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Cheuka PM, Njaria P, Mayoka G, Funjika E. Emerging Drug Targets for Antimalarial Drug Discovery: Validation and Insights into Molecular Mechanisms of Function. J Med Chem 2024; 67:838-863. [PMID: 38198596 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Approximately 619,000 malaria deaths were reported in 2021, and resistance to recommended drugs, including artemisinin-combination therapies (ACTs), threatens malaria control. Treatment failure with ACTs has been found to be as high as 93% in northeastern Thailand, and parasite mutations responsible for artemisinin resistance have already been reported in some African countries. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify alternative treatments with novel targets. In this Perspective, we discuss some promising antimalarial drug targets, including enzymes involved in proteolysis, DNA and RNA metabolism, protein synthesis, and isoprenoid metabolism. Other targets discussed are transporters, Plasmodium falciparum acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase, N-myristoyltransferase, and the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase G. We have outlined mechanistic details, where these are understood, underpinning the biological roles and hence druggability of such targets. We believe that having a clear understanding of the underlying chemical interactions is valuable to medicinal chemists in their quest to design appropriate inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Mubanga Cheuka
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka 10101, Zambia
| | - Paul Njaria
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 14548-00400, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Godfrey Mayoka
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Evelyn Funjika
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka 10101, Zambia
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2
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Sleda MA, Li ZH, Behera R, Baierna B, Li C, Jumpathong J, Malwal SR, Kawamukai M, Oldfield E, Moreno SNJ. The Heptaprenyl Diphosphate Synthase (Coq1) Is the Target of a Lipophilic Bisphosphonate That Protects Mice against Toxoplasma gondii Infection. mBio 2022; 13:e0196622. [PMID: 36129297 PMCID: PMC9600589 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01966-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Prenyldiphosphate synthases catalyze the reaction of allylic diphosphates with one or more isopentenyl diphosphate molecules to form compounds such as farnesyl diphosphate, used in, e.g., sterol biosynthesis and protein prenylation, as well as longer "polyprenyl" diphosphates, used in ubiquinone and menaquinone biosynthesis. Quinones play an essential role in electron transport and are associated with the inner mitochondrial membrane due to the presence of the polyprenyl group. In this work, we investigated the synthesis of the polyprenyl diphosphate that alkylates the ubiquinone ring precursor in Toxoplasma gondii, an opportunistic pathogen that causes serious disease in immunocompromised patients and the unborn fetus. The enzyme that catalyzes this early step of the ubiquinone synthesis is Coq1 (TgCoq1), and we show that it produces the C35 species heptaprenyl diphosphate. TgCoq1 localizes to the mitochondrion and is essential for in vitro T. gondii growth. We demonstrate that the growth defect of a T. gondii TgCoq1 mutant is rescued by complementation with a homologous TgCoq1 gene or with a (C45) solanesyl diphosphate synthase from Trypanosoma cruzi (TcSPPS). We find that a lipophilic bisphosphonate (BPH-1218) inhibits T. gondii growth at low-nanomolar concentrations, while overexpression of the TgCoq1 enzyme dramatically reduced growth inhibition by the bisphosphonate. Both the severe growth defect of the mutant and the inhibition by BPH-1218 were rescued by supplementation with a long-chain (C30) ubiquinone (UQ6). Importantly, BPH-1218 also protected mice against a lethal T. gondii infection. TgCoq1 thus represents a potential drug target that could be exploited for improved chemotherapy of toxoplasmosis. IMPORTANCE Millions of people are infected with Toxoplasma gondii, and the available treatment for toxoplasmosis is not ideal. Most of the drugs currently used are only effective for the acute infection, and treatment can trigger serious side effects requiring changes in the therapeutic approach. There is, therefore, a compelling need for safe and effective treatments for toxoplasmosis. In this work, we characterize an enzyme of the mitochondrion of T. gondii that can be inhibited by an isoprenoid pathway inhibitor. We present evidence that demonstrates that inhibition of the enzyme is linked to parasite death. In addition, the inhibitor can protect mice against a lethal dose of T. gondii. Our results thus reveal a promising chemotherapeutic target for the development of new medicines for toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A. Sleda
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Zhu-Hong Li
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Ranjan Behera
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Baihetiya Baierna
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Catherine Li
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Jomkwan Jumpathong
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
| | - Satish R. Malwal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Makoto Kawamukai
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
| | - Eric Oldfield
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Silvia N. J. Moreno
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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3
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Tesfaye S, Asres K, Guenther S, Singh PP. Anti-malarial effect of a combination of risedronate and azithromycin against Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis infection in Swiss mice. Parasitol Int 2022; 91:102655. [PMID: 36029959 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2022.102655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Combination therapy is used to retard the selection of malaria parasite strains resistant to individual components of a combination of drugs. This approach has proved to be a success in the combination of sulphadoxine and pyrimethamine, which targets two different steps in the folate pathway of malaria parasites. However, after the success of this therapeutic combination, the efficacy of other combinations of drugs that target different enzymes in a particular metabolic pathway has, apparently, not been reported. In the current study, the antimalarial effect of a combination of risedronate (RIS), which is known for its anti-osteoporosis activity, and azithromycin (AZT) was investigated. Peter's suppression test was carried out on mice infected with 1 × 107P. yoelii infected erythrocytes. Drug efficacy was analyzed by comparing the percent reduction in parasitaemia on day 4 post-infection. RIS was observed to be a blood schizonticidal agent against P. yoelii infection which showed ED50 7.0 (4.04-12.13) mg/kg/day x 4. Normalized isobologram showed additive action between RIS 1 mg/kg/day x 4 and AZT 10 mg/kg/day x 4, and antagonistic action for the rest of the combinations (RIS 1 + AZT 20, RIS 1 + AZT 40, RIS 5 + AZT 10, RIS 5 + AZT 20, RIS 5 + AZT 40, RIS 10 + AZT 10, RIS 10 + AZT 20 and RIS 10 + AZT 40 mg/kg/day x 4). Furthermore, a combination of RIS with AZT showed inferior efficacy as compared to AZT treatment alone. This antagonistic interaction may be due to the high accumulation of AZT in WBCs, which will reduce its serum bio-availability, whereas RIS has anti-parasitic activity by increasing WBCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solomon Tesfaye
- Institute of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Greifswald, 17491 Greifswald, Germany; School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Churchill Street, 1176 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | - Kaleab Asres
- School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Churchill Street, 1176 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Sebastian Guenther
- Institute of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Greifswald, 17491 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Prati Pal Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, 160062 Mohali, India
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Kabeche S, Aida J, Akther T, Ichikawa T, Ochida A, Pulkoski-Gross MJ, Smith M, Humphries PS, Yeh E. Nonbisphosphonate inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum FPPS/GGPPS. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2021; 41:127978. [PMID: 33766764 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2021.127978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A series of novel thiazole-containing amides were synthesized. A structure-activity relationship study of these compounds led to the identification of potent and selective PfFPPS/GGPPS inhibitors with good in vitro ADME profiles. The most promising candidate molecules were progressed to mouse in vivo PK studies and demonstrated adequate free drug exposure to warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Kabeche
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford Medical School, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jumpei Aida
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd, 26-1, Muraokahigashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Thamina Akther
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd, 26-1, Muraokahigashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Takashi Ichikawa
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd, 26-1, Muraokahigashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Atsuko Ochida
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd, 26-1, Muraokahigashi 2-chome Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Michael J Pulkoski-Gross
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford Medical School, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Mark Smith
- Department of ChEM-H, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Paul S Humphries
- Department of ChEM-H, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ellen Yeh
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford Medical School, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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5
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Simelane SB, Ikhile MI, Ndinteh DT, Mbianda XY. Synthesis and biological evaluation of 2-substituted vinylgembisphosphonates against Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei. PHOSPHORUS SULFUR 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10426507.2020.1728757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Monisola I. Ikhile
- Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Derek T. Ndinteh
- Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Xavier Y. Mbianda
- Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa
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Verdaguer IB, Zafra CA, Crispim M, Sussmann RA, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Prenylquinones in Human Parasitic Protozoa: Biosynthesis, Physiological Functions, and Potential as Chemotherapeutic Targets. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24203721. [PMID: 31623105 PMCID: PMC6832408 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24203721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human parasitic protozoa cause a large number of diseases worldwide and, for some of these diseases, there are no effective treatments to date, and drug resistance has been observed. For these reasons, the discovery of new etiological treatments is necessary. In this sense, parasitic metabolic pathways that are absent in vertebrate hosts would be interesting research candidates for the identification of new drug targets. Most likely due to the protozoa variability, uncertain phylogenetic origin, endosymbiotic events, and evolutionary pressure for adaptation to adverse environments, a surprising variety of prenylquinones can be found within these organisms. These compounds are involved in essential metabolic reactions in organisms, for example, prevention of lipoperoxidation, participation in the mitochondrial respiratory chain or as enzymatic cofactors. This review will describe several prenylquinones that have been previously characterized in human pathogenic protozoa. Among all existing prenylquinones, this review is focused on ubiquinone, menaquinone, tocopherols, chlorobiumquinone, and thermoplasmaquinone. This review will also discuss the biosynthesis of prenylquinones, starting from the isoprenic side chains to the aromatic head group precursors. The isoprenic side chain biosynthesis maybe come from mevalonate or non-mevalonate pathways as well as leucine dependent pathways for isoprenoid biosynthesis. Finally, the isoprenic chains elongation and prenylquinone aromatic precursors origins from amino acid degradation or the shikimate pathway is reviewed. The phylogenetic distribution and what is known about the biological functions of these compounds among species will be described, as will the therapeutic strategies associated with prenylquinone metabolism in protozoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi B. Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Camila A. Zafra
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Rodrigo A.C. Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
- Centro de Formação em Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Porto Seguro 45810-000 Bahia, Brazil
| | - Emília A. Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Alejandro M. Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-11-3091-7330; Fax: +5511-3091-7417
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7
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Teixeira S, Branco L, Fernandes MH, Costa-Rodrigues J. Bisphosphonates and Cancer: A Relationship Beyond the Antiresorptive Effects. Mini Rev Med Chem 2019; 19:988-998. [PMID: 31020940 DOI: 10.2174/1389557519666190424163044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Bisphosphonates (BPs) are stable analogues of the Inorganic Pyrophosphate (PPi), an endogenous regulator of bone mineralization, which can resist the hydrolysis in the gastrointestinal tract. Their conformation allows targeting the bone as a result of their three-dimensional structure, which makes them primary agents against osteoclast-mediated bone loss. They are used in many bone pathological conditions, like bone metastasis, because of its ability to modulate bone metabolism into a less favorable place to cancer cell growth, through the inhibition of osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. This review is focused on the mechanisms of action through which BPs affect the cellular activity and survival, mainly on their antitumoral effects. In conclusion, BPs are considered the primary therapy for skeletal disorders due to its high affinity for bone, but now they are also considered as potential antitumor agents due to its ability to induce tumor cell apoptosis, inhibition of cell adhesion, invasion and proliferation, modulation of the immune system to target and eliminate cancer cells as well as affect the angiogenic mechanisms. Like any other drug, they also have some adverse effects, but the most common, the acute phase reaction, can be minimized with the intake of calcium and vitamin D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Teixeira
- Laboratory for Bone Metabolism and Regeneration, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Luis Branco
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Faculdade de Ciencias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria H Fernandes
- Laboratory for Bone Metabolism and Regeneration, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,REQUIMTE/LAQV, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Costa-Rodrigues
- Laboratory for Bone Metabolism and Regeneration, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,ESTSP-Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Portugal.,Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Escola Superior de Saúde, Portugal
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8
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de Sena Pereira VS, da Silva Emery F, Lobo L, Nogueira F, Oliveira JIN, Fulco UL, Albuquerque EL, Katzin AM, de Andrade-Neto VF. In vitro antiplasmodial activity, pharmacokinetic profiles and interference in isoprenoid pathway of 2-aniline-3-hydroxy-1.4-naphthoquinone derivatives. Malar J 2018; 17:482. [PMID: 30567541 PMCID: PMC6300878 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2615-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plasmodium falciparum has shown multidrug resistance, leading to the necessity for the development of new drugs with novel targets, such as the synthesis of isoprenic precursors, which are excellent targets because the pathway is different in several steps when compared with the human host. Naphthoquinone derivatives have been described as potentially promising for the development of anti-malarial leader molecules. In view of that, the focus in this work is twofold: first, evaluate the in vitro naphthoquinone antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity; secondly, investigate one possible action mechanism of two derivatives of hydroxy-naphthoquinones. Results The two hydroxy-naphthoquinones derivatives have been tested against P. falciparum in vitro, using strains of parasites chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) and chloroquine-resistant (Dd2), causing 50% inhibition of parasite growth with concentrations that varied from 7 to 44.5 μM. The cell viability in vitro against RAW Cell Line displayed IC50 = 483.5 and 714.9 μM, whereas, in primary culture tests using murine macrophages, IC50 were 315.8 and 532.6 μM for the two selected compounds, causing no haemolysis at the doses tested. The in vivo acute toxicity assays exhibited a significant safety margin indicated by a lack of systemic and behavioural toxicity up to 300 mg/kg. It is suggested that this drug seems to inhibit the biosynthesis of isoprenic compounds, particularly the menaquinone and tocopherol. Conclusions These derivatives have a high potential for the development of new anti-malarial drugs since they showed low toxicity associated to a satisfactory antiplasmodial activity and possible inhibition of a metabolic pathway distinct from the pathways found in the mammalian host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeska S de Sena Pereira
- Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose - LABMAT, Departmento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil.,Post-graduate Program in Biochemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Flávio da Silva Emery
- Departmento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Lis Lobo
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine-GHTM, Unidade de Ensino e Investigação de Parasitologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, IHMT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa - UNL, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Fátima Nogueira
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine-GHTM, Unidade de Ensino e Investigação de Parasitologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, IHMT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa - UNL, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Jonas I N Oliveira
- Departamento de Biofísica e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Umberto L Fulco
- Departamento de Biofísica e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Eudenilson L Albuquerque
- Departamento de Biofísica e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Departmento de Parasitologia, Centro de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Valter F de Andrade-Neto
- Laboratório de Biologia da Malária e Toxoplasmose - LABMAT, Departmento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil. .,Post-graduate Program in Biochemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil.
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9
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Gabriel HB, Azevedo MF, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Plasmodium falciparum parasites overexpressing farnesyl diphosphate synthase/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase are more resistant to risedronate. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2018; 113:e180174. [PMID: 30110072 PMCID: PMC6086031 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760180174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Farnesyl diphosphate synthase/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS/GGPPS) is a key enzyme in the synthesis of isoprenic chains. Risedronate, a bisphosphonate containing nitrogen (N-BP), is a potent inhibitor of blood stage Plasmodium. Here, we show that P. falciparum parasites overexpressing FPPS/GGPPS are more resistant to risedronate, suggesting that this enzyme is an important target, and bisphosphonate analogues can be used as potential antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heloisa B Gabriel
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Mauro F Azevedo
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Santos, SP, Brazil
| | - Emília A Kimura
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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10
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Gisselberg JE, Herrera Z, Orchard LM, Llinás M, Yeh E. Specific Inhibition of the Bifunctional Farnesyl/Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate Synthase in Malaria Parasites via a New Small-Molecule Binding Site. Cell Chem Biol 2017; 25:185-193.e5. [PMID: 29276048 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2017.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 09/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The bifunctional farnesyl/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS/GGPPS) is a key branchpoint enzyme in isoprenoid biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum (malaria) parasites. PfFPPS/GGPPS is a validated, high-priority antimalarial drug target. Unfortunately, current bisphosphonate drugs that inhibit FPPS and GGPPS enzymes by acting as a diphosphate substrate analog show poor bioavailability and selectivity for PfFPPS/GGPPS. We identified a new non-bisphosphonate compound, MMV019313, which is highly selective for PfFPPS/GGPPS and showed no activity against human FPPS or GGPPS. Inhibition of PfFPPS/GGPPS by MMV019313, but not bisphosphonates, was disrupted in an S228T variant, demonstrating that MMV019313 and bisphosphonates have distinct modes of inhibition. Molecular docking indicated that MMV019313 did not bind previously characterized substrate sites in PfFPPS/GGPPS. Our finding uncovers a new, selective small-molecule binding site in this important antimalarial drug target with superior druggability compared with the known inhibitor site and sets the stage for the development of Plasmodium-specific FPPS/GGPPS inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolyn E Gisselberg
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford Medical School, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Zachary Herrera
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford Medical School, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Lindsey M Orchard
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Huck Center for Malaria Research, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Manuel Llinás
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Huck Center for Malaria Research, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Department of Chemistry, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Ellen Yeh
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford Medical School, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford Medical School, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford Medical School, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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11
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Suazo KF, Schaber C, Palsuledesai CC, Odom John AR, Distefano MD. Global proteomic analysis of prenylated proteins in Plasmodium falciparum using an alkyne-modified isoprenoid analogue. Sci Rep 2016; 6:38615. [PMID: 27924931 PMCID: PMC5141570 DOI: 10.1038/srep38615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum infection remains a serious threat to health worldwide and new therapeutic targets are highly desirable. Small molecule inhibitors of prenyl transferases, enzymes that catalyze the post-translational isoprenyl modifications of proteins, exhibit potent antimalarial activity. The antimalarial actions of prenyltransferase inhibitors indicate that protein prenylation is required for malaria parasite development. In this study, we used a chemical biology strategy to experimentally characterize the entire complement of prenylated proteins in the human malaria parasite. In contrast to the expansive mammalian and fungal prenylomes, we find that P. falciparum possesses a restricted set of prenylated proteins. The prenylome of P. falciparum is dominated by Rab GTPases, in addition to a small number of prenylated proteins that also appear to function primarily in membrane trafficking. Overall, we found robust experimental evidence for a total of only thirteen prenylated proteins in P. falciparum, with suggestive evidence for an additional two probable prenyltransferase substrates. Our work contributes to an increasingly complete picture of essential, post-translational hydrophobic modifications in blood-stage P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiall F Suazo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
| | - Chad Schaber
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | | | - Audrey R Odom John
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Mark D Distefano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
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Saito AY, Marin Rodriguez AA, Menchaca Vega DS, Sussmann RA, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Antimalarial activity of the terpene nerolidol. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2016; 48:641-646. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2016.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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13
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Cysne DN, Fortes TS, Reis AS, de Paulo Ribeiro B, dos Santos Ferreira A, do Amaral FMM, Guerra RNM, Marinho CRF, Nicolete R, Nascimento FRF. Antimalarial potential of leaves of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:4327-4334. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5216-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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14
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In Vitro Antimalarial Activity of Different Inhibitors of the Plasmodial Isoprenoid Synthesis Pathway. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:5084-7. [PMID: 26055383 DOI: 10.1128/aac.04161-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that fosmidomycin, risedronate, and nerolidol exert antimalarial activity in vitro. We included squalestatin, an inhibitor of the isoprenoid metabolism in Erwinia uredovora, and found that combinations of compounds which act on different targets of the plasmodial isoprenoid pathway possess important supra-additivity effects.
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15
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Isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis is the essential metabolic role of the apicoplast during gametocytogenesis in Plasmodium falciparum. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2014; 14:128-39. [PMID: 25446055 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00198-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The malaria parasite harbors a relict plastid called the apicoplast and its discovery opened a new avenue for drug discovery and development due to its unusual, nonmammalian metabolism. The apicoplast is essential during the asexual intraerythrocytic and hepatic stages of the parasite, and there is strong evidence supporting its essential metabolic role during the mosquito stages of the parasite. Supply of the isoprenoid building blocks isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) is the essential metabolic function of the apicoplast during the asexual intraerythrocytic stages. However, the metabolic role of the apicoplast during gametocyte development, the malaria stages transmitted to the mosquito, remains unknown. In this study, we showed that production of IPP for isoprenoid biosynthesis is the essential metabolic function of the apicoplast during gametocytogenesis, by obtaining normal gametocytes lacking the apicoplast when supplemented with IPP. When IPP supplementation was removed early in gametocytogenesis, developmental defects were observed, supporting the essential role of isoprenoids for normal gametocytogenesis. Furthermore, mosquitoes infected with gametocytes lacking the apicoplast developed fewer and smaller oocysts that failed to produce sporozoites. This finding further supports the essential role of the apicoplast in establishing a successful infection in the mosquito vector. Our study supports isoprenoid biosynthesis as a valid drug target for development of malaria transmission-blocking inhibitors.
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Guggisberg AM, Amthor RE, Odom AR. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2014; 13:1348-59. [PMID: 25217461 PMCID: PMC4248697 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00160-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Malaria kills nearly 1 million people each year, and the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum has become increasingly resistant to current therapies. Isoprenoid synthesis via the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway represents an attractive target for the development of new antimalarials. The phosphonic acid antibiotic fosmidomycin is a specific inhibitor of isoprenoid synthesis and has been a helpful tool to outline the essential functions of isoprenoid biosynthesis in P. falciparum. Isoprenoids are a large, diverse class of hydrocarbons that function in a variety of essential cellular processes in eukaryotes. In P. falciparum, isoprenoids are used for tRNA isopentenylation and protein prenylation, as well as the synthesis of vitamin E, carotenoids, ubiquinone, and dolichols. Recently, isoprenoid synthesis in P. falciparum has been shown to be regulated by a sugar phosphatase. We outline what is known about isoprenoid function and the regulation of isoprenoid synthesis in P. falciparum, in order to identify valuable directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Guggisberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Rachel E Amthor
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Audrey R Odom
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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Characterization of potential drug targets farnesyl diphosphate synthase and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase in Schistosoma mansoni. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:5969-76. [PMID: 24041901 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00699-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis affects over 200 million people worldwide, with over 200,000 deaths annually. Currently, praziquantel is the only drug available against schistosomiasis. We report here that Schistosoma mansoni farnesyl diphosphate synthase (SmFPPS) and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (SmGGPPS) are potential drug targets for the treatment of schistosomiasis. We expressed active, recombinant SmFPPS and SmGGPPS for subsequent kinetic characterization and testing against a variety of bisphosphonate inhibitors. Recombinant SmFPPS was found to be a soluble 44.2-kDa protein, while SmGGPPS was a soluble 38.3-kDa protein. Characterization of the substrate utilization of the two enzymes indicates that they have overlapping substrate specificities. Against SmFPPS, several bisphosphonates had 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) in the low micromolar to nanomolar range; these inhibitors had significantly less activity against SmGGPPS. Several lipophilic bisphosphonates were active against ex vivo adult worms, with worm death occurring over 4 to 6 days. These results indicate that FPPS and GGPPS could be of interest in the context of the emerging resistance to praziquantel in schistosomiasis therapy.
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Jordão FM, Gabriel HB, Alves JMP, Angeli CB, Bifano TD, Breda A, de Azevedo MF, Basso LA, Wunderlich G, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Cloning and characterization of bifunctional enzyme farnesyl diphosphate/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase from Plasmodium falciparum. Malar J 2013; 12:184. [PMID: 23734739 PMCID: PMC3679732 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-12-184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Isoprenoids are the most diverse and abundant group of natural products. In Plasmodium falciparum, isoprenoid synthesis proceeds through the methyl erythritol diphosphate pathway and the products are further metabolized by farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS), turning this enzyme into a key branch point of the isoprenoid synthesis. Changes in FPPS activity could alter the flux of isoprenoid compounds downstream of FPPS and, hence, play a central role in the regulation of a number of essential functions in Plasmodium parasites. Methods The isolation and cloning of gene PF3D7_18400 was done by amplification from cDNA from mixed stage parasites of P. falciparum. After sequencing, the fragment was subcloned in pGEX2T for recombinant protein expression. To verify if the PF3D7_1128400 gene encodes a functional rPfFPPS protein, its catalytic activity was assessed using the substrate [4-14C] isopentenyl diphosphate and three different allylic substrates: dimethylallyl diphosphate, geranyl diphosphate or farnesyl diphosphate. The reaction products were identified by thin layer chromatography and reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography. To confirm the product spectrum formed of rPfFPPS, isoprenic compounds were also identified by mass spectrometry. Apparent kinetic constants KM and Vmax for each substrate were determined by Michaelis–Menten; also, inhibition assays were performed using risedronate. Results The expressed protein of P. falciparum FPPS (rPfFPPS) catalyzes the synthesis of farnesyl diphosphate, as well as geranylgeranyl diphosphate, being therefore a bifunctional FPPS/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS) enzyme. The apparent KM values for the substrates dimethylallyl diphosphate, geranyl diphosphate and farnesyl diphosphate were, respectively, 68 ± 5 μM, 7.8 ± 1.3 μM and 2.06 ± 0.4 μM. The protein is expressed constitutively in all intra-erythrocytic stages of P. falciparum, demonstrated by using transgenic parasites with a haemagglutinin-tagged version of FPPS. Also, the present data demonstrate that the recombinant protein is inhibited by risedronate. Conclusions The rPfFPPS is a bifunctional FPPS/GGPPS enzyme and the structure of products FOH and GGOH were confirmed mass spectrometry. Plasmodial FPPS represents a potential target for the rational design of chemotherapeutic agents to treat malaria.
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Ueno A, Terkawi MA, Yokoyama M, Cao S, Aboge G, Aboulaila M, Nishikawa Y, Xuan X, Yokoyama N, Igarashi I. Farsenyl pyrophosphate synthase is a potential molecular drug target of risedronate in Babesia bovis. Parasitol Int 2012; 62:189-92. [PMID: 23276703 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2012.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Revised: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A cDNA encoding farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase of Babesia bovis (BbFPPS) has been isolated, cloned and characterized as molecular drug target. Sequence analysis revealed that BbFPPS contains an open reading frame of 1011bp with predicted 336 amino acids and molecular mass of 38kDa. Antiserum raised in mice against recombinant BbFPPS expressed in Escherichia coli specifically reacted with native protein of B. bovis parasites by Western blot analysis and indirect immunofluorescent test. Enzymatic assay using recombinant BbFPPS revealed that the Km value of the enzyme for isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate was 2.494±1.536μM. Risedronate inhibited the activity of BbFPPS yielding IC50 value of 8.4±1.2nM. Furthermore, the in vitro growth of B. bovis was significantly inhibited in the presence of a micromolar concentration of risedronate (IC50=4.02±0.91μM). No regrowth of B. bovis was observed at 10μM of risedronate in the subsequent viability test. These results demonstrate that BbFPPS is the molecular target of risedronate, which could inhibit the in vitro growth of B. bovis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akio Ueno
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-13 Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Cysteine residues of proteins participate in the catalysis of biochemical reactions, are crucial for redox reactions, and influence protein structure by the formation of disulfide bonds. Covalent posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of cysteine residues are important mediators of redox regulation and signaling by coupling protein activity to the cellular redox state, and moreover influence stability, function, and localization of proteins. A diverse group of protozoan and metazoan parasites are a major cause of diseases in humans, such as malaria, African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, filariasis, and schistosomiasis. RECENT ADVANCES Human parasites undergo dramatic morphological and metabolic changes while they pass complex life cycles and adapt to changing environments in host and vector. These processes are in part regulated by PTMs of parasitic proteins. In human parasites, posttranslational cysteine modifications are involved in crucial cellular events such as signal transduction (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), redox regulation of proteins (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), protein trafficking and subcellular localization (palmitoylation and prenylation), as well as invasion into and egress from host cells (palmitoylation). This review focuses on the occurrence and mechanisms of these cysteine modifications in parasites. CRITICAL ISSUES Studies on cysteine modifications in human parasites are so far largely based on in vitro experiments. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The in vivo regulation of cysteine modifications and their role in parasite development will be of great interest in order to understand redox signaling in parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Jortzik
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
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Lipophilic analogs of zoledronate and risedronate inhibit Plasmodium geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS) and exhibit potent antimalarial activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:4058-63. [PMID: 22392982 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118215109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the results of an in vitro screening assay targeting the intraerythrocytic form of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum using a library of 560 prenyl-synthase inhibitors. Based on "growth-rescue" and enzyme-inhibition experiments, geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS) is shown to be a major target for the most potent leads, BPH-703 and BPH-811, lipophilic analogs of the bone-resorption drugs zoledronate and risedronate. We determined the crystal structures of these inhibitors bound to a Plasmodium GGPPS finding that their head groups bind to the [Mg(2+)](3) cluster in the active site in a similar manner to that found with their more hydrophilic parents, whereas their hydrophobic tails occupy a long-hydrophobic tunnel spanning both molecules in the dimer. The results of isothermal-titration-calorimetric experiments show that both lipophilic bisphosphonates bind to GGPPS with, on average, a ΔG of -9 kcal mol(-1), only 0.5 kcal mol(-1) worse than the parent bisphosphonates, consistent with the observation that conversion to the lipophilic species has only a minor effect on enzyme activity. However, only the lipophilic species are active in cells. We also tested both compounds in mice, finding major decreases in parasitemia and 100% survival. These results are of broad general interest because they indicate that it may be possible to overcome barriers to cell penetration of existing bisphosphonate drugs in this and other systems by simple covalent modification to form lipophilic analogs that retain their enzyme-inhibition activity and are also effective in vitro and in vivo.
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Jordão FM, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2012; 106 Suppl 1:134-41. [PMID: 21881768 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762011000900018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new drugs is one strategy for malaria control. Biochemical pathways localised in the apicoplast of the parasite, such as the synthesis of isoprenic precursors, are excellent targets because they are different or absent in the human host. Isoprenoids are a large and highly diverse group of natural products with many functions and their synthesis is essential for the parasite's survival. During the last few years, the genes, enzymes, intermediates and mechanisms of this biosynthetic route have been elucidated. In this review, we comment on some aspects of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway and discuss the presence of diverse isoprenic products such as dolichol, ubiquinone, carotenoids, menaquinone and isoprenylated proteins, which are biosynthesised during the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Morandi Jordão
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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van der Meer JY, Hirsch AKH. The isoprenoid-precursor dependence of Plasmodium spp. Nat Prod Rep 2012; 29:721-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c2np20013a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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González-Díaz H, Munteanu CR, Postelnicu L, Prado-Prado F, Gestal M, Pazos A. LIBP-Pred: web server for lipid binding proteins using structural network parameters; PDB mining of human cancer biomarkers and drug targets in parasites and bacteria. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2012; 8:851-62. [DOI: 10.1039/c2mb05432a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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