the foundation of ETEC genomics research for years to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid von Mentzer
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
- Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Grace A Blackwell
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
- EMBL-EBI, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Derek Pickard
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Enrique Joffré
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Andrew J Page
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| | - Ann-Mari Svennerholm
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Gordon Dougan
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Åsa Sjöling
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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11
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Futoma-Kołoch B, Bugla-Płoskońska G, Dudek B, Dorotkiewicz-Jach A, Drulis-Kawa Z, Gamian A. Outer Membrane Proteins of Salmonella as Potential Markers of Resistance to Serum, Antibiotics and Biocides. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:1960-1978. [PMID: 30378478 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666181031130851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Salmonellosis continues to be a significant worldwide health problem. Despite rapid progress in identifying mechanisms of Salmonella virulence and resistance to chemicals, our knowledge of these mechanisms remains limited. Furthermore, it appears that the resistance to antibiotics can be amplified by ubiquitous usage of the disinfectants (biocides), both by industry and by ordinary households. Salmonella, as other Gram-negative bacteria possess outer membrane proteins (OMPs), which participate in maintaining cell integrity, adapting to environment, and interacting with infected host. Moreover, the OMPs may also contribute to resistance to antibacterials. This review summarizes the role of OMPs in Salmonella serum resistance, antibiotics resistance and cross-resistance to biocides. Although collected data do not allow to assign OMPs as markers of the Salmonella susceptibility to the above-mentioned factors, some of these proteins retain a dominant presence in certain types of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bożena Futoma-Kołoch
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wrocław, Przybyszewskiego 63-77, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Gabriela Bugla-Płoskońska
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wrocław, Przybyszewskiego 63-77, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Bartłomiej Dudek
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wrocław, Przybyszewskiego 63-77, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Agata Dorotkiewicz-Jach
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wrocław, Przybyszewskiego 63-77, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Zuzanna Drulis-Kawa
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wrocław, Przybyszewskiego 63-77, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Andrzej Gamian
- Department of Immunology of Infectious Diseases, Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Rudolfa Weigla 12, 53-114 Wroclaw, Poland
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12
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Characterization of stm3030 and stm3031 genes of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in relation to cephalosporin resistance. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2018; 52:282-288. [PMID: 30448437 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2018.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/PURPOSE The outer membrane protein STM3031 had been shown to confer Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium resistance to ceftriaxone. In this study, the STM3030 was increased in strain R200 and decreased in strain R200(Δstm3031). How stm3030 and stm3031 contributing to antibiotic resistance was investigated. METHODS The level of STM3030 protein in R200(Δstm3031) were compared between 01-4, R200, and R200(Δstm3031) by 2-DE analysis. The stm3030 gene deleted strain, R200(Δstm3030), was generated by the one-step inactivation chromosome gene method. The various antibiotic susceptibility of strains 01-4, R200, R200(Δstm3031) and R200(Δstm3030) were determined by agar dilutions assays and E-test. The co-transcription of stm3031 and stm3030 were determined by RT-PCR. The promoter activities of these two genes fused with LacZ were determined. The binding of the regulatory protein BaeR on the promoter of both genes was detected by EMSA. The interaction between STM3030 and STM3031 proteins was determined by GST pull-down assay. RESULTS Strain R200(Δstm3030) displayed a 32- to 64-fold reduction in resistance to cephalosporin drugs. Transcription analyses revealed that stm3030 and stm3031 are independent genes and that the promoter of stm3030 is stronger than that of stm3031. The regulator BaeR binds to the promoter region of stm3031 but not that of stm3030. The STM3031 decreased in R200(Δstm3030) compared to R200 by western blot analysis. The pull-down assay revealed that STM3030 and STM3031 bind to each other. CONCLUSION Our data indicate that STM3030 has a chaperone-like activity and may modulate or stabilize STM3031, leading to resistance of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium to cephalosporin drugs.
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Lima WG, Alves MC, Cruz WS, Paiva MC. Chromosomally encoded and plasmid-mediated polymyxins resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii: a huge public health threat. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2018. [PMID: 29524060 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-018-3223-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Acinetobacter baumannii is an opportunistic pathogen associated with nosocomial and community infections of great clinical relevance. Its ability to rapidly develop resistance to antimicrobials, especially carbapenems, has re-boosted the prescription and use of polymyxins. However, the emergence of strains resistant to these antimicrobials is becoming a critical issue in several regions of the world because very few of currently available antibiotics are effective in these cases. This review summarizes the most up-to-date knowledge about chromosomally encoded and plasmid-mediated polymyxins resistance in A. baumannii. Different mechanisms are employed by A. baumannii to overcome the antibacterial effects of polymyxins. Modification of the outer membrane through phosphoethanolamine addition, loss of lipopolysaccharide, symmetric rupture, metabolic changes affecting osmoprotective amino acids, and overexpression of efflux pumps are involved in this process. Several genetic elements modulate these mechanisms, but only three of them have been described so far in A. baumannii clinical isolates such as mutations in pmrCAB, lpxACD, and lpsB. Elucidation of genotypic profiles and resistance mechanisms are necessary for control and fight against resistance to polymyxins in A. baumannii, thereby protecting this class for future treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Gustavo Lima
- Laboratory of Medical Microbiology, Central-West Campus Dona Lindu, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Rua Sebastião Gonçalves Coelho, 400, Divinopolis, Minas Gerais, 35501-293, Brazil.
| | - Mara Cristina Alves
- Laboratory of Laboratorial Diagnostic and Clinical Microbiology, Central-West Campus Dona Lindu, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinopolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Waleska Stephanie Cruz
- Laboratory of Molecular and Celular Biology, Alto Paraopeba Campus, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Ouro Branco, MG, Brazil
| | - Magna Cristina Paiva
- Laboratory of Laboratorial Diagnostic and Clinical Microbiology, Central-West Campus Dona Lindu, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinopolis, MG, Brazil
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The induction and identification of novel Colistin resistance mutations in Acinetobacter baumannii and their implications. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28291. [PMID: 27329501 PMCID: PMC4916428 DOI: 10.1038/srep28291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Acinetobacter baumannii is a significant cause of opportunistic hospital acquired infection and has been identified as an important emerging infection due to its high levels of antimicrobial resistance. Multidrug resistant A. baumannii has risen rapidly in Vietnam, where colistin is becoming the drug of last resort for many infections. In this study we generated spontaneous colistin resistant progeny (up to >256 μg/μl) from four colistin susceptible Vietnamese isolates and one susceptible reference strain (MIC <1.5 μg/μl). Whole genome sequencing was used to identify single nucleotide mutations that could be attributed to the reduced colistin susceptibility. We identified six lpxACD and three pmrB mutations, the majority of which were novel. In addition, we identified further mutations in six A. baumannii genes (vacJ, pldA, ttg2C, pheS and conserved hypothetical protein) that we hypothesise have a role in reduced colistin susceptibility. This study has identified additional mutations that may be associated with colistin resistance through novel resistance mechanisms. Our work further demonstrates how rapidly A. baumannii can generate resistance to a last resort antimicrobial and highlights the need for improved surveillance to identified A. baumannii with an extensive drug resistance profile.
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Huang H, Sun Y, Yuan L, Pan Y, Gao Y, Ma C, Hu G. Regulation of the Two-Component Regulator CpxR on Aminoglycosides and β-lactams Resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:604. [PMID: 27199934 PMCID: PMC4846824 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The two-component signal transduction system CpxAR is especially widespread in Gram-negative bacteria. It has been reported that CpxAR contributes to the multidrug resistance (MDR) in Escherichia coli. CpxR is a response regulator in the two-component CpxAR system. The aim of this study was to explore the role of cpxR in the MDR of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of various antibiotics commonly used in veterinary medicine for strains JS (a multidrug-susceptible standard strain of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium), JSΔcpxR, JSΔcpxR/pcpxR, JSΔcpxR/pcpxR (*), JSΔcpxRΔacrB, JSΔcpxRΔacrB/pcpxR, JSΔcpxRΔacrB/pcpxR (*), 9 S. enterica serovar Typhimurium isolates (SH1-9), and SH1-9ΔcpxR were determined by the 2-fold broth microdilution method. The relative mRNA expression levels of ompF, ompC, ompW, ompD, tolC, acrB, acrD, acrF, mdtA, marA, and soxS in strains JS, JSΔcpxR, and JSΔcpxR/pcpxR were detected by real-time PCR. The results showed 2- to 4-fold decreases in the MICs of amikacin (AMK), gentamycin (GEN), apramycin (APR), neomycin (NEO), ceftriaxone (CRO), ceftiofur (CEF), and cefquinome (CEQ) for strain JSΔcpxR, as compared to those for the parental strain JS. Likewise, SH1-9ΔcpxR were found to have 2- to 8-fold reduction in resistance to the above antibiotics, except for NEO, as compared to their parental strains SH1-9. Furthermore, 2- to 4-fold further decreases in the MICs of AMK, GEN, APR, and CEF for strain JSΔcpxRΔacrB were observed, as compared to those for strain JSΔacrB. In addition, CpxR overproduction in strain JSΔcpxR led to significant decreases in the mRNA expression levels of ompF, ompC, ompW, ompD, tolC, acrB, marA, and soxS, and significant increases in those of stm3031 and stm1530. Notably, after all strains were induced simultaneously by GEN to the 15th passage at subinhibitory concentrations, strain JSΔcpxR/pcpxR showed significant increases in mRNA expression levels of the efflux pump acrD and mdtA genes, as compared to strain JSΔcpxR. Our results indicate that the two-component regulator CpxR contributes to resistance of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium to aminoglycosides and β-lactams by influencing the expression level of the MDR-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yawei Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhou, China; College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and TechnologyXinxiang, China
| | - Li Yuan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yushan Pan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yanlin Gao
- Animal Husbandry Bureau of Henan Province Zhengzhou, China
| | - Caihui Ma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University Zhengzhou, China
| | - Gongzheng Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University Zhengzhou, China
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Chowdhury R, Mandal RS, Ta A, Das S. An AIL family protein promotes type three secretion system-1-independent invasion and pathogenesis of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Cell Microbiol 2014; 17:486-503. [PMID: 25308535 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 10/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Adhesion and invasion of Intestinal Epithelial Cells (IECs) are critical for the pathogenesis of Salmonella Typhi, the aetiological agent of human typhoid fever. While type three secretion system-1 (T3SS-1) is a major invasion apparatus of Salmonella, independent invasion mechanisms were described for non-typhoidal Salmonellae. Here, we show that T2942, an AIL-like protein of S. Typhi Ty2 strain, is required for adhesion and invasion of cultured IECs. That invasion was T3SS-1 independent was proved by ectopic expression of T2942 in the non-invasive E. coli BL21 and double-mutant Ty2 (Ty2Δt2942ΔinvG) strains. Laminin and fibronectin were identified as the host-binding partners of T2942 with higher affinity for laminin. Standalone function of T2942 was confirmed by cell adhesion of the recombinant protein, while the protein or anti-T2942 antiserum blocked adhesion/invasion of S. Typhi, indicating specificity. A 20-amino acid extracellular loop was required for invasion, while several loop regions of T2942 contributed to adhesion. Further, T2942 cooperates with laminin-binding T2544 for adhesion and T3SS-1 for invasion. Finally, T2942 was required and synergistically worked with T3SS-1 for pathogenesis of S. Typhi in mice. Considering wide distribution of T2942 among clinical strains, the protein or the 20-mer peptide may be suitable for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimi Chowdhury
- Division of Clinical Medicine, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, P-33 Scheme XM C.I.T. Road, Beliaghata Kolkata, 700010, India
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Zou Y, Woo J, Ahn J. Cellular and molecular responses of Salmonella Typhimurium to antimicrobial-induced stresses during the planktonic-to-biofilm transition. Lett Appl Microbiol 2012; 55:274-82. [PMID: 22803575 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2012.03288.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
AIM To characterize the cellular and molecular properties of Salmonella Typhimurium exposed to antimicrobials in association with physicochemical property, biofilm formation ability and gene expression patterns. METHODS AND RESULTS The antimicrobial susceptibilities against Salmonella Typhimurium were evaluated to determine the MICs of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), thymol, eugenol and polyphenol. Cell surface hydrophobicity, aggregation and biofilm formation assays were conducted to assess the physicochemical properties of Salm. Typhimurium treated with sublethal concentrations (SLC(2D) ) of antimicrobials. The expression patterns of adhesion-related genes (adrA, csgD, fimA and lpfE), virulence-related genes (hilA and stn) and efflux-related genes (acrA, acrB, ompD and tolC) were evaluated by real-time RT-PCR. Thymol exhibited the highest antimicrobial activity against Salm. Typhimurium planktonic, biofilm and dispersed cells, showing 0·18, 0·96 and 0·42 mg ml(-1) of SLC(2D) values, respectively. The antimicrobial-treated Salm. Typhimurium showed low hydrophobicity. The highest auto-aggregation ability (67%) of polyphenol-treated Salm. Typhimurium was positively associated with the enhanced ability to form biofilms. The csgD, fimA, hilA and lpfE genes were up-regulated in the polyphenol-treated Salm. Typhimurium planktonic and biofilm cells. CONCLUSION The results suggest that the antimicrobial resistance and virulence potential varied depending on the physiological states of Salm. Typhimurium during the transition from planktonic to biofilm cell growth. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This study can expand our understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of biofilm formation and also provide useful information for reducing biofilm-associated virulence potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Zou
- Department of Medical Biomaterials Engineering, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, Korea
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He X, Ahn J. Survival and virulence properties of multiple antibiotic-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Int J Food Sci Technol 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02732.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Abstract
Resistance to antimicrobial drugs is increasing at an alarming rate among both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Traditionally, bacteria resistant to multiple antimicrobial agents have been restricted to the nosocomial environment. A disturbing trend has been the recent emergence and spread of resistant pathogens in nursing homes, in the community, and in the hospital. This article reviews the epidemiology, molecular mechanisms of resistance, and treatment options for pathogens resistant to antimicrobial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke F Chen
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Box 102359, Hanes House, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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The expression levels of outer membrane proteins STM1530 and OmpD, which are influenced by the CpxAR and BaeSR two-component systems, play important roles in the ceftriaxone resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:3829-37. [PMID: 21646491 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00216-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant increases in STM3031, STM1530, and AcrD protein levels and significant decreases in OmpC and OmpD protein levels are present when the ceftriaxone-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium R200 strain is compared with the ceftriaxone-susceptible strain 01-4. AcrD is known to be involved in drug export, and STM3031 seems to play a key role in ceftriaxone resistance. Here, we examine the roles of STM1530, OmpC, and OmpD in ceftriaxone resistance. An ompD gene deletion mutant showed 4-fold higher ceftriaxone resistance than 01-4. An ompC gene deletion mutant showed 4-fold higher cephalothin and erythromycin resistance than 01-4, but there was no effect on ceftriaxone resistance. However, a stm1530 deletion mutant did show >64-fold lower ceftriaxone resistance than R200. Moreover, the STM3031 protein was significantly decreased in R200(Δstm1530) compared to R200. STM3031 expression has been shown to be influenced by the two-component system regulator gene baeR. CpxR seems to modulate BaeR. A cpxA-cpxR gene deletion mutant showed >2,048-fold lower ceftriaxone resistance than R200. The outer membrane protein profile of R200(ΔcpxAR) showed significant decreases in STM3031 and STM1530 compared to R200, while OmpD had returned to the level found in 01-4. Furthermore, the stm3031, stm1530, and ompD mRNA levels were correlated with their protein expression levels in these strains, while decreases in the mRNA levels of the efflux pump acrB, acrD, and acrF genes were found in R200(ΔcpxAR). Findings similar to those for R200(ΔcpxAR) were found for R200(ΔbaeSR). These results, together with those for STM3031 and the fact that STM1530 is an outer membrane protein, suggest that STM1530 and OmpD are influenced by the CpxAR and BaeSR two-component systems and that this contributes to S. enterica serovar Typhimurium ceftriaxone resistance.
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Calderón IL, Morales E, Caro NJ, Chahúan CA, Collao B, Gil F, Villarreal JM, Ipinza F, Mora GC, Saavedra CP. Response regulator ArcA of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium downregulates expression of OmpD, a porin facilitating uptake of hydrogen peroxide. Res Microbiol 2011; 162:214-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2010] [Accepted: 10/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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