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Simwela NV, Waters AP. Current status of experimental models for the study of malaria. Parasitology 2022; 149:1-22. [PMID: 35357277 PMCID: PMC9378029 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182021002134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Infection by malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, especially in tropical regions of the world. Despite the availability of malaria control tools such as integrated vector management and effective therapeutics, these measures have been continuously undermined by the emergence of vector resistance to insecticides or parasite resistance to frontline antimalarial drugs. Whilst the recent pilot implementation of the RTS,S malaria vaccine is indeed a remarkable feat, highly effective vaccines against malaria remain elusive. The barriers to effective vaccines result from the complexity of both the malaria parasite lifecycle and the parasite as an organism itself with consequent major gaps in our understanding of their biology. Historically and due to the practical and ethical difficulties of working with human malaria infections, research into malaria parasite biology has been extensively facilitated by animal models. Animals have been used to study disease pathogenesis, host immune responses and their (dys)regulation and further disease processes such as transmission. Moreover, animal models remain at the forefront of pre-clinical evaluations of antimalarial drugs (drug efficacy, mode of action, mode of resistance) and vaccines. In this review, we discuss commonly used animal models of malaria, the parasite species used and their advantages and limitations which hinder their extrapolation to actual human disease. We also place into this context the most recent developments such as organoid technologies and humanized mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson V. Simwela
- Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Andrew P. Waters
- Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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2
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Liu X, Cao J, Huang G, Zhao Q, Shen J. Biological Activities of Artemisinin Derivatives Beyond Malaria. Curr Top Med Chem 2019; 19:205-222. [DOI: 10.2174/1568026619666190122144217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinin is isolated from Artemisia annua L. with peroxide-containing sesquiterpene lactone structure. Because of its unique structural characteristics and promising anticancer, antivirus activities, it has recently received increasing attention. The aim of this review is to summarize recent discoveries of artemisinin's novel derivatives with new pharmaceutical effects beyond malaria with a focus on its antitumor and antivirus activity, as well as potential results of combination therapy with other clinical drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jianguo Cao
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, 201418, China
| | - Guozheng Huang
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, 201418, China
| | - Qingjie Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory for Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jingshan Shen
- CAS Key Laboratory for Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
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3
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Zyad A, Tilaoui M, Jaafari A, Oukerrou MA, Mouse HA. More insights into the pharmacological effects of artemisinin. Phytother Res 2017; 32:216-229. [PMID: 29193409 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.5958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinin is one of the most widely prescribed drugs against malaria and has recently received increased attention because of its other potential biological effects. The aim of this review is to summarize recent discoveries of the pharmaceutical effects of artemisinin in basic science along with its mechanistic action, as well as the intriguing results of recent clinical studies, with a focus on its antitumor activity. Scientific evidence indicates that artemisinin exerts its biological activity by generating reactive oxygen species that damage the DNA, mitochondrial depolarization, and cell death. In the present article review, scientific evidence suggests that artemisinin is a potential therapeutic agent for various diseases. Thus, this review is expected to encourage interested scientists to conduct further preclinical and clinical studies to evaluate these biological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelmajid Zyad
- Laboratory of Biological Engineering, Team of Natural Substances and Cellular and Molecular Immuno-pharmacology, Immuno-biology of Cancer Cells, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Beni-Mellal, Morocco
| | - Mounir Tilaoui
- Laboratory of Biological Engineering, Team of Natural Substances and Cellular and Molecular Immuno-pharmacology, Immuno-biology of Cancer Cells, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Beni-Mellal, Morocco
| | - Abdeslam Jaafari
- Laboratory of Biological Engineering, Team of Natural Substances and Cellular and Molecular Immuno-pharmacology, Immuno-biology of Cancer Cells, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Beni-Mellal, Morocco
| | - Moulay Ali Oukerrou
- Laboratory of Biological Engineering, Team of Natural Substances and Cellular and Molecular Immuno-pharmacology, Immuno-biology of Cancer Cells, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Beni-Mellal, Morocco
| | - Hassan Ait Mouse
- Laboratory of Biological Engineering, Team of Natural Substances and Cellular and Molecular Immuno-pharmacology, Immuno-biology of Cancer Cells, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Beni-Mellal, Morocco
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Pinkaew D, Fujise K. Fortilin: A Potential Target for the Prevention and Treatment of Human Diseases. Adv Clin Chem 2017; 82:265-300. [PMID: 28939212 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acc.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Fortilin is a highly conserved 172-amino-acid polypeptide found in the cytosol, nucleus, mitochondria, extracellular space, and circulating blood. It is a multifunctional protein that protects cells against apoptosis, promotes cell growth and cell cycle progression, binds calcium (Ca2+) and has antipathogen activities. Its role in the pathogenesis of human and animal diseases is also diverse. Fortilin facilitates the development of atherosclerosis, contributes to both systemic and pulmonary arterial hypertension, participates in the development of cancers, and worsens diabetic nephropathy. It is important for the adaptive expansion of pancreatic β-cells in response to obesity and increased insulin requirement, for the regeneration of liver after hepatectomy, and for protection of the liver against alcohol- and ER stress-induced injury. Fortilin is a viable surrogate marker for in vivo apoptosis, and it plays a key role in embryo and organ development in vertebrates. In fish and shrimp, fortilin participates in host defense against bacterial and viral pathogens. Further translational research could prove fortilin to be a viable molecular target for treatment of various human diseases including and not limited to atherosclerosis, hypertension, certain tumors, diabetes mellitus, diabetic nephropathy, hepatic injury, and aberrant immunity and host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Decha Pinkaew
- University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Ken Fujise
- University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States; The Institute of Translational Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States.
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Chandra R, Kumar S, Puri SK. Buthionine sulfoximine increases the efficacy of arteether antimalarial activity in arteether-resistant Plasmodium vinckei by glutathione depletion. MALARIAWORLD JOURNAL 2015; 6:4. [PMID: 38779628 PMCID: PMC11107870 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10870048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Background L-buthionine (S,R)-sulfoximine (BSO) regulates the glutathione (GSH) level, which in turn exhibits remarkable regulation of several important aspects of cellular metabolism. We hypothesised that increasing the cellular levels of glutathione leads to an increased resistance to arteether, whereas decreasing these by using a GSH inhibitor increases the parasite sensitivity to arteether in the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium vinckei. Materials and Methods We tested in vivo effects of BSO on GSH and hemozoin formation in arteether-sensitive and - resistant strains. Experimental groups of 7-8 Swiss mice were inoculated by intraperitoneal injection (i.p.) with 1×106 parasitized erythrocytes of PvAS (sensitive) or PvAR (resistant) strain of P. vinckei. The infected mice were treated with BSO (Sigma) 400 mg/kg twice a day for four days and blood was collected after the last injection with BSO. Results A relatively stronger inhibition of GSH level was observed in the blood of mice infected with resistant parasites (62.64%; p<0.0001), whereas inhibition in sensitive strain-infected mice and uninfected mice was 32% (p=0.034) and 35% (p=0.034), respectively. The results also show an inverse relationship between GSH and hemozoin in the arteether-sensitive and -resistant strains. The hemozoin contents in the resistant strain are 0.27±0.09, 0.69±0.14 and 5.30±0.79 μmol/109 cells at 5, 10 and 20% parasitemia, respectively, whereas hemozoin contents in the sensitive strain at the same parasitemia levels are 0.59±0.29, 12.38±1.96 and 30.80±2.27 μmol/109 cells. Moreover, hemozoin formation increased by 80% through the administration of BSO in the arteether-resistant strain, whereas insignificant changes occurred in the sensitive strain. BSO was also found to increase the efficacy of arteether antimalarial activity against the resistant strain in vivo. Conclusions Treatment with BSO significantly reduces the level of GSH, which leads to insufficient growth of resistant parasites. These results suggest that BSO might be helpful in prolonging the persistence of the drug, and pose a promising lead to help reducing the chance of resistance development against artemisinin and its derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramesh Chandra
- Division of Parasitology, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226001, India
- Present address: Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland-Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Santosh Kumar
- Division of Parasitology, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226001, India
| | - Sunil Kumar Puri
- Division of Parasitology, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226001, India
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Taylor KJ, Van TTH, MacDonald SM, Meshnick SR, Fernley RT, Macreadie IG, Smooker PM. Immunization of mice with Plasmodium TCTP delays establishment of Plasmodium infection. Parasite Immunol 2015; 37:23-31. [PMID: 25376500 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) may play an important role in the establishment or maintenance of parasitemia in a malarial infection. In this study, the potential of TCTP as a malaria vaccine was investigated in two trials. In the initial vaccine trial, Plasmodium falciparum TCTP (PfTCTP) was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and used to immunize BALB/c mice. Following challenge with Plasmodium yoelii YM, parasitemia was significantly reduced during the early stages of infection. In the second vaccine trial, the TCTP from P. yoelii and P. berghei was expressed in Escherichia coli and used in several mouse malaria models. A significant reduction in parasitemia in the early stages of infection was observed in BALB/c mice challenged with P. yoelii YM. A significantly reduced parasitemia at each day leading up to a delayed and reduced peak parasitemia was also observed in BALB/c mice challenged with the nonlethal Plasmodium chabaudi (P.c.) chabaudi AS. These results suggest that TCTP has an important role for parasite establishment and may be important for pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Taylor
- School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIc., Australia
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Arteether nanoemulsion for enhanced efficacy against Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis malaria: an approach by enhanced bioavailability. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2015; 126:467-75. [PMID: 25616971 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.12.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The present work is focused on the preparation of nanoemulsions (NEs) loaded with arteether (ART) for its enhanced efficacy against malaria parasites. ART-NEs have been prepared using high pressure homogenization (HPH) technique with the aim of improving its solubility and thus its bioavailability. ART-NEs were optimized in terms of pressure and number of cycles. Globule size and size distributions were chosen as quality parameters. The maximum drug loading was achieved up to 93 ± 7.4% with globule size 156 ± 10.2 nm and zeta potential of -23.3 ± 3.4 mV. The developed ART-NEs were found to be stable in terms of globule size and size distribution at different pH. The in vitro release profile of the ART-NEs showed 62% drug release within 12h. The percentage cell viability of blank NEs were within acceptable limits. A sensitive assay method for the determination of ART in rat plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was employed after oral administration of ART-NEs. The pharmacokinetic study showed significantly enhanced bioavailability of ART in ART-NE-V. The area under curve (AUC) of ART-NE-V was AUC0-t 1988.411 ± 119.66 h ng/ml which was significantly higher (p<0.05) than ART in ground nut oil (GNO) AUC0-t 671.852 ± 187.05 h ng/ml. The Cmax of ART-NE-V (1506 ± 161.22 ng/ml) was also significantly higher (p<0.05) than ART in GNO (175.2 ± 16.54 ng/ml) and ART given intramuscularly (IM) (278.05 ± 38.59 ng/ml). The ART-NE-V was having significantly high antimalarial efficacy and survival rate of mice giving 80% cure rate at 12.5 mg/kg for 5 days in comparison to 30% cure rate of ART in GNO at the same daily dose and it was also comparable to the 100% cure rate at 12.5 mg/kg for 5 days for ART given intramuscularly. In conclusion ART-NE can be a promising oral delivery system for ART.
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Fu Y, Lan J, Wu X, Yang D, Zhang Z, Nie H, Hou R, Zhang R, Zheng W, Xie Y, Yan N, Yang Z, Wang C, Luo L, Liu L, Gu X, Wang S, Peng X, Yang G. Expression of translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) gene of Dirofilaria immitis guided by transcriptomic screening. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2014; 52:21-6. [PMID: 24623877 PMCID: PMC3948989 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2014.52.1.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Revised: 11/09/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Dirofilaria immitis (heartworm) infections affect domestic dogs, cats, and various wild mammals with increasing incidence in temperate and tropical areas. More sensitive antibody detection methodologies are required to diagnose asymptomatic dirofilariasis with low worm burdens. Applying current transcriptomic technologies would be useful to discover potential diagnostic markers for D. immitis infection. A filarial homologue of the mammalian translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) was initially identified by screening the assembled transcriptome of D. immitis (DiTCTP). A BLAST analysis suggested that the DiTCTP gene shared the highest similarity with TCTP from Loa loa at protein level (97%). A histidine-tagged recombinant DiTCTP protein (rDiTCTP) of 40 kDa expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) showed immunoreactivity with serum from a dog experimentally infected with heartworms. Localization studies illustrated the ubiquitous presence of rDiTCTP protein in the lateral hypodermal chords, dorsal hypodermal chord, muscle, intestine, and uterus in female adult worms. Further studies on D. immitis-derived TCTP are warranted to assess whether this filarial protein could be used for a diagnostic purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Fu
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Jingchao Lan
- The Sichuan Key Laboratory for Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, Developing Toward a State Key Laboratory for China, Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu, Sichuan 610081, China
| | - Xuhang Wu
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Deying Yang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Zhihe Zhang
- The Sichuan Key Laboratory for Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, Developing Toward a State Key Laboratory for China, Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu, Sichuan 610081, China
| | - Huaming Nie
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Rong Hou
- The Sichuan Key Laboratory for Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, Developing Toward a State Key Laboratory for China, Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu, Sichuan 610081, China
| | - Runhui Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Wanpeng Zheng
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Yue Xie
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Ning Yan
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Zhi Yang
- The Sichuan Key Laboratory for Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, Developing Toward a State Key Laboratory for China, Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu, Sichuan 610081, China
| | - Chengdong Wang
- The Sichuan Key Laboratory for Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, Developing Toward a State Key Laboratory for China, Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu, Sichuan 610081, China
| | - Li Luo
- The Sichuan Key Laboratory for Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, Developing Toward a State Key Laboratory for China, Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu, Sichuan 610081, China
| | - Li Liu
- The Sichuan Key Laboratory for Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, Developing Toward a State Key Laboratory for China, Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Chengdu, Sichuan 610081, China
| | - Xiaobin Gu
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Shuxian Wang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Xuerong Peng
- Department of Chemistry, College of Life and Basic Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
| | - Guangyou Yang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, China
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Robert A, Dechy-Cabaret O, Cazelles JÉRǑM, Benoit-Vical F, Meunier B. Recent Advances in Malaria Chemotherapy. J CHIN CHEM SOC-TAIP 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/jccs.200200046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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10
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Nayak SK, Mallik SB, Kanaujia SP, Sekar K, Ranganathan KR, Ananthalakshmi V, Jeyaraman G, Saralaya SS, Rao KS, Shridhara K, Nagarajan K, Row TNG. Crystal structures and binding studies of atovaquone and its derivatives with cytochrome bc1: a molecular basis for drug design. CrystEngComm 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ce40336j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Percário S, Moreira DR, Gomes BAQ, Ferreira MES, Gonçalves ACM, Laurindo PSOC, Vilhena TC, Dolabela MF, Green MD. Oxidative stress in malaria. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:16346-72. [PMID: 23208374 PMCID: PMC3546694 DOI: 10.3390/ijms131216346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 11/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a significant public health problem in more than 100 countries and causes an estimated 200 million new infections every year. Despite the significant effort to eradicate this dangerous disease, lack of complete knowledge of its physiopathology compromises the success in this enterprise. In this paper we review oxidative stress mechanisms involved in the disease and discuss the potential benefits of antioxidant supplementation as an adjuvant antimalarial strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandro Percário
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Danilo R. Moreira
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Bruno A. Q. Gomes
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Michelli E. S. Ferreira
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Ana Carolina M. Gonçalves
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Paula S. O. C. Laurindo
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Thyago C. Vilhena
- Oxidative Stress Research Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Para (LAPEO/ICB/UFPA) Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mails: (D.R.M.); (B.A.Q.G.); (M.E.S.F.); (A.C.M.G.); (P.S.O.C.L.); (T.C.V.)
| | - Maria F. Dolabela
- Pharmacy Faculty, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Para. Av. Augusto Correa, 1, Guama, Belem, Para 66075-110, Brazil; E-Mail:
| | - Michael D. Green
- US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, mailstop G49, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; E-Mail:
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Wei J, Guo M, Ji H, Yan Y, Ouyang Z, Huang X, Hang Y, Qin Q. Grouper translationally controlled tumor protein prevents cell death and inhibits the replication of Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 33:916-925. [PMID: 22986590 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 07/29/2012] [Accepted: 08/01/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) is an important molecule involved in multiple biological processes, such as cell growth, cell cycle progression, malignant transformation, and enhancement of the anti-apoptotic activity. In this study, the TCTP from orange-spotted grouper Epinephelus coioides (Ec-TCTP) was cloned and characterized. The full-length cDNA of Ec-TCTP was comprised of 1057 bp with a 510 bp open reading frame that encodes a putative protein of 170 amino acids. Recombinant Ec-TCTP (rEc-TCTP) was expressed in Escherichia BL21 (DE3) and purified for mouse anti-Ec-TCTP serum preparation. The rEc-TCTP fusion protein was demonstrated to possess antioxidant activity, which conferred resistance to H(2)O(2) damage. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that Ec-TCTP mRNA is predominately expressed in the liver, and the expression was up-regulated in the liver of grouper after viral challenge with Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV). Intracellular localization revealed that Ec-TCTP expression was distributed predominantly in the cytoplasm. Although human TCTP has a role in apoptosis regulation, it is not known if grouper TCTP has any role in apoptosis regulation. Strikingly, grouper TCTP, when overexpressed in fathead minnow (FHM) cells, protected them from cell death induced by cycloheximide (CHX). In addition, overexpressed Ec-TCTP in grouper spleen (GS) cells inhibited the replication of SGIV. These results suggest that Ec-TCTP may play a critical role in their response to SGIV infection, through regulation of a cell death pathway that is common to fish and humans.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antioxidants/metabolism
- Antiviral Agents/pharmacology
- Apoptosis
- Bass/genetics
- Bass/immunology
- Bass/metabolism
- Bass/virology
- Biomarkers, Tumor/chemistry
- Biomarkers, Tumor/genetics
- Biomarkers, Tumor/immunology
- Biomarkers, Tumor/metabolism
- Cell Line
- Cloning, Molecular
- DNA Virus Infections/immunology
- DNA, Complementary/genetics
- Escherichia coli/genetics
- Fish Proteins/chemistry
- Fish Proteins/genetics
- Fish Proteins/immunology
- Fish Proteins/metabolism
- Gene Expression Profiling/veterinary
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Injections, Intraperitoneal/veterinary
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Organ Specificity
- Phylogeny
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- Ranavirus
- Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction/veterinary
- Recombinant Proteins/chemistry
- Recombinant Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Proteins/immunology
- Recombinant Proteins/metabolism
- Sequence Alignment/veterinary
- Sequence Analysis, DNA/veterinary
- Tumor Protein, Translationally-Controlled 1
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingguang Wei
- Key Laboratory of Marine Bio-resources Sustainable Utilization, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, PR China
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Adhin MR, Labadie-Bracho M, Vreden SG. Status of potential PfATP6 molecular markers for artemisinin resistance in Suriname. Malar J 2012; 11:322. [PMID: 22966810 PMCID: PMC3468384 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-11-322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Polymorphisms within the PfATP6 gene have been indicated as potential molecular markers for artemisinin efficacy. Since 2004, the use of artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) was introduced as first-line treatment of the uncomplicated malaria cases in Suriname. The aim of this research was to determine changes in Suriname in the status of the polymorphic markers in the PfATP6 gene before and after the adoption of the ACT-regimen, particularly of the S769N mutation, which was reported to be associated with in vitro Artemether resistance in the neighboring country French Guiana. Methods The PfATP6 gene from Plasmodium falciparum parasites in Suriname was investigated in 28 samples using PCR amplification and restriction enzyme analysis, to assess and determine the prevalence of potentially interesting single nucleotide polymorphisms. The polymorphisms [L263E; A623E; S769N], which may be associated with the artemisinin resistant phenotype were characterized in parasites from three endemic regions before and after the adoption of the ACT-regimen. In addition, the status of these molecular markers was compared in paired P. falciparum isolates from patients with recurring malaria after controlled ACT. Results All the investigated samples exhibit the wild-type genotype at all three positions; L263, A623, S769. Conclusion All investigated isolates before and after the adoption of the ACT-regimen and independent of endemic region harbored the wild-type genotype for the three investigated polymorphisms. The study revealed that decreased artemisinin susceptibility could occur independent from PfATP6 mutations, challenging the assumption that artemisinin resistance is associated with these mutations in the PfATP6 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malti R Adhin
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname, Kernkampweg 5, Paramaribo, Suriname.
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Cytoplasmic and nuclear localization of TCTP in normal and cancer cells. Biochem Res Int 2012; 2012:871728. [PMID: 22666592 PMCID: PMC3361151 DOI: 10.1155/2012/871728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2012] [Revised: 02/25/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective. Intracellular localization of translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) was investigated in cancer cells. Methods. The expression and localization of TCTP were detected at 12 h, 24 h, 48 h, 60 h time points in culture of human hepatocarcinoma cell line HepG2, human cervical carcinoma cell line HeLa, and human normal liver cell line HL-7702 by immunofluorescence. Results. TCTP was expressed in both normal and tumor cells, and its localization changes at different time points. TCTP was mainly expressed in cytoplasm from 24 h to 48 h then expressed in both nucleus and cytoplasm at 60 h in HL-7702 cells. While in HepG2 cells, TCTP first localized at cell membrane within 24 h then at both nucleus and cytoplasm from 48 h to 60 h; TCTP localized at both nucleus and cytoplasm from 12 h to 60 h in Hela cells. Conclusion. The translocation of intracellular expression of TCTP in normal and tumor cells at different time points may pave a path to the studying of TCTP role in tumor growth.
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Witkowski B, Lelièvre J, Nicolau-Travers ML, Iriart X, Njomnang Soh P, Bousejra-ElGarah F, Meunier B, Berry A, Benoit-Vical F. Evidence for the contribution of the hemozoin synthesis pathway of the murine Plasmodium yoelii to the resistance to artemisinin-related drugs. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32620. [PMID: 22403683 PMCID: PMC3293827 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum malaria is a major global health problem, causing approximately 780,000 deaths each year. In response to the spreading of P. falciparum drug resistance, WHO recommended in 2001 to use artemisinin derivatives in combination with a partner drug (called ACT) as first-line treatment for uncomplicated falciparum malaria, and most malaria-endemic countries have since changed their treatment policies accordingly. Currently, ACT are often the last treatments that can effectively and rapidly cure P. falciparum infections permitting to significantly decrease the mortality and the morbidity due to malaria. However, alarming signs of emerging resistance to artemisinin derivatives along the Thai-Cambodian border are of major concern. Through long-term in vivo pressures, we have been able to select a murine malaria model resistant to artemisinins. We demonstrated that the resistance of Plasmodium to artemisinin-based compounds depends on alterations of heme metabolism and on a loss of hemozoin formation linked to the down-expression of the recently identified Heme Detoxification Protein (HDP). These artemisinins resistant strains could be able to detoxify the free heme by an alternative catabolism pathway involving glutathione (GSH)-mediation. Finally, we confirmed that artemisinins act also like quinolines against Plasmodium via hemozoin production inhibition. The work proposed here described the mechanism of action of this class of molecules and the resistance to artemisinins of this model. These results should help both to reinforce the artemisinins activity and avoid emergence and spread of endoperoxides resistance by focusing in adequate drug partners design. Such considerations appear crucial in the current context of early artemisinin resistance in Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Witkowski
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), and Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, UPS, INPT, LCC, Toulouse, France
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, and Faculté de Médecine de Rangueil, Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Joel Lelièvre
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), and Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, UPS, INPT, LCC, Toulouse, France
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, and Faculté de Médecine de Rangueil, Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Marie-Laure Nicolau-Travers
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), and Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, UPS, INPT, LCC, Toulouse, France
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, and Faculté de Médecine de Rangueil, Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Xavier Iriart
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, and Faculté de Médecine de Rangueil, Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
- UMR 152 IRD-UPS, Université Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Patrice Njomnang Soh
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), and Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, UPS, INPT, LCC, Toulouse, France
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, and Faculté de Médecine de Rangueil, Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Fatima Bousejra-ElGarah
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), and Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, UPS, INPT, LCC, Toulouse, France
| | - Bernard Meunier
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), and Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, UPS, INPT, LCC, Toulouse, France
- Palumed, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Antoine Berry
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, and Faculté de Médecine de Rangueil, Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
- UMR 152 IRD-UPS, Université Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Françoise Benoit-Vical
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), and Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, UPS, INPT, LCC, Toulouse, France
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, and Faculté de Médecine de Rangueil, Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
- * E-mail:
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Proteomic analysis of tumor tissue in CT-26 implanted BALB/C mouse after treatment with ascorbic acid. Cell Mol Biol Lett 2011; 17:62-76. [PMID: 22139585 PMCID: PMC6275792 DOI: 10.2478/s11658-011-0035-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor establishment and penetration consists of a series of complex processes involving multiple changes in gene expression and protein modification. Proteome changes of tumor tissue were investigated after intraperitoneal administration of a high concentration of ascorbic acid in BALB/C mice implanted with CT-26 cancer cells using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry. Eighteen protein spots were identified whose expression was different between control and ascorbic acid treatment groups. In particular, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 subunit 1, nucleophosmin, latexin, actin-related protein 2/3 complex subunit 5, M2-type pyruvate kinase, vimentin, tumor protein translationally-controlled 1, RAS oncogene family Ran, plastin 3 precursor, ATPase, Rho GDT dissociation inhibitor β, and proteasome activator subunit 2 expression were quantitatively up-regulated. The increase in the level of these proteins was accompanied by an increase in mRNA level. The cytoskeleton protein actin, vimentin, and tumor protein translationally-controlled 1 showed quantitative expression profile differences. A change in actin cytoskeleton distribution, functionally relevant to the proteome result, was observed after treatment with ascorbic acid. These results suggest a previously undefined role of ascorbic acid in the regulation of cytoskeleton remodeling in tumor tissues.
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Efferth T, Herrmann F, Tahrani A, Wink M. Cytotoxic activity of secondary metabolites derived from Artemisia annua L. towards cancer cells in comparison to its designated active constituent artemisinin. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 18:959-69. [PMID: 21831619 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2011.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2010] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Artemisia annua L. (sweet wormwood, qinhao) has traditionally been used in Chinese medicine. The isolation of artemisinin from Artemisia annua and its worldwide accepted application in malaria therapy is one of the showcase success stories of phytomedicine during the past decades. Artemisinin-type compounds are also active towards other protozoal or viral diseases as well as cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Nowadays, Artemisia annua tea is used as a self-reliant treatment in developing countries. The unsupervised use of Artemisia annua tea has been criticized to foster the development of artemisinin resistance in malaria and cancer due to insufficient artemisinin amounts in the plant as compared to standardized tablets with isolated artemisinin or semisynthetic artemisinin derivatives. However, artemisinin is not the only bioactive compound in Artemisia annua. In the present investigation, we analyzed different Artemisia annua extracts. Dichloromethane extracts were more cytotoxic (range of IC₅₀: 1.8-14.4 μg/ml) than methanol extracts towards Trypanosoma b. brucei (TC221 cells). The range of IC₅₀ values for HeLa cancer cells was 54.1-275.5 μg/ml for dichloromethane extracts and 276.3-1540.8 μg/ml for methanol extracts. Cancer and trypanosomal cells did not reveal cross-resistance among other compounds of Artemisia annua, namely the artemisinin-related artemisitene and arteanuine B as well as the unrelated compounds, scopoletin and 1,8-cineole. This indicates that cells resistant to one compound retained sensitivity to another one. These results were also supported by microarray-based mRNA expression profiling showing that molecular determinants of sensitivity and resistance were different between artemisinin and the other phytochemicals investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany.
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18
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Molecular Approaches for Diagnosis of Malaria and Characterization of Genetic Markers of Drug Resistance. Mol Microbiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1128/9781555816834.ch46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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19
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Ding XC, Beck HP, Raso G. Plasmodium sensitivity to artemisinins: magic bullets hit elusive targets. Trends Parasitol 2010; 27:73-81. [PMID: 21169061 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2010.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2010] [Revised: 11/14/2010] [Accepted: 11/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinins are efficacious antimalarial drugs widely employed as first-line treatment in endemic countries under the form of combined therapies. Different molecular modes of action have been postulated to explain the parasiticidal effect of these compounds; however, none has been unequivocally accepted, and their physiological relevance is still questioned. Similarly, no definite genetic determinant of Plasmodium sensitivity to artemisinins has been identified so far. A better understanding of the mode of action of artemisinins and the genetic basis of laboratory-induced or field-observed altered susceptibility is crucial for malaria control. In this review different models of artemisinins' molecular action are briefly presented, focusing on recent advances, and the evidence of potential association between various gene polymorphisms and artemisinin resistance is comprehensively reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier C Ding
- Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire, 01 BP 1303, Abidjan 01, Côte d'Ivoire.
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20
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Artemisone uptake in Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 55:550-6. [PMID: 21135191 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01216-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Artemisone is one of the most promising artemisinin derivatives in clinical trials. Previous studies with radiolabeled artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin have measured uptake in Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Uptake is much greater in infected than in uninfected erythrocytes, but the relative contributions of transport, binding, and metabolism to this process still await definition. In this study, we characterized mechanisms by which [(14)C]artemisone is taken up into uninfected and P. falciparum-infected human erythrocytes in vitro. Radiolabeled artemisone rapidly enters uninfected erythrocytes without much exceeding extracellular concentrations. Unlabeled artemisone does not compete in this process. Radiolabeled artemisone is concentrated greatly by a time- and temperature-dependent mechanism in infected erythrocytes. This uptake is abrogated by unlabeled artemisone. In addition, the uptake of artemisone into three subcellular fractions, and its distribution into these fractions, is examined as a function of parasite maturation. These data are relevant to an understanding of the mechanisms of action of this important class of drugs.
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21
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Müller IB, Hyde JE. Antimalarial drugs: modes of action and mechanisms of parasite resistance. Future Microbiol 2010; 5:1857-73. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.10.136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria represents one of the most serious threats to human health worldwide, and preventing and curing this parasitic disease still depends predominantly on the administration of a small number of drugs whose efficacy is continually threatened and eroded by the emergence of drug-resistant parasite populations. This has an enormous impact on the mortality and morbidity resulting from malaria infection, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where the lethal human parasite species Plasmodium falciparum accounts for approximately 90% of deaths recorded globally. Successful treatment of uncomplicated malaria is now highly dependent on artemisinin-based combination therapies. However, the first cases of artemisinin-resistant field isolates have been reported recently and potential replacement antimalarials are only in the developmental stages. Here, we summarize recent progress in tackling the problem of parasite resistance and discuss the underlying molecular mechanisms that confer resistance to current antimalarial agents as far as they are known, understanding of which should assist in the rational development of new drugs and the more effective deployment of older ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid B Müller
- Department of Biochemistry, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - John E Hyde
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
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22
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Implication of intracellular glutathione and its related enzymes on resistance of malaria parasites to the antimalarial drug arteether. Parasitol Int 2010; 60:97-100. [PMID: 20971213 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2010.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2009] [Revised: 09/25/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The control of malaria has been complicated by the increasing resistance of malarial parasites to multiple drugs. However, artemisinin-based drugs offer hope in the fight against drug-resistant parasites. The mode of action of these drugs remains unclear, but evidence suggests a role for free radicals in their mechanism of action. In this study, we examined the relationship between the intracellular levels of glutathione (GSH) and antioxidant enzymes and resistance to the artemisinin-based drug arteether in experimentally selected arteether-resistant Plasmodium vinckei. GSH plays a critical role in the detoxification and protection of cells against oxidative stress. Our comparative studies showed a significant (2.9-fold) increase in the GSH level in arteether-resistant parasites as compared to arteether-sensitive parasites. Simultaneously, significantly increased activities of glutathione reductase, glutathione-S transferase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and decreased activity of superoxide dismutase were recorded in resistant parasites; the activity of glutathione peroxidase was comparable in arteether-sensitive and -resistant parasites. Artemisinin derivatives act by generating free radicals and our results indicate that glutathione's antioxidant effects may counteract that drug effect and thereby contribute to the parasites' resistance to arteether and other artemisinin-based antimalarials.
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Abstract
This chapter summarizes recent developments in the design, synthesis, and structure–activity relationship studies of organometallic antimalarials. It begins with a general introduction to malaria and the biology of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum, with a focus on the heme detoxification system. Then, a number of metal complexes from the literature are reported for their antiplasmodial activity. The second half of the chapter deals with the serendipitous discovery of ferroquine, its mechanism(s) of action, and the failure to induce a resistance. Last, but not least, we suggest that the bioorganometallic approach offers the potential for the design of novel therapeutic agents.
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Role of pfmdr1 amplification and expression in induction of resistance to artemisinin derivatives in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:2455-64. [PMID: 20350946 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00947-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Artemisinin and its derivatives are the most rapidly acting and efficacious antimalarial drugs currently available. Although resistance to these drugs has not been documented, there is growing concern about the potential for resistance to develop. In this paper we report the selection of parasite resistance to artelinic acid (AL) and artemisinin (QHS) in vitro and the molecular changes that occurred during the selection. Exposure of three Plasmodium falciparum lines (W2, D6, and TM91C235) to AL resulted in decreases in parasite susceptibilities to AL and QHS, as well as to mefloquine, quinine, halofantrine, and lumefantrine. The changes in parasite susceptibility were accompanied by increases in the copy number, mRNA expression, and protein expression of the pfmdr1 gene in the resistant progenies of W2 and TM91C235 parasites but not in those of D6 parasites. No changes were detected in the coding sequences of the pfmdr1, pfcrt, pfatp6, pftctp, and pfubcth genes or in the expression levels of pfatp6 and pftctp. Our data demonstrate that P. falciparum lines have the capacity to develop resistance to artemisinin derivatives in vitro and that this resistance is achieved by multiple mechanisms, to include amplification and increased expression of pfmdr1, a mechanism that also confers resistance to mefloquine. This observation is of practical importance, because artemisinin drugs are often used in combination with mefloquine for the treatment of malaria.
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Egan TJ. Artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum: can the genie be put back in the bottle? Future Microbiol 2009; 4:637-9. [PMID: 19659418 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.09.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Abstract
Despite great international efforts, malaria still inflicts an enormous toll on human lives, especially in Africa. Throughout history, antimalarial medicines have been one of the most powerful tools in malaria control. However, the acquisition and spread of parasite strains that are resistant to multiple antimalarial drugs have become one of the greatest challenges to malaria treatment, and are associated with the increase in morbidity and mortality in many malaria-endemic countries. To deal with this grave situation, artemisinin-based combinatory therapies (ACTs) have been introduced and widely deployed in malarious regions. Artemisinin is a new class of antimalarial compounds discovered by Chinese scientists from the sweet wormwood Artemisia annua. The potential development of resistance to artemisinins by Plasmodium falciparum threatens the usable lifespan of ACTs, and therefore is a subject of close surveillance and extensive research. Studies at the Thai-Cambodian border, a historical epicenter of multidrug resistance, have detected reduced susceptibility to artemisinins as manifested by prolonged parasite-clearance times, raising considerable concerns on resistance development. Despite this significance, there is still controversy on the mode of action of artemisinins. Although a number of potential cellular targets of artemisinins have been proposed, they remain to be verified experimentally. Here, we review the history of artemisinin discovery, discuss the mode of action and potential drug targets, and present strategies to elucidate resistance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwang Cui
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, 537 ASI Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA, Tel.: +1 814 863 7663, Fax: +1 814 865 3048,
| | - Xin-zhuan Su
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA, Tel.: +1 301 402 0876, Fax: +1 301 402 2201,
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27
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Meyvis Y, Houthoofd W, Visser A, Borgonie G, Gevaert K, Vercruysse J, Claerebout E, Geldhof P. Analysis of the translationally controlled tumour protein in the nematodes Ostertagia ostertagi and Caenorhabditis elegans suggests a pivotal role in egg production. Int J Parasitol 2009; 39:1205-13. [PMID: 19285501 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2009] [Revised: 02/16/2009] [Accepted: 02/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) is a conserved protein which has been described for a wide range of eukaryotic organisms including protozoa, yeasts, plants, nematodes and mammals. Several parasitic organisms have been shown to actively secrete TCTP during host infection as part of their immuno-evasive strategy. In this study, we have studied TCTP in Ostertagia ostertagi, a parasitic nematode of cattle, and in the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. An analysis of the transcription and expression patterns showed that TCTP was present in the eggs of both species. This localisation is consistent for some other Strongylida such as Teladorsagia circumcincta, Cooperia oncophora and Haemonchus contortus. TCTP was also detected at low levels in excretory-secretory material from adult O. ostertagi worms. The role of TCTP in nematode biology was also investigated by RNA interference in C. elegans. Knock-down of C. elegans tctp (tct-1) transcription reduced the numbers of eggs laid by the hermaphrodite in the F(0) and F(1) generations by 90% and 72%, respectively, indicating a pivotal role of TCTP in reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves Meyvis
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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Witkowski B, Berry A, Benoit-Vical F. Resistance to antimalarial compounds: Methods and applications. Drug Resist Updat 2009; 12:42-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2009.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2008] [Revised: 01/22/2009] [Accepted: 01/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Bartley K, Nisbet AJ, Offer JE, Sparks NHC, Wright HW, Huntley JF. Histamine release factor from Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer): characterization and in vitro assessment as a protective antigen. Int J Parasitol 2008; 39:447-56. [PMID: 18938170 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2008] [Revised: 09/11/2008] [Accepted: 09/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A cDNA encoding a 174-amino-acid orthologue of a tick histamine release factor (HRF) was identified from the haematophagous poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae. The predicted D. gallinae HRF protein (Dg-HRF-1) sequence is highly conserved with the tick HRFs (identity 52-54%) and to a lesser degree with translationally controlled tumour proteins (TCTP) from mammals and other invertebrates (range 38-47%). Phylogenetically, Dg-HRF-1 partitions with the tick HRF clade suggesting a shared linage and potentially similar function(s). A recombinant Dg-HRF-1 protein (rDg-HRF-1) was produced and shown to induce degranulation of rat peritoneal mast cells in vitro, confirming conservation of the histamine-releasing function in D. gallinae. Polyclonal antibodies were generated in rabbits and hens to rDg-HRF-1. Western blotting demonstrated that native Dg-HRF is a soluble protein and immunohistochemical staining of mite sections revealed that the distribution of Dg-HRF, although ubiquitous, is more common in mite reproductive, digestive and synganglion tissues. A survey of hens housed continuously in a mite-infested commercial poultry unit failed to identify IgY specific for recombinant or native Dg-HRF, indicating that Dg-HRF is not exposed to the host during infestation/feeding and may therefore have potential as a vaccine using the concealed antigen approach. To test the protective capability of rDg-HRF-1, fresh heparinised chicken blood was enriched with yolk-derived anti-Dg-HRF IgY antibodies and fed to semi-starved mites using an in vitro feeding system. A statistically significant increase in mortality was shown (P=0.004) in mites fed with anti-Dg-HRF IgY after just one blood meal. The work presented here demonstrates, to our knowledge for the first time, the feasibility of vaccinating hens with recombinant D. gallinae antigens to control mite infestation and the potential of rDg-HRF-1 as a vaccine antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Bartley
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, Scotland, UK.
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Krishna S, Bustamante L, Haynes RK, Staines HM. Artemisinins: their growing importance in medicine. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2008; 29:520-7. [PMID: 18752857 PMCID: PMC2758403 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2008.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2008] [Revised: 07/11/2008] [Accepted: 07/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinins are derived from extracts of sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua) and are well established for the treatment of malaria, including highly drug-resistant strains. Their efficacy also extends to phylogenetically unrelated parasitic infections such as schistosomiasis. More recently, they have also shown potent and broad anticancer properties in cell lines and animal models. In this review, we discuss recent advances in defining the role of artemisinins in medicine, with particular focus on their controversial mechanisms of action. This safe and cheap drug class that saves lives at risk from malaria can also have important potential in oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeev Krishna
- Centre for Infection, Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, St. George's, University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London, SW17 0RE, UK.
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Marine actinomycetes: a new source of compounds against the human malaria parasite. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2335. [PMID: 18523554 PMCID: PMC2391291 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Malaria continues to be a devastating parasitic disease that causes the death of 2 million individuals annually. The increase in multi-drug resistance together with the absence of an efficient vaccine hastens the need for speedy and comprehensive antimalarial drug discovery and development. Throughout history, traditional herbal remedies or natural products have been a reliable source of antimalarial agents, e.g. quinine and artemisinin. Today, one emerging source of small molecule drug leads is the world's oceans. Included among the source of marine natural products are marine microorganisms such as the recently described actinomycete. Members of the genus Salinispora have yielded a wealth of new secondary metabolites including salinosporamide A, a molecule currently advancing through clinical trials as an anticancer agent. Because of the biological activity of metabolites being isolated from marine microorganisms, our group became interested in exploring the potential efficacy of these compounds against the malaria parasite. Methods We screened 80 bacterial crude extracts for their activity against malaria growth. We established that the pure compound, salinosporamide A, produced by the marine actinomycete, Salinispora tropica, shows strong inhibitory activity against the erythrocytic stages of the parasite cycle. Biochemical experiments support the likely inhibition of the parasite 20S proteasome. Crystal structure modeling of salinosporamide A and the parasite catalytic 20S subunit further confirm this hypothesis. Ultimately we showed that salinosporamide A protected mice against deadly malaria infection when administered at an extremely low dosage. Conclusion These findings underline the potential of secondary metabolites, derived from marine microorganisms, to inhibit Plasmodium growth. More specifically, we highlight the effect of proteasome inhibitors such as salinosporamide A on in vitro and in vivo parasite development. Salinosporamide A (NPI-0052) now being advanced to phase I trials for the treatment of refractory multiple myeloma will need to be further explored to evaluate the safety profile for its use against malaria.
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Ersmark K, Samuelsson B, Hallberg A. Plasmepsins as potential targets for new antimalarial therapy. Med Res Rev 2007; 26:626-66. [PMID: 16838300 DOI: 10.1002/med.20082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is one of the major diseases in the world. Due to the rapid spread of parasite resistance to available antimalarial drugs there is an urgent need for new antimalarials with novel mechanisms of action. Several promising targets for drug intervention have been revealed in recent years. This review addresses the parasitic aspartic proteases termed plasmepsins (Plms) that are involved in the hemoglobin catabolism that occurs during the erythrocytic stage of the malarial parasite life cycle. Four Plasmodium species are responsible for human malaria; P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. falciparum. This review focuses on inhibitors of the haemoglobin-degrading plasmepsins of the most lethal species, P. falciparum; Plm I, Plm II, Plm IV, and histo-aspartic protease (HAP). Previously, Plm II has attracted the most attention. With the identification and characterization of new plasmepsins and the results from recent plasmepsin knockout studies, it now seems clear that in order to achieve high-antiparasitic activities in P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes it is necessary to inhibit several of the haemoglobin-degrading plasmepsins. Herein we summarize the structure-activity relationships of the Plm I, II, IV, and HAP inhibitors. These inhibitors represent all classes which, to the best of our knowledge, have been disclosed in journal articles to date. The 3D structures of inhibitor/plasmepsin II complexes available in the protein data bank are briefly discussed and compared.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Ersmark
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, BMC, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Hunt P, Afonso A, Creasey A, Culleton R, Sidhu ABS, Logan J, Valderramos SG, McNae I, Cheesman S, do Rosario V, Carter R, Fidock DA, Cravo P. Gene encoding a deubiquitinating enzyme is mutated in artesunate- and chloroquine-resistant rodent malaria parasites. Mol Microbiol 2007; 65:27-40. [PMID: 17581118 PMCID: PMC1974797 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05753.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinin- and artesunate-resistant Plasmodium chabaudi mutants, AS-ART and AS-ATN, were previously selected from chloroquine-resistant clones AS-30CQ and AS-15CQ respectively. Now, a genetic cross between AS-ART and the artemisinin-sensitive clone AJ has been analysed by Linkage Group Selection. A genetic linkage group on chromosome 2 was selected under artemisinin treatment. Within this locus, we identified two different mutations in a gene encoding a deubiquitinating enzyme. A distinct mutation occurred in each of the clones AS-30CQ and AS-ATN, relative to their respective progenitors in the AS lineage. The mutations occurred independently in different clones under drug selection with chloroquine (high concentration) or artesunate. Each mutation maps to a critical residue in a homologous human deubiquitinating protein structure. Although one mutation could theoretically account for the resistance of AS-ATN to artemisinin derivates, the other cannot account solely for the resistance of AS-ART, relative to the responses of its sensitive progenitor AS-30CQ. Two lines of Plasmodium falciparum with decreased susceptibility to artemisinin were also selected. Their drug-response phenotype was not genetically stable. No mutations in the UBP-1 gene encoding the P. falciparum orthologue of the deubiquitinating enzyme were observed. The possible significance of these mutations in parasite responses to chloroquine or artemisinin is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Hunt
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratory, Kings Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK.
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Nagamune K, Moreno SNJ, Sibley LD. Artemisinin-resistant mutants of Toxoplasma gondii have altered calcium homeostasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51:3816-23. [PMID: 17698618 PMCID: PMC2151471 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00582-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Artemisinin is a plant sesquiterpene lactone that has become an important drug for combating malaria, especially in regions where resistance to other drugs is widespread. While the mechanism of action is debated, artemisinin has been reported to inhibit the sarcoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPase (SERCA) in the malaria parasite. Artemisinin is also effective against Toxoplasma in vitro and in vivo, although it is less potent and, hence, is generally not used therapeutically to treat toxoplasmosis. To explore the mechanism of action, we generated chemically derived mutants of Toxoplasma gondii that were resistant to growth inhibition by this compound in vitro. Three artemisinin-resistant (ART(r)) mutant clones that differed in their sensitivities in vitro by three- to fivefold compared with that of the wild-type parasites were obtained. ART(r) mutants were cross-resistant to other derivatives of artemisinin, the most potent of which was artemisone. Resistance was not due to molecular alterations or differences in the expression of SERCA or other putative targets, such as proteins that code for multidrug resistance or translationally controlled tumor protein. ART(r) mutants were resistant to the induction of protein secretion from micronemes, a calcium-dependent process that is triggered by artemisinin. ART(r) mutants were not cross-resistant to secretion induced by thapsigargin but were more sensitive and were unable to regulate cytoslic calcium following treatment with this compound. These studies implicate calcium homeostasis in the mechanism of action of artemisinins against apicomplexan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kisaburo Nagamune
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Gibbons PL, Batty KT, Barrett PHR, Davis TME, Ilett KF. Development of a pharmacodynamic model of murine malaria and antimalarial treatment with dihydroartemisinin. Int J Parasitol 2007; 37:1569-76. [PMID: 17585920 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2007] [Revised: 05/04/2007] [Accepted: 05/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Antimalarial treatment strategies based on in vitro studies are limited by the paucity of pharmacodynamic information for dosage regimen design. We postulated that a murine model could be used for pre-clinical stages of drug development, especially in dose-response studies and evaluation of combination therapies. Swiss mice infected with Plasmodium berghei parasites (2-5% starting parasitaemia) were given dihydroartemisinin (0-100 mg/kg single dose). Parasite density was regularly determined from thin blood films. A parasite population growth model comprising parasite multiplication, decline in erythrocyte count with increasing parasitaemia and parasite clearance after drug administration was developed. This model described the rise in parasitaemia following inoculation, the nadir following dihydroartemisinin administration, and the subsequent resurgence of parasitaemia (analogous to 'recrudescence'). At doses of 10, 30 and 100 mg/kg dihydroartemisinin, there was a graded response with 2.5+/-1, 5+/-1 and 12+/-4-fold decreases in parasitaemia, respectively. The nadir parasitaemia (at 21-27 h) was also dose-dependent. This study demonstrates that a murine malaria pharmacodynamic model is a valuable tool for understanding how single drugs and their dosing schedules alter the time course and level of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter L Gibbons
- School of Pharmacy, Curtin University of Technology, Bentley, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
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Chen Z, Zhang H, Yang H, Huang X, Zhang X, Zhang P. The expression of AmphiTCTP, a TCTP orthologous gene in amphioxus related to the development of notochord and somites. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 147:460-5. [PMID: 17400495 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2007.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2006] [Revised: 02/07/2007] [Accepted: 02/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) is highly conserved and has been widely found in eukaryotic organisms. Here, we report the phylogenetic analysis and developmental expression of AmphiTCTP, a TCTP homologous gene in cephalochordate amphioxus. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the putative protein of AmphiTCTP is close to its vertebrate orthologs. The mRNA of AmphiTCTP is found in fertilized eggs, early cleavage embryo and most of the early developmental stages by in situ hybridization and RT-PCR, but its expression is not detectable from late cleavage stage to mid-gastrula. The expression of AmphiTCTP in zygotes and early cleavage stages shows that AmphiTCTP may be a maternal gene. From the early neurula stage onward, AmphiTCTP transcript is localized in the presumptive notochord, presomitic mesoderm, and nascent somites. However, its expression is gradually down-regulated after the notochord and somites have been formed. The expression pattern of AmphiTCTP thus coincides with the differentiation of the notochord and somites, this suggests that AmphiTCTP may not be a housekeeping gene and may play an important role in mesoderm development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongke Chen
- Life Science College, The Key Lab of Experimental Teratolog of Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan, China
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Aly NSM, Hiramoto A, Sanai H, Hiraoka O, Hiramoto K, Kataoka H, Wu JM, Masuyama A, Nojima M, Kawai S, Kim HS, Wataya Y. Proteome analysis of new antimalarial endoperoxide against Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Res 2007; 100:1119-24. [PMID: 17273878 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-007-0460-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2006] [Accepted: 01/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
N-89, a new antimalarial endoperoxide, was selected as a promising antimalarial compound showing high activity and selectivity. To study the mechanism of N-89 action, N-89 resistant strain (NRC10) was obtained by intermittent drug pressure. NRC10 had a tenfold increase in the EC(50) value of N-89. No cross-resistance was obtained with other antimalarial compounds. Comparative proteome analysis of N-89 sensitive and NRC10 strains revealed over-expression of 12 spots and down-regulation of 14 spots in NRC10. Fifteen proteins were identified of Plasmodium falciparum origin. The identified proteins representing several functions, mainly related to the glycolytic pathway, and metabolism of protein and lipid. Our results suggest that identified proteins may be candidates of antimalarial endoperoxide targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagwa S M Aly
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Tsushima, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
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Ferreira ID, Lopes D, Martinelli A, Ferreira C, do Rosário VE, Cravo P. In vitro assessment of artesunate, artemether and amodiaquine susceptibility and molecular analysis of putative resistance-associated mutations of Plasmodium falciparum from São Tomé and Príncipe. Trop Med Int Health 2007; 12:353-62. [PMID: 17313506 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01789.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the basal in vitro responses of Plasmodium falciparum isolates collected in The Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe to artemether (ATH), artesunate (ATN) and amodiaquine (AMQ). METHODS The prevalence of given single nucleotide polymorphisms in the pfmdr1, pfcrt, pftctp and pfATPase6 genes was assessed by PCR-RFLP or DNA sequencing, and gene copy numbers were estimated by real-time PCR. RESULTS Mean IC50s to ATH and ATN were relatively low (1.12 nm and 0.58 nm, respectively). However, 10% of parasites displayed AMQ IC50 values above the accepted resistance threshold of 60 nm and there was a positive association between susceptibility to all three drugs (ATH vs. ATN: R = 0.84; ATH vs. AMQ: R = 0.68; ATN vs. AMQ: R = 0.72). Mutations in the pfcrt and pfmdr1 genes were highly prevalent, while only one synonymous polymorphism was detected in the pfATPase6 gene and no mutations were found in pftctp. All isolates harboured a single copy of the genes studied. CONCLUSIONS Artemisinin combination treatment in the São Tomé and Príncipe should be efficacious, although a significant number of AMQ-resistant parasites were detected and the susceptibility to each drug was positively associated with that of the other two. Mutations in the pfcrt and pfmdr1 genes are near fixation, most likely because of high levels of chloroquine resistance, whereas only one protein type of the artemisinin resistance candidate, PfATPase6, was identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel D Ferreira
- Centro de Malária e Outras Doenças Tropicais/IHMT/UEI Biologia Molecular/UEI Malária, Lisbon, Portugal
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Golenser J, Waknine JH, Krugliak M, Hunt NH, Grau GE. Current perspectives on the mechanism of action of artemisinins. Int J Parasitol 2006; 36:1427-41. [PMID: 17005183 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2006] [Revised: 07/24/2006] [Accepted: 07/28/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinin derivatives are the most recent single drugs approved and introduced for public antimalarial treatment. Although their recommended use is for treatment of Plasmodium falciparum infection, these drugs also act against other parasites, as well as against tumor cells. The mechanisms of action attributed to artemisinin include interference with parasite transport proteins, disruption of parasite mitochondrial function, modulation of host immune function and inhibition of angiogenesis. Artemisinin combination therapies are currently the preferred treatment for malaria. These combinations may prevent the induction of parasite drug resistance. However, in view of the multiple mechanisms involved, especially when additional drugs are used, the combined therapy should be carefully examined for antagonistic effects. It is now a general theory that the crucial mechanism is interference with plasmodial SERCA. Therefore, future development of resistance may be associated with overproduction or mutations of this transporter. However, a general mechanism, such as alterations in general drug transport pathways, is feasible. In this article, we review the evidence for each mechanism of action suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Golenser
- Department of Parasitology - The Kuvin Centre for the Study of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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Laurent D, Pietra F. Antiplasmodial marine natural products in the perspective of current chemotherapy and prevention of malaria: a review. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2006; 8:433-47. [PMID: 16565802 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-006-6100-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2005] [Accepted: 01/09/2006] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The difficulty of obtaining an antimalarial vaccine along traditional lines, because of the highly adaptive character of the malaria parasite, prompts a ceaseless need for new drugs. To this end, marine organisms have been explored recently, as reviewed in this article within the perspective of clinically available antimalarial drugs and promising candidates. Most promising are tetrahydropyrrolo[1,2-alpha]pyrimidinium, bis-indole, and C(11)-N(5) alkaloids from sponges; pyridoacridone and decahydroquinoline alkaloids from ascidians; and pyrrole alkaloids from fungi, as well as polycyclic polyketides, norditerpene, and polyketide endoperoxides, terpene isonitriles, and, particularly, mixed-biogenesis alpha-galactosyl ceramides from sponges. The first and the latter classes of agents best fulfill the requirements for combinatorial synthesis in providing a wide variety of compounds for high-throughput screening and toxicity tests. These results came largely from nonprofit organizations, a trend that we foresee will continue. However, partnership with the pharmaceutical industry was and is needed to bring candidate drugs to the clinic. In any event, success will not be achieved without political plans to make the results of technology easily available to poor populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Laurent
- IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement), UMR152 IRD-Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, Centre de Nouméa, BP A5, 98848, Nouméa, Nouvelle-Calédonie.
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Plowe CV. Antimalarial drug resistance in Africa: strategies for monitoring and deterrence. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2006; 295:55-79. [PMID: 16265887 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-29088-5_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Despite the initiation in 1998 by the World Health Organization of a campaign to 'Roll Back Malaria', the rates of disease and death caused by Plasmodium falciparum malaria in sub-Saharan Africa are growing. Drug resistance has been implicated as one of the main factors in this disturbing trend. The efforts of international agencies, governments, public health officials, advocacy groups and researchers to devise effective strategies to deter the spread of drug resistant malaria and to ameliorate its heavy burden on the people of Africa have not succeeded. This review will not attempt to describe the regional distribution of drug resistant malaria in Africa in detail, mainly because information on resistance is limited and has been collected using different methods, making it difficult to interpret. Instead, the problems of defining and monitoring resistance and antimalarial drug treatment outcomes will be discussed in hopes of clarifying the issues and identifying ways to move forward in a more coordinated fashion. Strategies to improve measurement of resistance and treatment outcomes, collection and use of information on resistance, and potential approaches to deter and reduce the impact of resistance, will all be considered. The epidemiological setting and the goals of monitoring determine how antimalarial treatment responses should be measured. Longitudinal studies, with incidence of uncomplicated malaria episodes as the primary endpoint, provide the best information on which to base treatment policy changes, while simpler standard in vivo efficacy studies are better suited for ongoing efficacy monitoring. In the absence of an ideal antimalarial combination regimen, different treatment alternatives are appropriate in different settings. But where chloroquine has failed, policy changes are long overdue and action must be taken now.
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Affiliation(s)
- C V Plowe
- Malaria Section, Center for Vaccine Development, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore Street, HSF1-480, Baltimore, MA 21201, USA.
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Puri SK, Chandra R. Plasmodium vinckei: selection of a strain exhibiting stable resistance to arteether. Exp Parasitol 2006; 114:129-32. [PMID: 16624307 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2006.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2005] [Revised: 02/23/2006] [Accepted: 02/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A strain of rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium vinckei showing >12-fold resistance to arteether has been selected after exposure to sub-curative doses of drug in 44 sequential passages over a period of 700 days. Experimentally induced resistance was found to be stable after drug free maintenance of parasites for 11 serial passages over a period of 100 days. Cross-sensitivity studies have shown that apart form resistance to related derivatives like artemether and artesunic acid, the derived parasites also show resistance to quinine and mefloquine.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Puri
- Division of Parasitology, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226001, India
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Afonso A, Hunt P, Cheesman S, Alves AC, Cunha CV, do Rosário V, Cravo P. Malaria parasites can develop stable resistance to artemisinin but lack mutations in candidate genes atp6 (encoding the sarcoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase), tctp, mdr1, and cg10. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50:480-9. [PMID: 16436700 PMCID: PMC1366921 DOI: 10.1128/aac.50.2.480-489.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2005] [Revised: 10/17/2005] [Accepted: 11/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to drugs such as chloroquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine is a major problem in malaria control. Artemisinin (ART) derivatives, particularly in combination with other drugs, are thus increasingly used to treat malaria, reducing the probability that parasites resistant to the components will emerge. Although stable resistance to artemisinin has yet to be reported from laboratory or field studies, its emergence would be disastrous because of the lack of alternative treatments. Here, we report for the first time, to our knowledge, genetically stable and transmissible ART and artesunate (ATN)-resistant malaria parasites. Each of two lines of the rodent malaria parasite Plosmodium chabaudi chabaudi, grown in the presence of increasing concentrations of ART or ATN, showed 15-fold and 6-fold increased resistance to ART and ATN, respectively. Resistance remained stable after cloning, freeze-thawing, after passage in the absence of drug, and transmission through mosquitoes. The nucleotide sequences of the possible genetic modulators of ART resistance (mdr1, cg10, tctp, and atp6) of sensitive and resistant parasites were compared. No mutations in these genes were identified. In addition we investigated whether changes in the copy number of these genes could account for resistance but found that resistant parasites retained the same number of copies as their sensitive progenitors. We believe that this is the first report of a malaria parasite with genetically stable and transmissible resistance to artemisinin or its derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Afonso
- Centro de Malaria e Outras Doenças Tropicais/IHMT/UEI Malaria, Rua da Junqueira 96, 1349-008 Lisbon, Portugal
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Mulenga A, Azad AF. The molecular and biological analysis of ixodid ticks histamine release factors. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2005; 37:215-29. [PMID: 16323052 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-005-3261-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2005] [Accepted: 09/13/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We previously described a Dermacentor varibialis (DV) cDNA that encodes a ubiquitously expressed and tick saliva-secreted functional histamine release factor (HRF) homolog. In this study gene specific primers based on DVHRF open reading frame nucleotide sequence were utilized to amplify three orthologs, from the wood tick, D. andersoni (DA), the black legged tick, the southern cattle tick, Boophilus microplus (BM) and the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (AA). At nucleotide level, sequence comparisons revealed 98 89 and 84% similarity to DVHRF for DAHRF, AAHRF and BMHRF, respectively, while predicted polypeptide comparisons revealed 98, 96 and 91% similarity for DAHRF, AAHRF and BMHRF respectively. Phylogenetically, the tick HRF clade, while distinct (100% bootstrap value), is closely related to other arthropods, but distantly related to vertebrate and protozoan clades. Consistent with sequence similarity analysis, a DVHRF-specific northern blotting probe hybridized a approximately 900 base pair (bp) mRNA band on all RNA blots. Likewise a mouse polyclonal antibody to E. coli-expressed recombinant (r) DVHRF, cross-reacted baculovirus-expressed non-fusion rAAHRF, rDAHRF, and rBMHRF. As revealed by northern blotting analysis of larvae and nymph RNA, DVHRF mRNA is expressed in both immature and mature ticks indicating that its transcription is not developmentally regulated. Unlike rHRF/TCTP proteins of other organisms, the calcium-binding function may not be conserved for tick HRF homologs as revealed by the 45CaCl2+ overlay assay. Apparent global expression of DVHRF and its orthologs make this protein family an ideal target antigen for development of novel tick control strategies targeting multiple tick species.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Biomarkers, Tumor/biosynthesis
- Biomarkers, Tumor/chemistry
- Biomarkers, Tumor/genetics
- Blotting, Northern/methods
- Blotting, Western/methods
- Calcium/chemistry
- Cloning, Molecular
- DNA, Complementary/chemistry
- Gene Expression/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation/genetics
- Ixodidae/classification
- Ixodidae/genetics
- Ixodidae/growth & development
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Phylogeny
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Recombinant Proteins/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Proteins/chemistry
- Recombinant Proteins/genetics
- Sequence Alignment
- Sequence Analysis, Protein
- Tumor Protein, Translationally-Controlled 1
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Mulenga
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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Abstract
Multidrug-resistant malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum has severely limited treatment options over recent years. Artemisinins are still effective for treating uncomplicated as well as severe malaria, because resistance is not yet clinically apparent. This article reviews some clinically useful properties of artemisinins and how they might work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Haynes
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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46
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Abstract
The translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) is a highly conserved protein that is widely expressed in all eukaryotic organisms. Based on its sequence, TCTP was listed as a separate protein family in protein databases but the recent elucidation of the solution structure of the fission yeast orthologue places it close to a family of small chaperone proteins. The molecular functions determined so far, Ca(2+)- and microtubule-binding, have been mapped to an alpha-helical region of the molecule. TCTP expression is highly regulated both at the transcriptional and translational level and by a wide range of extracellular signals. TCTP has been implicated in important cellular processes, such as cell growth, cell cycle progression, malignant transformation and in the protection of cells against various stress conditions and apoptosis. In addition, an extracellular, cytokine-like function has been established for TCTP, and the protein has been implicated in various medically relevant processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich-Axel Bommer
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, St. George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK.
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47
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Ferrer-Rodríguez I, Pérez-Rosado J, Gervais GW, Peters W, Robinson BL, Serrano AE. PLASMODIUM YOELII: IDENTIFICATION AND PARTIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF ANMDR1GENE IN AN ARTEMISININ-RESISTANT LINE. J Parasitol 2004; 90:152-60. [PMID: 15040683 DOI: 10.1645/ge-3225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms by which the malarial parasite has managed to develop resistance to many antimalarial drugs remain to be completely elucidated. Mutations in the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum, as well as an increase in pfmdr1 copy number, have been associated with resistance to the quinoline-containing antimalarial drugs. We investigated the mechanisms of drug resistance in Plasmodium using a collection of P. yoelii lines with different drug resistance profiles. The mdr1 gene of P. yoelii (pymdr1) was identified and characterized. A 2- to 3-fold increase in the pymdr1 gene copy number was observed in the P. yoelii ART line (artemisinin resistant) when compared with the NS parental line. The pymdr1 gene was mapped to a chromosome of 2.1 Mb in all lines analyzed. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and Western blot experiments confirmed the expression of the gene at the RNA and protein levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iván Ferrer-Rodríguez
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, University of Puerto Rico, School of Medicine, P.O. Box 365067, San Juan, Puerto Rico
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48
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Efferth T, Sauerbrey A, Olbrich A, Gebhart E, Rauch P, Weber HO, Hengstler JG, Halatsch ME, Volm M, Tew KD, Ross DD, Funk JO. Molecular modes of action of artesunate in tumor cell lines. Mol Pharmacol 2003; 64:382-94. [PMID: 12869643 DOI: 10.1124/mol.64.2.382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 320] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A profound cytotoxic action of the antimalarial, artesunate (ART), was identified against 55 cancer cell lines of the U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI). The 50% inhibition concentrations (IC50 values) for ART correlated significantly to the cell doubling times (P = 0.00132) and the portion of cells in the G0/G1 (P = 0.02244) or S cell cycle phases (P = 0.03567). We selected mRNA expression data of 465 genes obtained by microarray hybridization from the NCI data base. These genes belong to different biological categories (drug resistance genes, DNA damage response and repair genes, oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, apoptosis-regulating genes, proliferation-associated genes, and cytokines and cytokine-associated genes). The constitutive expression of 54 of 465 (=12%) genes correlated significantly to the IC50 values for ART. Hierarchical cluster analysis of these 12 genes allowed the differentiation of clusters with ART-sensitive or ART-resistant cell lines (P = 0.00017). For exemplary validation, cell lines transduced with 3 of the 12 genes were used to prove a causative relationship. The cDNAs for a deletion-mutated epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and for gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase increased resistance to ART. The conditional expression of the CDC25A gene using a tetracycline repressor expression vector increased sensitivity toward ART. Multidrug-resistant cells differentially expressing the MDR1, MRP1, or BCRP genes were not cross-resistant to ART. ART acts via p53-dependent and- independent pathways in isogenic p53+/+ p21WAF1/CIP1+/+, p53-/- p21WAF1/CIP1+/+, and p53+/+ p21WAF1/CIP1-/- colon carcinoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Efferth
- Center for Molecular Biology of the University of Heidelberg (ZMBH), Heidelberg, Germany.
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49
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Abstract
Artemisinin and its derivatives are widely used throughout the world. The mechanism of action of these compounds appears to involve the heme-mediated decomposition of the endoperoxide bridge to produce carbon-centred free radicals. The involvement of heme explains why the drugs are selectively toxic to malaria parasites. The resulting carbon-centred free radicals are alkylate heme and proteins, one of which is the translationally controlled tumour protein. Clinically relevant artemisinin resistance has not been demonstrated, but it is likely to occur since artemisinin resistance has been obtained in laboratory models. At high doses, artemisinin can be neurotoxic but toxicity has not been found in clinical studies. The mechanism of neurotoxicity may be similar to the mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R Meshnick
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, School of Public Health, Chapel Hill 27599-7435, USA.
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50
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Abstract
Building on the lead from antimalarial isonitriles 1-4 of marine origin, several easily accessible synthetic isonitriles were assessed for their antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum (in vitro) and multidrug resistant Plasmodium yoelii in Swiss mice model (in vivo). Isonitrile 11 has shown promising activity in both these assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandan Singh
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India.
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