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Martiny HM, Munk P, Brinch C, Aarestrup FM, Calle ML, Petersen TN. Utilizing co-abundances of antimicrobial resistance genes to identify potential co-selection in the resistome. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0410823. [PMID: 38832899 PMCID: PMC11218503 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04108-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
The rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a threat to global health, and the nature of co-occurring antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) may cause collateral AMR effects once antimicrobial agents are used. Therefore, it is essential to identify which pairs of ARGs co-occur. Given the wealth of next-generation sequencing data available in public repositories, we have investigated the correlation between ARG abundances in a collection of 214,095 metagenomic data sets. Using more than 6.76∙108 read fragments aligned to acquired ARGs to infer pairwise correlation coefficients, we found that more ARGs correlated with each other in human and animal sampling origins than in soil and water environments. Furthermore, we argued that the correlations could serve as risk profiles of resistance co-occurring to critically important antimicrobials (CIAs). Using these profiles, we found evidence of several ARGs conferring resistance for CIAs being co-abundant, such as tetracycline ARGs correlating with most other forms of resistance. In conclusion, this study highlights the important ARG players indirectly involved in shaping the resistomes of various environments that can serve as monitoring targets in AMR surveillance programs. IMPORTANCE Understanding the collateral effects happening in a resistome can reveal previously unknown links between antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). Through the analysis of pairwise ARG abundances in 214K metagenomic samples, we observed that the co-abundance is highly dependent on the environmental context and argue that these correlations can be used to show the risk of co-selection occurring in different settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah-Marie Martiny
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Patrick Munk
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Christian Brinch
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Frank M. Aarestrup
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - M. Luz Calle
- Biosciences Department, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Vic - Central University of Catalonia, Vic, Spain
| | - Thomas N. Petersen
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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Weerasekara M, Vidanapathirana G, Li C, Tennegedara A, Dissanayake R, Ekanayake A, Abeykoon M, Kothalawala M, Liyanapathirana V, Ip M. Characterization of group A streptococci causing invasive diseases in Sri Lanka. Access Microbiol 2024; 6:000697.v4. [PMID: 39045254 PMCID: PMC11261727 DOI: 10.1099/acmi.0.000697.v4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Group A β haemolytic streptococcus (GAS) or Streptococcus pyogenes is a human pathogen that causes an array of infections, including pharyngitis, cellulitis, impetigo, scarlet fever, toxic shock syndrome, and necrotizing fasciitis. The present study characterizes 51 GAS isolates from invasive infections in Sri Lanka, focusing on resistance profiles, genetic determinants of resistance, and virulence markers. Isolates were tested for sensitivity to penicillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, and tetracycline. The presence of erm(A), erm(B), and mef(A) was detected in erythromycin-resistant isolates, while tet(M) was detected in the tetracycline-resistant isolates. PCR was used to identify SpeA, SpeB, SpeC, SpeF, SpeG, smez, and ssa as virulence markers. Selected GAS isolates were emm-typed using the updated CDC protocol. All 51 isolates were susceptible to penicillin. The number of isolates non-susceptible to erythromycin was 16. The commonest resistance determinant identified was erm(B) (11/16). Tetracycline non-susceptibility was found in 36 (70.6 %) isolates and 26 of them contained the tet(M) gene. Thirteen (25.5 %) isolates were resistant to both tetracycline and erythromycin, while 12 (23.5 %) isolates were sensitive to both antibiotics. The commonest virulence markers detected among the isolates were SpeB (44, 86.3 %), SpeG (36, 70.6 %), and SpeF (35, 68.6 %), while SpeJ (15, 29.4 %), SpeA (10, 19.6 %), and ssa (5,9.8 %) were less common. The emm types were diverse. In conclusion, the GAS isolates studied showed resistance to erythromycin and tetracycline, while retaining universal susceptibility to penicillin. Additionally, these isolates exhibited diverse genetic backgrounds, displaying varying patterns of virulence genes and emm types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madumali Weerasekara
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Gihani Vidanapathirana
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Carmen Li
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR
| | - Asanka Tennegedara
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Rasadanie Dissanayake
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Asela Ekanayake
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | | | | | - Veranja Liyanapathirana
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Margaret Ip
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR
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Cagnoli G, Di Paolo A, Bertelloni F, Salvucci S, Buccioni A, Marzoni Fecia di Cossato M, Ebani VV. Occurrence of Antimicrobial-Resistant Enterococcus spp. in Healthy Chickens Never Exposed to Antimicrobial Agents in Central Italy. Antibiotics (Basel) 2024; 13:417. [PMID: 38786145 PMCID: PMC11117291 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics13050417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Enterococci are part of the natural flora of the gastrointestinal tract of mammals, including humans, birds and invertebrates. They can cause infection, mainly among hospitalized patients, as well as acquire and transfer antimicrobial resistance genes. The present study allowed the isolation of 98 Enterococcus (73.47% E. faecium, 23.47% E. faecalis, 3.06% E. avium) strains from 120-day-old healthy chickens that had never been treated with antimicrobials. Their antimicrobial resistance was evaluated by the agar disk diffusion method; high-level aminoglycoside (streptomycin and gentamicin) and vancomycin resistance were established using the microbroth dilution method. The highest percentages of resistant isolates were detected with quinupristin-dalfopristin (88.78%), rifampicin (64.29%), tetracyclines (45.92%), and enrofloxacin (41.84%). High percentages of susceptible strains were found with teicoplanin (100%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (97.96%), nitrofurantoin (94.90%), ampicillin (92.86%), chloramphenicol (90.82%), and linezolid (88.78%). About 60% of the strains were classified as MDR (multidrug-resistant). Moreover, PCR was carried out to investigate genes encoding for tetracyclines resistance determinants: tet(M), tet(L), tet(O), tet(K), and Int-Tn. Genes were detected in 68 (69.38%) strains: 36 were shown to be resistant with the agar disk diffusion method, while 28 were intermediate, and 2 were susceptible. The present study showed that chickens never treated with antimicrobials potentially harbor enterococci having phenotypic and genotypic characters of antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Cagnoli
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, Viale Delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (G.C.); (A.D.P.); (F.B.); (S.S.); (M.M.F.d.C.)
| | - Alessia Di Paolo
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, Viale Delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (G.C.); (A.D.P.); (F.B.); (S.S.); (M.M.F.d.C.)
| | - Fabrizio Bertelloni
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, Viale Delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (G.C.); (A.D.P.); (F.B.); (S.S.); (M.M.F.d.C.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, Via Del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Sonia Salvucci
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, Viale Delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (G.C.); (A.D.P.); (F.B.); (S.S.); (M.M.F.d.C.)
| | - Arianna Buccioni
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, University of Florence, Piazzale Delle Cascine 18, 50144 Florence, Italy;
| | - Margherita Marzoni Fecia di Cossato
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, Viale Delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (G.C.); (A.D.P.); (F.B.); (S.S.); (M.M.F.d.C.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, Via Del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Valentina Virginia Ebani
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, Viale Delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (G.C.); (A.D.P.); (F.B.); (S.S.); (M.M.F.d.C.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, Via Del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
- Centre for Climate Change Impact, University of Pisa, Via Del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
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Leal CAG, Silva BA, Colombo SA. Susceptibility Profile and Epidemiological Cut-Off Values Are Influenced by Serotype in Fish Pathogenic Streptococcus agalactiae. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:1726. [PMID: 38136760 PMCID: PMC10741021 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12121726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae is a major health concern in tilapia farming worldwide. In contrast to the availability of susceptibility profile results, interpretative criteria for disk diffusion assays and the influence of serotypes on resistance profiles are not available. To address this, sixty isolates (thirty of each serotype, Ib and III) were evaluated using the disk diffusion assay against six antibiotics, and the epidemiological cut-off value (ECV) was calculated. All the isolates were classified as non-wild type (NWT) for sulfamethoxazole (SUT) and norfloxacin (NOR). The inhibition zones for oxytetracycline (OXY) and doxycycline (DOX) were largely distinct; all serotype Ib and III isolates were classified as wild-type (WT) and NWT, respectively. The results for serotype III of fish group B Streptococcus (GBS) were comparable to the NWT tetracycline profile of human GBS available in EUCAST, suggesting the presence of resistance mechanisms in these fish isolates. The calculation of the cut-off wild type (COWT) values for OXY and DOX was appropriate for both serotypes. Differences between the distribution of florfenicol (FLO) and amoxicillin (AMO) were found, and we attribute this to the faster growth rate of serotype III, which promotes smaller inhibition zones. Therefore, using separate COWT for each serotype is necessary. In conclusion, the serotype of fish GBS affects its susceptibility profile, and it is recommended to use serotype-specific COWT values as interpretative criteria for disk diffusion assays against FLO and AMO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Augusto Gomes Leal
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary School, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil; (B.A.S.); (S.A.C.)
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Pazra DF, Latif H, Basri C, Wibawan IWT, Rahayu P. Detection of tetracycline resistance genes and their diversity in Escherichia coli isolated from pig farm waste in Banten province, Indonesia. Vet World 2023; 16:1907-1916. [PMID: 37859956 PMCID: PMC10583874 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2023.1907-1916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim Livestock waste in the form of feces and liquid represents an important reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Because many ARGs can be horizontally transferred to other pathogens, livestock waste plays an essential role in the emergence and transmission of various ARGs in the environment. Therefore, this study aimed to detect and assess the diversity of tet genes in Escherichia coli isolated from pig farm waste in Banten province, Indonesia. Materials and Methods Solid waste (feces) and wastewater were collected from 44 pig farms in Banten province. The isolation and identification of E. coli referred to the Global Tricycle Surveillance extended-spectrum beta-lactamase E. coli World Health Organization (2021) guidelines. tet genes were detected using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction after dividing pig farms in the province into four clusters based on their adjacent areas and characteristics. Results tetA, tetB, tetC, tetM, tetO, and tetX were detected in solid waste and wastewater from pig farms, whereas tetE was not detected in either sample type. tetX (100%) and tetO (75%) were the most dominant genes in solid waste, whereas wastewater samples were dominated by tetA, tetM, tetO, and tetX (prevalence of 50% each). Furthermore, eight tet gene patterns were found in pig farm waste (prevalence of 12.5% each). Conclusion The results showed a high prevalence of tetO and tetX in solid waste and wastewater from pig farms in Banten province. This significant prevalence and diversity indicated the transmission of tet genes from pigs to the environment, posing a serious threat to public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debby Fadhilah Pazra
- Animal Biomedical Science Study Program, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (SVMBS), IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
- Bogor Agricultural Development Polytechnic, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Hadri Latif
- Division of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (SVMBS), IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Chaerul Basri
- Division of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (SVMBS), IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - I. Wayan Teguh Wibawan
- Division of Medical Microbiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (SVMBS), IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Puji Rahayu
- Quality Control Laboratory and Certification of Animal Products, Bogor, Indonesia
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Pazra DF, Latif H, Basri C, Wibawan IWT, Rahayu P. Distribution analysis of tetracycline resistance genes in Escherichia coli isolated from floor surface and effluent of pig slaughterhouses in Banten Province, Indonesia. Vet World 2023; 16:509-517. [PMID: 37041843 PMCID: PMC10082748 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2023.509-517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim Slaughterhouses and their effluents could serve as a "hotspot" for the occurrence and distribution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment. This study aimed to understand the distribution of tetracycline resistance genes in Escherichia coli isolated from the floor surface and effluent samples of pig slaughterhouses in Banten Province, Indonesia. Materials and Methods Ten samples, each from floor surface swabs and effluents, were collected from 10 pig slaughterhouses in Banten Province. Escherichia coli strains were isolated and identified by referring to the protocol of the Global Tricycle Surveillance extended-spectrum beta-lactamase E. coli from the WHO (2021). Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to detect the tet genes. Results The tetA, tetB, tetC, tetM, tetO, and tetX genes were distributed in the isolates from the floor surface samples, and the tetA, tetC, tetE, tetM, tetO, and tetX genes were distributed in the isolates from the effluent samples. The tetO gene (60%) was the most dominant gene in the isolates from floor surface samples, while the tetA gene was the dominant one in the isolates from the effluent samples (50%). The tetA + tetO gene combination was the dominant pattern (15%) in the E. coli isolates. Conclusion The high prevalence and diversity of the tet genes in floor surface and effluent samples from pig slaughterhouses in Banten Province indicated that the transmission of the tet genes had occurred from pigs to the environment; thus, this situation should be considered a serious threat to public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debby Fadhilah Pazra
- Animal Biomedical Science Study Program, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (SVMBS), IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
- Animal Health Study Program, Bogor Agricultural Development Polytechnic, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Hadri Latif
- Department of Animal Diseases and Veterinary Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (SVMBS), IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
- Corresponding author: Hadri Latif, e-mail: Co-authors: DFP: , CB: , IWTW: , PR:
| | - Chaerul Basri
- Department of Animal Diseases and Veterinary Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (SVMBS), IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - I. Wayan Teguh Wibawan
- Department of Animal Diseases and Veterinary Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (SVMBS), IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Puji Rahayu
- Quality Control Laboratory and Certification of Animal Products, Bogor, Indonesia
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Li XY, Yu R, Xu C, Shang Y, Li D, Du XD. A Small Multihost Plasmid Carrying erm(T) Identified in Enterococcus faecalis. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:850466. [PMID: 35711812 PMCID: PMC9197182 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.850466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the mobile genetic elements involved in the horizontal transfer of erm(T) in Enterococcus faecalis, and its transmission ability in heterologous hosts. A total of 159 erythromycin-resistant enterococci isolates were screened for the presence of macrolide resistance genes by PCR. Whole genome sequencing for erm(T)-carrying E. faecalis E165 was performed. The transmission ability in heterologous hosts was explored by conjugation, transformation, and fitness cost. The erm(T) gene was detected only in an E. faecalis isolate E165 (1/159), which was located on a 4,244-bp small plasmid, designed pE165. Using E. faecalis OG1RF as the recipient strain, pE165 is transferable. Natural transformation experiments using Streptococcus suis P1/7 and Streptococcus mutans UA159 as the recipients indicated it is transmissible, which was also observed by electrotransformation using Staphylococcus aureus RN4220 as a recipient. The erm(T)-carrying pE165 can replicate in the heterologous host including E. faecalis OG1RF, S. suis P1/7, S. mutans UA159, and S. aureus RN4220 and conferred resistance to erythromycin and clindamycin to all hosts. Although there is no disadvantage of pE165 in the recipient strains in growth curve experiments, all the pE165-carrying recipients had a fitness cost compared to the corresponding original recipients in growth competition experiments. In brief, an erm(T)-carrying plasmid was for the first time described in E. faecalis and as transmissible to heterologous hosts.
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Assessment of Long-Term Macrolide Exposure on the Oropharyngeal Microbiome and Macrolide Resistance in Healthy Adults and Consequences for Onward Transmission of Resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2022; 66:e0224621. [PMID: 35293783 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02246-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
While the use of long-term macrolide therapy to prevent exacerbations in chronic respiratory diseases is widespread, its impact on the oropharyngeal microbiota and macrolide resistance, and the potential for onward transmission of resistance to close contacts are poorly understood. We determined the effects of long-term exposure to azithromycin or erythromycin on phenotypic and genotypic macrolide resistance within the oropharyngeal microbiome of healthy adults and their close contacts in a randomized, single-blinded, parallel-group trial of 4 weeks of twice-daily oral 400 mg erythromycin ethylsuccinate or twice-daily oral 125 mg azithromycin. Using oropharyngeal swabs collected from 20 index healthy adults and 20 paired close contacts, the oropharyngeal microbial composition and macrolide resistance in streptococci were assessed by 16S rRNA sequencing and antibiotic susceptibility testing of oropharyngeal cultures, respectively, at baseline and weeks 4 and 8 (washout). Targeted quantitative PCR of antibiotic resistance genes was performed to evaluate paired changes in resistance gene levels in index patients and close contacts and to relate the potential transmission of antibiotic resistance. Neither azithromycin nor erythromycin altered oropharyngeal microbiota characteristics significantly. Proportional macrolide resistance in oropharyngeal streptococci increased with both erythromycin and azithromycin, remaining above baseline levels for the azithromycin group at washout. Levels of resistance genes increased significantly with azithromycin[erm(B) and mef] and erythromycin (mef), returning to baseline levels at washout only for the erythromycin group. We found no evidence of onward transmission of resistance to close contacts, as indicated by the lack of concomitant changes in resistance gene levels detected in close contacts. (This study has been registered with the Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry under identifier ACTRN12617000278336.).
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Wang Y, Dong J, Wang J, Chi W, Zhou W, Tian Q, Hong Y, Zhou X, Ye H, Tian X, Hu R, Wong A. Assessing the drug resistance profiles of oral probiotic lozenges. J Oral Microbiol 2022; 14:2019992. [PMID: 35024089 PMCID: PMC8745366 DOI: 10.1080/20002297.2021.2019992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Probiotic lozenges have been developed to harvest the benefits of probiotics for oral health, but their long-term consumption may encourage the transfer of resistance genes from probiotics to commensals, and eventually to disease-causing bacteria. Aim To screen commercial probiotic lozenges for resistance to antibiotics, characterize the resistance determinants, and examine their transferability in vitro. Results Probiotics of all lozenges were resistant to glycopeptide, sulfonamide, and penicillin antibiotics, while some were resistant to aminoglycosides and cephalosporins. High minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were detected for streptomycin (>128 µg/mL) and chloramphenicol (> 512 µg/mL) for all probiotics but only one was resistant to piperacillin (MIC = 32 µg/mL). PCR analysis detected erythromycin (erm(T), ermB or mefA) and fluoroquinolone (parC or gyr(A)) resistance genes in some lozenges although there were no resistant phenotypes. The dfrD, cat-TC, vatE, aadE, vanX, and aph(3")-III or ant(2")-I genes conferring resistance to trimethoprim, chloramphenicol, quinupristin/dalfopristin, vancomycin, and streptomycin, respectively, were detected in resistant probiotics. The rifampicin resistance gene rpoB was also present. We found no conjugal transfer of streptomycin resistance genes in our co-incubation experiments. Conclusion Our study represents the first antibiotic resistance profiling of probiotics from oral lozenges, thus highlighting the health risk especially in the prevailing threat of drug resistance globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Wang
- Department of Orthodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wenzhou Medical University, University Town, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jingya Dong
- Department of Orthodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wenzhou Medical University, University Town, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Junyi Wang
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Wei Chi
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Wei Zhou
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Qiwen Tian
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yue Hong
- Department of Orthodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wenzhou Medical University, University Town, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xuan Zhou
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Hailv Ye
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xuechen Tian
- Zhejiang Bioinformatics International Science and Technology Cooperation Center, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,Wenzhou Municipal Key Lab for Applied Biomedical and Biopharmaceutical Informatics, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Rongdang Hu
- Department of Orthodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wenzhou Medical University, University Town, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Aloysius Wong
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,Zhejiang Bioinformatics International Science and Technology Cooperation Center, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,Wenzhou Municipal Key Lab for Applied Biomedical and Biopharmaceutical Informatics, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
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Wang W, Yu L, Hao W, Zhang F, Jiang M, Zhao S, Wang F. Multi-Locus Sequence Typing and Drug Resistance Analysis of Swine Origin Escherichia coli in Shandong of China and Its Potential Risk on Public Health. Front Public Health 2021; 9:780700. [PMID: 34926393 PMCID: PMC8674453 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.780700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The extensive use of antibiotics has caused antimicrobial resistance and multidrug resistance in Escherichia coli and gradual expands it into a worldwide problem. The resistant E. coli could be transmitted to humans through animal products, thereby creating a problem for bacterial treatment in humans and resulting in a public health issue. This study aims to investigate the molecular typing and drug resistance of swine and human origin E. coli within the same prefecture-level cities of Shandong Province and the potential risk of E. coli on public health. The drug sensitivity results indicated that tetracycline (TE) (97.17%) is a major antibiotic with high drug resistance in 106 swine origin E. coli. There was a significant difference in the drug-resistant genotypes between the two sources, of which the blaTEM positive rate was the highest in the genera of β-lactams (99% in swines and 100% in humans). Among the 146 E. coli isolates, 98 (91.51% swine origin) and 31 (77.5% human origin) isolates were simultaneously resistant to three or more classes of antibiotics, respectively. The multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) results indicate that the 106 swine origin E. coli isolates are divided into 25 STs with ST1258, ST361, and ST10 being the dominant sequence analysis typing strains. There were 19 MLST genotypes in 40 strains of human E. coli from Tai'an, Shandong Province, with ST1193, ST73, ST648, ST131, ST10, and ST1668 being the dominant strains. Moreover, the cluster analysis showed that CCl0 and CC23 were the common clonal complexes (CCs) from the two sources. Our results provide a theoretical basis for guiding the rational use of antibiotics and preventing the spread of drug-resistant bacteria, and also provide epidemiological data for the risk analysis of foodborne bacteria and antimicrobial resistance in swine farms in Shandong Province.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Tai'an City Central Hospital, Taian City, China
| | - Lanping Yu
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian City, China
| | - Wenwen Hao
- Department of Laboratory, Tai'an Central Hospital Branch, Taian City, China
| | - Fusen Zhang
- Tai'an City Central Hospital, Taian City, China
| | | | | | - Fangkun Wang
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian City, China
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Hobson C, Chan AN, Wright GD. The Antibiotic Resistome: A Guide for the Discovery of Natural Products as Antimicrobial Agents. Chem Rev 2021; 121:3464-3494. [PMID: 33606500 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The use of life-saving antibiotics has long been plagued by the ability of pathogenic bacteria to acquire and develop an array of antibiotic resistance mechanisms. The sum of these resistance mechanisms, the antibiotic resistome, is a formidable threat to antibiotic discovery, development, and use. The study and understanding of the molecular mechanisms in the resistome provide the basis for traditional approaches to combat resistance, including semisynthetic modification of naturally occurring antibiotic scaffolds, the development of adjuvant therapies that overcome resistance mechanisms, and the total synthesis of new antibiotics and their analogues. Using two major classes of antibiotics, the aminoglycosides and tetracyclines as case studies, we review the success and limitations of these strategies when used to combat the many forms of resistance that have emerged toward natural product-based antibiotics specifically. Furthermore, we discuss the use of the resistome as a guide for the genomics-driven discovery of novel antimicrobials, which are essential to combat the growing number of emerging pathogens that are resistant to even the newest approved therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Hobson
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Andrew N Chan
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Gerard D Wright
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
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12
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Alves-Barroco C, Rivas-García L, Fernandes AR, Baptista PV. Tackling Multidrug Resistance in Streptococci - From Novel Biotherapeutic Strategies to Nanomedicines. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:579916. [PMID: 33123110 PMCID: PMC7573253 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.579916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The pyogenic streptococci group includes pathogenic species for humans and other animals and has been associated with enduring morbidity and high mortality. The main reason for the treatment failure of streptococcal infections is the increased resistance to antibiotics. In recent years, infectious diseases caused by pyogenic streptococci resistant to multiple antibiotics have been raising with a significant impact to public health and veterinary industry. The rise of antibiotic-resistant streptococci has been associated to diverse mechanisms, such as efflux pumps and modifications of the antimicrobial target. Among streptococci, antibiotic resistance emerges from previously sensitive populations as result of horizontal gene transfer or chromosomal point mutations due to excessive use of antimicrobials. Streptococci strains are also recognized as biofilm producers. The increased resistance of biofilms to antibiotics among streptococci promote persistent infection, which comprise circa 80% of microbial infections in humans. Therefore, to overcome drug resistance, new strategies, including new antibacterial and antibiofilm agents, have been studied. Interestingly, the use of systems based on nanoparticles have been applied to tackle infection and reduce the emergence of drug resistance. Herein, we present a synopsis of mechanisms associated to drug resistance in (pyogenic) streptococci and discuss some innovative strategies as alternative to conventional antibiotics, such as bacteriocins, bacteriophage, and phage lysins, and metal nanoparticles. We shall provide focused discussion on the advantages and limitations of agents considering application, efficacy and safety in the context of impact to the host and evolution of bacterial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinthia Alves-Barroco
- UCIBIO, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Lorenzo Rivas-García
- UCIBIO, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal.,Biomedical Research Centre, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Alexandra R Fernandes
- UCIBIO, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Pedro Viana Baptista
- UCIBIO, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
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Tsai WC, Shen CF, Lin YL, Shen FC, Tsai PJ, Wang SY, Lin YS, Wu JJ, Chi CY, Liu CC. Emergence of macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes emm12 in southern Taiwan from 2000 to 2019. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2020; 54:1086-1093. [PMID: 32994137 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2020.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is an important pathogen causing morbidity and mortality worldwide. Surveillance of resistance and emm type has important implication to provide helpful information on the changing GAS epidemiology and empirical treatment. METHODS To study the emergence of resistant GAS in children with upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), a retrospective study was conducted from 2000 to 2019 in southern Taiwan. Microbiological studies, including antibiotic susceptibility, were performed. GAS emm types and sequences were determined by molecular methods. The population was divided into two separate decades to analyze potential changes over time. The 1st decade was 2000-2009; the 2nd decade was 2010-2019. Multivariate analyses were performed to identify independent risk factors associated with macrolide resistance between these periods. RESULTS A total of 320 GAS from 339 children were enrolled. Most of the children (75%) were under 9 years of age. The most common diagnosis was scarlet fever (225, 66.4%), and the frequency increased from 54.8% in the 1st to 77.9% in the 2nd decade (p < 0.0001). There was a significant increase in resistance to erythromycin and azithromycin from 18.1%, 19.3% in the 1st to 58.4%, 61.0% in the 2nd decade (p < 0.0001). This was associated with clonal expansion of the GAS emm12-ST36 which carrying erm(B) and tet(M) from 3.0% in the 1st to 53.2% in the 2nd decade (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS Significant emergence of macrolide-resistant GAS emm12-ST36 in children supports the need for continuing surveillance and investigation for the clonal virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Chun Tsai
- Department of Pediatrics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Fen Shen
- Department of Pediatrics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Lan Lin
- Department of Pediatrics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
| | - Fan-Ching Shen
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli County, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Jane Tsai
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan; Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Ying Wang
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
| | - Yee-Shin Lin
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
| | - Jiunn-Jong Wu
- Department of Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yu Chi
- Department of Pediatrics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan; National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli County, Taiwan; Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Ching-Chuan Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan; Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan.
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14
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Noh EB, Kim YB, Seo KW, Son SH, Ha JS, Lee YJ. Antimicrobial resistance monitoring of commensal Enterococcus faecalis in broiler breeders. Poult Sci 2020; 99:2675-2683. [PMID: 32359604 PMCID: PMC7597544 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) has rapidly acquired resistance to multiple antimicrobials, and the antimicrobial resistance of E. faecalis from broiler breeders has been implicated in its vertical transmission to their offspring. The objective of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial resistance and genetic diversity of commensal E. faecalis isolated from the broiler breeder farms. Among a total of 229 E. faecalis isolates from 9 broiler breeder farms, the highest resistance rate was observed in tetracycline (78.2%), followed by doxycycline (58.1%) and erythromycin (43.7%), and the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance showed significant differences among the 9 broiler breeder farms (P < 0.05). The tetM gene (77.1%) and ermB gene (85.0%) were detected at the highest levels in 179 TE-and 100 E-resistant isolates, respectively. Twenty-four high-level gentamicin-resistant isolates carried aac(6″)Ie-aph(2″)-la gene, and 9 high-level ciprofloxacin-resistant isolates showed point mutations in both gyrA and parC genes. All high-level gentamicin-resistant or high-level ciprofloxacin-resistant isolates showed one of the two different virulence gene patterns, ace-asa1-efaA-gelE complex or ace-efaA-gelE complex. These results indicate that constant epidemiological monitoring at the breeder level is required to prevent the pyramidal transmission of antimicrobial-resistant E. faecalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Bi Noh
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Zoonoses Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeong Bin Kim
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Zoonoses Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang Won Seo
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Zoonoses Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea; Department of Basic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State 39762, USA
| | - Se Hyun Son
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Zoonoses Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Su Ha
- Samhwa GPS Breeding Agri. Inc., Hongseong 32291, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Ju Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine & Zoonoses Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea.
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15
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Mancino W, Lugli GA, van Sinderen D, Ventura M, Turroni F. Mobilome and Resistome Reconstruction from Genomes Belonging to Members of the Bifidobacterium Genus. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7120638. [PMID: 31810287 PMCID: PMC6956390 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7120638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Specific members of the genus Bifidobacterium are among the first colonizers of the human/animal gut, where they act as important intestinal commensals associated with host health. As part of the gut microbiota, bifidobacteria may be exposed to antibiotics, used in particular for intrapartum prophylaxis, especially to prevent Streptococcus infections, or in the very early stages of life after the birth. In the current study, we reconstructed the in silico resistome of the Bifidobacterium genus, analyzing a database composed of 625 bifidobacterial genomes, including partial assembled strains with less than 100 genomic sequences. Furthermore, we screened bifidobacterial genomes for mobile genetic elements, such as transposases and prophage-like elements, in order to investigate the correlation between the bifido-mobilome and the bifido-resistome, also identifying genetic insertion hotspots that appear to be prone to horizontal gene transfer (HGT) events. These insertion hotspots were shown to be widely distributed among analyzed bifidobacterial genomes, and suggest the acquisition of antibiotic resistance genes through HGT events. These data were further corroborated by growth experiments directed to evaluate bacitracin A resistance in Bifidobacterium spp., a property that was predicted by in silico analyses to be part of the HGT-acquired resistome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Mancino
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (W.M.); (G.A.L.); (M.V.)
| | - Gabriele Andrea Lugli
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (W.M.); (G.A.L.); (M.V.)
| | - Douwe van Sinderen
- School of Microbiology, APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork T12 K8AF, Ireland;
| | - Marco Ventura
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (W.M.); (G.A.L.); (M.V.)
- Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Francesca Turroni
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (W.M.); (G.A.L.); (M.V.)
- Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-521-905666; Fax: +39-521-905604
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16
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Kim YB, Seo KW, Jeon HY, Lim SK, Sung HW, Lee YJ. Molecular characterization of erythromycin and tetracycline-resistant Enterococcus faecalis isolated from retail chicken meats. Poult Sci 2019; 98:977-983. [DOI: 10.3382/ps/pey477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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17
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de Melo Pereira GV, de Oliveira Coelho B, Magalhães Júnior AI, Thomaz-Soccol V, Soccol CR. How to select a probiotic? A review and update of methods and criteria. Biotechnol Adv 2018; 36:2060-2076. [PMID: 30266342 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
International competition within the dairy market and increasing public awareness about the importance of functional food consumption are providing new challenges for innovation in the probiotic sector. In this context, countless references are currently dedicated to the selection and characterization of new species and more specific strains of probiotic bacteria. In general, these studies adopt basic selection criteria established by the World Health Organization (WHO), including host-associated stress resistance, epithelium adhesion ability, and antimicrobial activity. These aspects are applied to ensure that the candidate probiotic could withstand the stressful conditions of the human digestive system and exert functional proprieties. However, it cannot be assumed that these novel microbial strains are capable of offering several biological benefits attributed to probiotics. Additionally, safety-associated selection criteria, such as plasmid-associated antibiotic resistance spreading and enterotoxin production, are often neglected. This article reviews the recent developments in the processes, strategies, and methods, such as anticarcinogenic, antidepression, antianxiety, antiobesity, antidiabetic, immunostimulatory, and cholesterol-lowering assessments, to select probiotic strains with the ultimate objective of assisting future probiotic microbe evaluation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bruna de Oliveira Coelho
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Vanete Thomaz-Soccol
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Carlos Ricardo Soccol
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
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18
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Vela AI, Villalón P, Sáez-Nieto JA, Chacón G, Domínguez L, Fernández-Garayzábal JF. Characterization of Streptococcus pyogenes from Animal Clinical Specimens, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 23:2013-2016. [PMID: 29148379 PMCID: PMC5708255 DOI: 10.3201/eid2312.151146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes appears to be almost exclusively restricted to humans, with few reports on isolation from animals. We provide a detailed characterization (emm typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis [PFGE], and multilocus sequence typing [MLST]) of 15 S. pyogenes isolates from animals associated with different clinical backgrounds. We also investigated erythromycin resistance mechanisms and phenotypes and virulence genes. We observed 2 emm types: emm12 (11 isolates) and emm77 (4 isolates). Similarly, we observed 2 genetic linages, sequence type (ST) 26 and ST63. Most isolates exhibited the M macrolide resistance phenotype and the mefA/ermB genotype. Isolates were grouped into 2 clones on the basis of emm-MLST-PFGE-virulence gene profile combinations: clone 1, characterized by the combined genotype emm12-ST36-pulsotype A-speG; and clone 2, characterized by the genotype emm77-ST63-pulsotype B-speC. Our results do not show conclusively that animals may represent a new reservoir of S. pyogenes but indicate the ability of human-derived S. pyogenes isolates to colonize and infect animals.
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19
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Gajic I, Mijac V, Ranin L, Grego E, Kekic D, Jegorovic B, Smitran A, Popovic S, Opavski N. Changes in Macrolide Resistance Among Group A Streptococci in Serbia and Clonal Evolution of Resistant Isolates. Microb Drug Resist 2018; 24:1326-1332. [PMID: 29653480 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2017.0306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In Serbia, the frequency of macrolide-resistant group A streptococci (MRGASs) increased significantly from 2006 to 2009. MRGAS analysis in 2008 revealed the presence of three major clonal lineages: emm75/mefA, emm12/mefA, and emm77/ermTR. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of macrolide resistance and to evaluate variations in the clonal composition of MRGASs. The study included 1,040 pharyngeal group A streptococci collected throughout Serbia, which were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility. MRGAS isolates were further characterized by the presence of resistance determinants, emm typing, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis. The prevalence of macrolide resistance was 9.6%, showing a slight decrease compared with the rate of 12.5% (2008). Tetracycline resistance was present in 6% of isolates, while norfloxacin nonsusceptibility detected for the first time in Serbia was 9.8%. The M phenotype dominated (84%), followed by the constitutive macrolides, lincosamides, and streptogramin B phenotype (12%). Five emm types were detected: emm75, emm12, emm1, emm28, and emm89. The emm75/mefA (62%), emm12/mefA (14%), and emm12/ermB/tetM (6%) were predominant clones and were found in both the present and the previous study periods at different frequencies. The major change was the loss of emm77/ermTR/tetO, which contributed to 15% of MRGASs in 2008.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Gajic
- 1 Department of Bacteriology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade , Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vera Mijac
- 1 Department of Bacteriology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade , Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Lazar Ranin
- 1 Department of Bacteriology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade , Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Edita Grego
- 2 Center for Microbiology, Institute of Public Health of Serbia "Dr. Milan Jovanović Batut ," Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dusan Kekic
- 1 Department of Bacteriology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade , Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Boris Jegorovic
- 3 Department of Tropical Diseases, Clinical Centre of Serbia, Clinic of Infectious and Tropical Diseases , Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Aleksandra Smitran
- 4 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Banja Luka , Banjaluka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Suncica Popovic
- 1 Department of Bacteriology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade , Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Natasa Opavski
- 1 Department of Bacteriology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade , Belgrade, Serbia
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20
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Vuksanović P, Opavski N. Changes in macrolide resistance phenotype in pharyngeal group a streptococci isolates in children. MEDICINSKI PODMLADAK 2018. [DOI: 10.5937/mp69-13820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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21
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Mayers DL, Sobel JD, Ouellette M, Kaye KS, Marchaim D. Antibiotic Resistance of Non-pneumococcal Streptococci and Its Clinical Impact. ANTIMICROBIAL DRUG RESISTANCE 2017. [PMCID: PMC7123568 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-47266-9_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The taxonomy of streptococci has undergone major changes during the last two decades. The present classification is based on both phenotypic and genotypic data. Phylogenetic classification of streptococci is based on 16S rRNA sequences [1], and it forms the backbone of the overall classification system of streptococci. Phenotypic properties are also important, especially for clinical microbiologists. The type of hemolysis on blood agar, reaction with Lancefield grouping antisera, resistance to optochin, and bile solubility remain important for grouping of clinical Streptococcus isolates and therefore treatment options [2]. In the following chapter, two phenotypic classification groups, viridans group streptococci (VGS) and beta-hemolytic streptococci, will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jack D. Sobel
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan USA
| | - Marc Ouellette
- Canada Research Chair in Antimicrobial Resistance, Centre de recherche en Infectiologie, University of Laval, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Keith S. Kaye
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan USA
| | - Dror Marchaim
- Infection Control and Prevention Unit of Infectious Diseases, Assaf Harofeh Medical Center, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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22
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Persistence of endodontic infection and Enterococcus faecalis: Role of horizontal gene transfer. GENE REPORTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2016.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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23
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Tanaka Y, Gotoh K, Teramachi M, Ishimoto K, Tsumura N, Shindou S, Yamashita Y. Molecular epidemiology, antimicrobial susceptibility, and characterization of macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes in Japan. J Infect Chemother 2016; 22:727-732. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2016.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Fyfe C, Grossman TH, Kerstein K, Sutcliffe J. Resistance to Macrolide Antibiotics in Public Health Pathogens. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2016; 6:a025395. [PMID: 27527699 PMCID: PMC5046686 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a025395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Macrolide resistance mechanisms can be target-based with a change in a 23S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) residue or a mutation in ribosomal protein L4 or L22 affecting the ribosome's interaction with the antibiotic. Alternatively, mono- or dimethylation of A2058 in domain V of the 23S rRNA by an acquired rRNA methyltransferase, the product of an erm (erythromycin ribosome methylation) gene, can interfere with antibiotic binding. Acquired genes encoding efflux pumps, most predominantly mef(A) + msr(D) in pneumococci/streptococci and msr(A/B) in staphylococci, also mediate resistance. Drug-inactivating mechanisms include phosphorylation of the 2'-hydroxyl of the amino sugar found at position C5 by phosphotransferases and hydrolysis of the macrocyclic lactone by esterases. These acquired genes are regulated by either translation or transcription attenuation, largely because cells are less fit when these genes, especially the rRNA methyltransferases, are highly induced or constitutively expressed. The induction of gene expression is cleverly tied to the mechanism of action of macrolides, relying on antibiotic-bound ribosomes stalled at specific sequences of nascent polypeptides to promote transcription or translation of downstream sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corey Fyfe
- Tetraphase Pharmaceuticals, Watertown, Massachusetts 02472
| | | | - Kathy Kerstein
- Tetraphase Pharmaceuticals, Watertown, Massachusetts 02472
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25
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Roberts MC, Schwarz S. Tetracycline and Phenicol Resistance Genes and Mechanisms: Importance for Agriculture, the Environment, and Humans. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2016; 45:576-592. [PMID: 27065405 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2015.04.0207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Recent reports have speculated on the future impact that antibiotic-resistant bacteria will have on food production, human health, and global economics. This review examines microbial resistance to tetracyclines and phenicols, antibiotics that are widely used in global food production. The mechanisms of resistance, mode of spread between agriculturally and human-impacted environments and ecosystems, distribution among bacteria, and the genes most likely to be associated with agricultural and environmental settings are included. Forty-six different tetracycline resistance () genes have been identified in 126 genera, with (M) having the broadest taxonomic distribution among all bacteria and (B) having the broadest coverage among the Gram-negative genera. Phenicol resistance genes are organized into 37 groups and have been identified in 70 bacterial genera. The review provides the latest information on tetracycline and phenicol resistance genes, including their association with mobile genetic elements in bacteria of environmental, medical, and veterinary relevance. Knowing what specific antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) are found in specific bacterial species and/or genera is critical when using a selective suite of ARGs for detection or surveillance studies. As detection methods move to molecular techniques, our knowledge about which type of bacteria carry which resistance gene(s) will become more important to ensure that the whole spectrum of bacteria are included in future surveillance studies. This review provides information needed to integrate the biology, taxonomy, and ecology of tetracycline- and phenicol-resistant bacteria and their resistance genes so that informative surveillance strategies can be developed and the correct genes selected.
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26
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Hassan NA, Maysaa ARD, Abdul KHA. Molecular screening for erythromycin resistance genes in Streptococcus pyogenes isolated from Iraqi patients with tonsilo-pharyngites. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF BIOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 14:2251-2257. [DOI: 10.5897/ajb2014.14365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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Molecular characterization of macrolide resistant Streptococcus pyogenes isolates from pharyngitis patients in Serbia. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2015; 33:246-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2015.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Sakata H. The change of macrolide resistance rates in group A Streptococcus isolates from children between 2002 and 2013 in Asahikawa city. J Infect Chemother 2015; 21:398-401. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2014.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Giovanetti E, Brenciani A, Morroni G, Tiberi E, Pasquaroli S, Mingoia M, Varaldo PE. Transduction of the Streptococcus pyogenes bacteriophage Φm46.1, carrying resistance genes mef(A) and tet(O), to other Streptococcus species. Front Microbiol 2015; 5:746. [PMID: 25620959 PMCID: PMC4288039 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Φm46.1 – Streptococcus pyogenes bacteriophage carrying mef(A) and tet(O), respectively, encoding resistance to macrolides (M phenotype) and tetracycline – is widespread in S. pyogenes but has not been reported outside this species. Φm46.1 is transferable in vitro among S. pyogenes isolates, but no information is available about its transferability to other Streptococcus species. We thus investigated Φm46.1 for its ability to be transduced in vitro to recipients of different Streptococcus species. Transductants were obtained from recipients of Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus gordonii, and Streptococcus suis. Retransfer was always achieved, and from S. suis to S. pyogenes occurred at a much greater frequency than in the opposite direction. In transductants Φm46.1 retained its functional properties, such as inducibility with mitomycin C, presence both as a prophage and as a free circular form, and transferability. The transductants shared the same Φm46.1 chromosomal integration site as the donor, at the 3′ end of a conserved RNA uracil methyltransferase (rum) gene, which is an integration hotspot for a variety of genetic elements. No transfer occurred to recipients of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus oralis, and Streptococcus salivarius, even though rum-like genes were also detected in the sequenced genomes of these species. A largely overlapping 18-bp critical sequence, where the site-specific recombination process presumably takes place, was identified in the rum genes of all recipients, including those of the species yielding no transductants. Growth assays to evaluate the fitness cost of Φm46.1 acquisition disclosed a negligible impact on S. pyogenes, S. agalactiae, and S. gordonii transductants and a noticeable fitness advantage in S. suis. The S. suis transductant also displayed marked overexpression of the autolysin-encoding gene atl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Giovanetti
- Unit of Microbiology, Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche Ancona, Italy
| | - Andrea Brenciani
- Unit of Microbiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Polytechnic University of Marche Medical School Ancona, Italy
| | - Gianluca Morroni
- Unit of Microbiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Polytechnic University of Marche Medical School Ancona, Italy
| | - Erika Tiberi
- Unit of Microbiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Polytechnic University of Marche Medical School Ancona, Italy
| | - Sonia Pasquaroli
- Unit of Microbiology, Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche Ancona, Italy
| | - Marina Mingoia
- Unit of Microbiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Polytechnic University of Marche Medical School Ancona, Italy
| | - Pietro E Varaldo
- Unit of Microbiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Polytechnic University of Marche Medical School Ancona, Italy
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Li L, Wang Y, Feng S, Dai X, Yang Y, Li J, Zeng M. Detection and Coexistence of Six Categories of Escherichia ColiStrains from Resistance Genes in Chickens in Anhui Province, China. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.4081/ijas.2015.3897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014. [PMID: 24696436 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00101-13)] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), causes mild human infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo and serious infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Furthermore, repeated GAS infections may trigger autoimmune diseases, including acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, acute rheumatic fever, and rheumatic heart disease. Combined, these diseases account for over half a million deaths per year globally. Genomic and molecular analyses have now characterized a large number of GAS virulence determinants, many of which exhibit overlap and redundancy in the processes of adhesion and colonization, innate immune resistance, and the capacity to facilitate tissue barrier degradation and spread within the human host. This improved understanding of the contribution of individual virulence determinants to the disease process has led to the formulation of models of GAS disease progression, which may lead to better treatment and intervention strategies. While GAS remains sensitive to all penicillins and cephalosporins, rising resistance to other antibiotics used in disease treatment is an increasing worldwide concern. Several GAS vaccine formulations that elicit protective immunity in animal models have shown promise in nonhuman primate and early-stage human trials. The development of a safe and efficacious commercial human vaccine for the prophylaxis of GAS disease remains a high priority.
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Walker MJ, Barnett TC, McArthur JD, Cole JN, Gillen CM, Henningham A, Sriprakash KS, Sanderson-Smith ML, Nizet V. Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27:264-301. [PMID: 24696436 PMCID: PMC3993104 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00101-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 566] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), causes mild human infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo and serious infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Furthermore, repeated GAS infections may trigger autoimmune diseases, including acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, acute rheumatic fever, and rheumatic heart disease. Combined, these diseases account for over half a million deaths per year globally. Genomic and molecular analyses have now characterized a large number of GAS virulence determinants, many of which exhibit overlap and redundancy in the processes of adhesion and colonization, innate immune resistance, and the capacity to facilitate tissue barrier degradation and spread within the human host. This improved understanding of the contribution of individual virulence determinants to the disease process has led to the formulation of models of GAS disease progression, which may lead to better treatment and intervention strategies. While GAS remains sensitive to all penicillins and cephalosporins, rising resistance to other antibiotics used in disease treatment is an increasing worldwide concern. Several GAS vaccine formulations that elicit protective immunity in animal models have shown promise in nonhuman primate and early-stage human trials. The development of a safe and efficacious commercial human vaccine for the prophylaxis of GAS disease remains a high priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Walker
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Timothy C. Barnett
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jason D. McArthur
- School of Biological Sciences and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Jason N. Cole
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Christine M. Gillen
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Anna Henningham
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - K. S. Sriprakash
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Martina L. Sanderson-Smith
- School of Biological Sciences and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California, USA
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Hadjirin NF, Harrison EM, Holmes MA, Paterson GK. Conjugative transfer frequencies of mef(A)-containing Tn1207.3 to macrolide-susceptible Streptococcus pyogenes belonging to different emm types. Lett Appl Microbiol 2014; 58:299-302. [PMID: 24383794 PMCID: PMC4238819 DOI: 10.1111/lam.12213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 12/09/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Significance and Impact of the Study: The spread of antimicrobial resistance among pathogenic bacteria is an important problem, but the mechanisms of horizontal transfer between strains and species are often poorly understood. For instance, little is known on how macrolide resistance spreads between strains of the human pathogen Strep. pyogenes and why certain strains more commonly display resistance than others. Here, we show that Strep. pyogenes strains vary greatly in their ability to acquire a transposon encoding macrolide resistance by horizontal gene transfer in vitro. These data provide a novel insight into the transfer of antibiotic resistance between bacterial strains and offer an explanation for the differences in the frequency of resistance determinates and resistance seen among clinical isolates.
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Hedayatianfard K, Akhlaghi M, Sharifiyazdi H. Detection of tetracycline resistance genes in bacteria isolated from fish farms using polymerase chain reaction. VETERINARY RESEARCH FORUM : AN INTERNATIONAL QUARTERLY JOURNAL 2014; 5:269-75. [PMID: 25610578 PMCID: PMC4299992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 12/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Five common tetracycline resistance genes tet(A), tet(B), tet(M), tet(O) and tet(S) were studied by polymerase chain reaction in 100 bacteria isolated from Iranian fish farms. In the antibiogram test most of the bacteria were either intermediately or completely resistant to tetracycline. Nine isolates out of 46 Aeromonas spp. contained either tet(A/M/S) resistant genes as follows: tet(A) in A. veronii/sobria (n = 1), A. media (n = 2), A. aquariorum (n = 1), and A. veronii (n = 3); tet(M) in one isolate of A. sobria and tet(S) in 1 isolate of A. jandaei. In other bacteria, tet(A) gene was detected in Citrobacter freundi (n = 1), Pseudomonas putida (n = 1); tet(S) was also identified in Yersinia ruckeri (n = 1), Arthrobacter arilaitensis (n = 1) and P. putida (n = 1). In total, 31 isolates (31.00%) contained the tetracycline resistance genes in which 21 bacteria (21.00%) showed the tet(S), nine bacteria (9.00%) contained the tet(A) and 1 bacteria (1.00%) was positive for tet(M). All of the L. garvieae isolates contained tet(S) in this study. The most widely distributed resistance gene was gene tet(A) and the least known resistance genes was tet(M) among the studied bacteria of the genus Aeromonas in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keshvad Hedayatianfard
- DVM Graduated student of School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran;
| | - Mostafa Akhlaghi
- Aquatic Animal Health Unit, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran; ,Correspondence: Mostafa Akhlaghi. DVM, PhD, Aquatic Animal Health Unit, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran. E-mail:
| | - Hassan Sharifiyazdi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
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Epidemiology and molecular characterization of macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes in Taiwan. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 52:508-16. [PMID: 24478481 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02383-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Our multicenter nationwide surveillance data indicated that erythromycin (ERY) resistance among group A Streptococcus (GAS) isolates in Taiwan declined from 53.1% in 1998 and 2000 to 14.6% in 2002 and 2004 and 10.7% in 2006 to 2010 (P < 0.01). The present study aimed to assess the epidemiology of GAS in Taiwan and identify factors associated with ERY resistance. All 127 ERY-resistant (ERY(r)) isolates and 128 randomly selected ERY-susceptible (ERY(s)) isolates recovered from 1998 to 2010 were emm typed. ERY(r) isolates were also characterized by ERY resistance phenotype and mechanisms and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Multilocus sequence typing was performed on selected ERY(r) isolates. The predominant emm types in ERY(r) isolates were emm22 (n = 33, 26.0%), emm12 (n = 24, 18.9%), emm4 (n = 21, 16.5%), and emm106 (n = 15, 11.8%). In ERY(s) isolates, emm12 (n = 27, 21.9%), emm1 (n = 18, 14.1%), emm106 (n = 16, 12.5%), and emm11 (n = 9, 7.1%) predominated. The most common ERY resistance phenotype was the M phenotype (resistant to macrolides) (70.9%), with all but one isolate carrying mef(A), followed by the constitutive macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B resistance (cMLSB) phenotype (26.8%), with isolates carrying erm(B) or erm(TR). ERY(r) isolates of the emm12-sequence type 36 (ST36) lineage with the cMLSB phenotype were mostly present before 2004, while those of the emm22-ST46 lineage with the M phenotype predominated in later years. Recovery from respiratory (throat swab) specimens was an independent factor associated with ERY resistance. emm1 and emm11 GAS isolates were significantly associated with ERY(s), while emm22 was detected only in ERY(r) GAS. In addition, emm106 isolates were prevalent among the abscess/pus isolates, whereas emm12 isolates were strongly associated with a respiratory (throat) origin. In addition to identifying factors associated with ERY resistance in GAS, our study provides helpful information on the changing GAS epidemiology in Taiwan.
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Palmieri C, Brenciani A, Mingoia M, Giovanetti E, Facinelli B, Varaldo PE. Pitfalls encountered while investigating genetic elements by PCR. Mob Genet Elements 2013; 3:e25255. [PMID: 23956950 PMCID: PMC3742598 DOI: 10.4161/mge.25255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2013] [Revised: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The unprecedented wealth of databases that have become available in the era of next-generation sequencing has considerably increased our knowledge of bacterial genetic elements (GEs). At the same time, the advent of single-cell based approaches has brought realization that unsuspected heterogeneity may occur in the bacterial population from a single colony. The increasing use of PCR-based techniques to study new GEs requires careful consideration of the possible different PCR targets associated with different subpopulations if incorrect or incomplete interpretations are to be avoided. In this commentary, confining ourselves to our direct experience, we illustrate some examples of PCR pitfalls that may be encountered while investigating GEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Palmieri
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Section of Microbiology; Polytechnic University of Marche; Ancona, Italy
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Rubio-López V, Valdezate S, Alvarez D, Villalón P, Medina MJ, Salcedo C, Sáez-Nieto JA. Molecular epidemiology, antimicrobial susceptibilities and resistance mechanisms of Streptococcus pyogenes isolates resistant to erythromycin and tetracycline in Spain (1994-2006). BMC Microbiol 2012; 12:215. [PMID: 22998619 PMCID: PMC3490898 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-12-215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Group A Streptococcus (GAS) causes human diseases ranging in severity from uncomplicated pharyngitis to life-threatening necrotizing fasciitis and shows high rates of macrolide resistance in several countries. Our goal is to identify antimicrobial resistance in Spanish GAS isolates collected between 1994 and 2006 and to determine the molecular epidemiology (emm/T typing and PFGE) and resistance mechanisms of those resistant to erythromycin and tetracycline. Results Two hundred ninety-five out of 898 isolates (32.8%) were erythromycin resistant, with the predominance of emm4T4, emm75T25, and emm28T28, accounting the 67.1% of the 21 emm/T types. Spread of emm4T4, emm75T25 and emm28T28 resistant clones caused high rates of macrolide resistance. The distribution of the phenotypes was M (76.9%), cMLSB (20.3%), iMLSB (2.7%) with the involvement of the erythromycin resistance genes mef(A) (89.5%), msr(D) (81.7%), erm(B) (37.3%) and erm(A) (35.9%). Sixty-one isolates were tetracycline resistant, with the main representation of the emm77T28 among 20 emm/T types. To note, the combination of tet(M) and tet(O) tetracycline resistance genes were similar to tet(M) alone reaching values close to 40%. Resistance to both antibiotics was detected in 19 isolates of 7 emm/T types, being emm11T11 and the cMLSB phenotype the most frequent ones. erm(B) and tet(M) were present in almost all the strains, while erm(A), mef(A), msr(D) and tet(O) appeared in less than half of them. Conclusions Spanish GAS were highly resistant to macrolides meanwhile showed minor resistance rate to tetracycline. A remarkable correlation between antimicrobial resistance and emm/T type was noticed. Clonal spread of emm4T4, emm75T25 and emm28T28 was the main responsable for macrolide resistance where as that emm77T28 clones were it to tetraclycline resistance. A wide variety of macrolide resistance genes were responsible for three macrolide resistance phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Rubio-López
- Servicio de Bacteriología, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
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Characterization of a Streptococcus suis tet(O/W/32/O)-carrying element transferable to major streptococcal pathogens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56:4697-702. [PMID: 22710115 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00629-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosaic tetracycline resistance determinants are a recently discovered class of hybrids of ribosomal protection tet genes. They may show different patterns of mosaicism, but their final size has remained unaltered. Initially thought to be confined to a small group of anaerobic bacteria, mosaic tet genes were then found to be widespread. In the genus Streptococcus, a mosaic tet gene [tet(O/W/32/O)] was first discovered in Streptococcus suis, an emerging drug-resistant pig and human pathogen. In this study, we report the molecular characterization of a tet(O/W/32/O) gene-carrying mobile element from an S. suis isolate. tet(O/W/32/O) was detected, in tandem with tet(40), in a circular 14,741-bp genetic element (39.1% G+C; 17 open reading frames [ORFs] identified). The novel element, which we designated 15K, also carried the macrolide resistance determinant erm(B) and an aminoglycoside resistance four-gene cluster including aadE (streptomycin) and aphA (kanamycin). 15K appeared to be an unstable genetic element that, in the absence of recombinases, is capable of undergoing spontaneous excision under standard growth conditions. In the integrated form, 15K was found inside a 54,879-bp integrative and conjugative element (ICE) (50.5% G+C; 55 ORFs), which we designated ICESsu32457. An ∼1.3-kb segment that apparently served as the att site for excision of the unstable 15K element was identified. The novel ICE was transferable at high frequency to recipients from pathogenic Streptococcus species (S. suis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Streptococcus agalactiae), suggesting that the multiresistance 15K element can successfully spread within streptococcal populations.
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ICESp2905, the erm(TR)-tet(O) element of Streptococcus pyogenes, is formed by two independent integrative and conjugative elements. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 56:591-4. [PMID: 21986826 DOI: 10.1128/aac.05352-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In ICESp2905, a widespread erm(TR)- and tet(O)-carrying genetic element of Streptococcus pyogenes, the two resistance determinants are contained in separate fragments inserted into a scaffold of clostridial origin. ICESp2905 (∼65.6 kb) was transferable not only in its regular form but also in a defective form lacking the erm(TR) fragment (ICESp2906, ∼53.0 kb). The erm(TR) fragment was also an independent integrative and conjugative element (ICE) (ICESp2907, ∼12.6 kb). ICESp2905 thus results from one ICE (ICESp2907) being integrated into another (ICESp2906).
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Takahata M, Sugiura Y, Shiokawa Y, Futakuchi N, Fukuda Y, Nomura N, Mitsuyama J. In vitro and in vivo antibacterial activities of garenoxacin against group G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2011; 38:226-30. [PMID: 21726983 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Revised: 04/19/2011] [Accepted: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this study, garenoxacin showed potent in vitro activity against clinical isolates of group G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis [minimum inhibitory concentration for 90% of the organisms (MIC(90)) = 0.125 μg/mL] and was superior to levofloxacin (MIC(90) = 1 μg/mL) and moxifloxacin (MIC(90)=0.25 μg/mL). In experimental pneumonia caused by group G S. dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis in mice, the effective dose for 50% survival (ED(50)) of garenoxacin following single oral administration was 1.87 mg/kg, >10.7-fold and 4.6-fold less than the ED(50) values of levofloxacin (>20 mg/kg) and moxifloxacin (8.54 mg/kg), respectively. The area under the free serum concentration-time curve from 0-24 h (fAUC(0-24))/MIC ratio of garenoxacin in serum following oral administration of 20 mg/kg was 73.2, which was 8.7-11.4-fold and 1.4-fold greater than that of levofloxacin (6.44-8.46) and moxifloxacin (51.4), respectively. These results suggest that garenoxacin has potential for the treatment of infectious diseases caused by S. dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Takahata
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co. Ltd., 4-1, Shimookui 2-chome, Toyama 930-8508, Japan. MASAHIRO
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Two distinct genetic elements are responsible for erm(TR)-mediated erythromycin resistance in tetracycline-susceptible and tetracycline-resistant strains of Streptococcus pyogenes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:2106-12. [PMID: 21343455 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01378-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In Streptococcus pyogenes, inducible erythromycin (ERY) resistance is due to posttranscriptional methylation of an adenine residue in 23S rRNA that can be encoded either by the erm(B) gene or by the more recently described erm(TR) gene. Two erm(TR)-carrying genetic elements, showing extensive DNA identities, have thus far been sequenced: ICE10750-RD.2 (∼49 kb) and Tn1806 (∼54 kb), from tetracycline (TET)-susceptible strains of S. pyogenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae, respectively. However, TET resistance, commonly mediated by the tet(O) gene, is widespread in erm(TR)-positive S. pyogenes. In this study, 23 S. pyogenes clinical strains with erm(TR)-mediated ERY resistance-3 TET susceptible and 20 TET resistant-were investigated. Two erm(TR)-carrying elements sharing only a short, high-identity erm(TR)-containing core sequence were comprehensively characterized: ICESp1108 (45,456 bp) from the TET-susceptible strain C1 and ICESp2905 (65,575 bp) from the TET-resistant strain iB21. While ICESp1108 exhibited extensive identities to ICE10750-RD.2 and Tn1806, ICESp2905 showed a previously unreported genetic organization resulting from the insertion of separate erm(TR)- and tet(O)-containing fragments in a scaffold of clostridial origin. Transferability by conjugation of the erm(TR) elements from the same strains used in this study had been demonstrated in earlier investigations. Unlike ICE10750-RD.2 and Tn1806, which are integrated into an hsdM chromosomal gene, both ICESp1108 and ICESp2905 shared the chromosomal integration site at the 3' end of the conserved rum gene, which is an integration hot spot for several mobile streptococcal elements. By using PCR-mapping assays, erm(TR)-carrying elements closely resembling ICESp1108 and ICESp2905 were shown in the other TET-susceptible and TET-resistant test strains, respectively.
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Different genetic elements carrying the tet(W) gene in two human clinical isolates of Streptococcus suis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 55:631-6. [PMID: 21115784 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00965-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic support for tet(W), an emerging tetracycline resistance determinant, was studied in two strains of Streptococcus suis, SsCA and SsUD, both isolated in Italy from patients with meningitis. Two completely different tet(W)-carrying genetic elements, sharing only a tet(W)-containing segment barely larger than the gene, were found in the two strains. The one from strain SsCA was nontransferable, and aside from an erm(B)-containing insertion, it closely resembled a genomic island recently described in an S. suis Chinese human isolate in sequence, organization, and chromosomal location. The tet(W)-carrying genetic element from strain SsUD was transferable (at a low frequency) and, though apparently noninducible following mitomycin C treatment, displayed a typical phage organization and was named ΦSsUD.1. Its full sequence was determined (60,711 bp), the highest BLASTN score being Streptococcus pyogenes Φm46.1. ΦSsUD.1 exhibited a unique combination of antibiotic and heavy metal resistance genes. Besides tet(W), it contained a MAS (macrolide-aminoglycoside-streptothricin) fragment with an erm(B) gene having a deleted leader peptide and a cadC/cadA cadmium efflux cassette. The MAS fragment closely resembled the one recently described in pneumococcal transposons Tn6003 and Tn1545. These resistance genes found in the ΦSsUD.1 phage scaffold differed from, but were in the same position as, cargo genes carried by other streptococcal phages. The chromosome integration site of ΦSsUD.1 was at the 3' end of a conserved tRNA uracil methyltransferase (rum) gene. This site, known to be an insertional hot spot for mobile elements in S. pyogenes, might play a similar role in S. suis.
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Lysogenic transfer of mef(A) and tet(O) genes carried by Phim46.1 among group A streptococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:4464-6. [PMID: 20643900 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01318-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the ex vivo lysogenic transfer of erythromycin and tetracycline resistance genes among group A streptococci (GAS). Of 42 susceptible strains, 69% acquired erythromycin/tetracycline resistance when infected with purified supernatants from strain m46 culture containing the phage Φm46.1. A significant emm-type-dependent barrier to lysogenic transfer was not observed. The emm12 strains were the only strains susceptible to the lytic action of the bacteriophage preparation.
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Dundar D, Sayan M, Tamer GS. Macrolide and tetracycline resistance and emm type distribution of Streptococcus pyogenes isolates recovered from Turkish patients. Microb Drug Resist 2010; 16:279-84. [PMID: 20624096 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2010.0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The aims of this study were to determine the susceptibilities to macrolide and tetracycline antibiotics and emm type distribution of Streptococcus pyogenes strains isolated in the Kocaeli University Hospital, Turkey. A total of 127 S. pyogenes clinical isolates were tested. Eleven (9%) isolates were resistant to erythromycin, and 23 (18%) isolates were resistant to tetracycline. Ten of the erythromycin-resistant isolates were also resistant to tetracycline. By the triple-disk test, all erythromycin-resistant isolates showed the inducible macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin-C phenotype and harbored erm(TR) gene. tet(O) was the most common tetracycline resistance gene. Among erythromycin-tetracycline coresistant isolates, seven harbored the tet(O) gene. emm 4, emm 1, emm 2,114, and emm 89 were the most common emm types. These isolates were more susceptible to erythromycin. There was considerable emm type heterogeneity in macrolide or tetracycline resistant isolates. According to our knowledge, this is the first study in which emm type distribution is investigated in Turkey. More comprehensive studies are needed to obtain true information about the epidemiology of macrolide and tetracycline resistance and emm type distribution in Turkey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devrim Dundar
- Department of Microbioloy and Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey.
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Biotypes et sensibilité aux antibiotiques des souches de Streptococcus pyogenes isolées chez des enfants à Tunis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 103:69-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s13149-010-0053-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2009] [Accepted: 01/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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46
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Determination of presence of resistance to erythromycin and tetracycline antibiotics in isolated streptococcus species from group C and group G. ACTA VET-BEOGRAD 2010. [DOI: 10.2298/avb1006487p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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47
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Egervärn M, Roos S, Lindmark H. Identification and characterization of antibiotic resistance genes inLactobacillus reuteriandLactobacillus plantarum. J Appl Microbiol 2009; 107:1658-68. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04352.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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48
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Phim46.1, the main Streptococcus pyogenes element carrying mef(A) and tet(O) genes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 54:221-9. [PMID: 19858262 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00499-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Phim46.1, the recognized representative of the most common variant of mobile, prophage-associated genetic elements carrying resistance genes mef(A) (which confers efflux-mediated erythromycin resistance) and tet(O) (which confers tetracycline resistance) in Streptococcus pyogenes, was fully characterized. Sequencing of the Phim46.1 genome (55,172 bp) demonstrated a modular organization typical of tailed bacteriophages. Electron microscopic analysis of mitomycin-induced Phim46.1 revealed phage particles with the distinctive icosahedral head and tail morphology of the Siphoviridae family. The chromosome integration site was within a 23S rRNA uracil methyltransferase gene. BLASTP analysis revealed that the proteins of Phim46.1 had high levels of amino acid sequence similarity to the amino acid sequences of proteins from other prophages, especially Phi10394.4 of S. pyogenes and lambdaSa04 of S. agalactiae. Phage DNA was present in the host cell both as a prophage and as free circular DNA. The lysogeny module appears to have been split due to the insertion of a segment containing tet(O) (from integrated conjugative element 2096-RD.2) and mef(A) (from a Tn1207.1-like transposon) into the unintegrated phage DNA. The phage attachment sequence lies in the region between tet(O) and mef(A) in the unintegrated form. Thus, whereas in this form tet(O) is approximately 5.5 kb upstream of mef(A), in the integrated form, tet(O), which lies close to the right end of the prophage, is approximately 46.3 kb downstream of mef(A), which lies close to the left end of the prophage.
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Park YK, Nho SW, Shin GW, Park SB, Jang HB, Cha IS, Ha MA, Kim YR, Dalvi RS, Kang BJ, Jung TS. Antibiotic susceptibility and resistance of Streptococcus iniae and Streptococcus parauberis isolated from olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Vet Microbiol 2009; 136:76-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2008] [Revised: 09/27/2008] [Accepted: 10/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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50
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Distribution of phage-associated virulence genes in pharyngeal group a streptococcal strains isolated in Italy. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47:1575-7. [PMID: 19279174 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00925-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence and assortment of 16 known virulence/resistance genetic determinants carried by prophages or prophage-like elements were tested in 212 clinical group A Streptococcus (GAS) strains and related to available data from SmaI macrorestriction/pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis and emm typing. A strong correlation existed among the three analyses. This finding supports the substantial contribution to the evolution and diversification of the GAS genome attributed to phages.
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