Proteomic analysis of stationary phase in the marine bacterium "Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique"

Marine-Derived Fungi as a Valuable Resource for Amylases Activity Screening

Marine microbial enzymes including amylases are important in different industrial production due to their properties and applications. This study was focused on the screening of marine-derived fungi for amylase activities. First, we isolated a number of fungi from the sediments of the South China Sea. By the method of dish screening (in vitro), we subsequently obtained a series of amylase-producing fungal strains. The cell-lysate activities of amylases produced by marine fungi toward starch hydrolysis were achieved with the dinitrosalyicylic acid (DNS) method. In addition, the effect of pH and temperature on amylase activities, including thermal and pH stability were discussed. Results showed that out of the 57 isolates with amylase-producing activities, fungi Aspergillus flavus 9261 was found to produce amylase with the best activity of 10.7482 U/mg (wet mycelia). The amylase of Aspergillus flavus 9261 exhibited remarkable thermostability and pH stability with no activity loss after incubation at 50 °C and pH 5.0 for 1 h, respectively. The results provide advances in discovering enzymes from marine-derived fungi and their biotechnology relevance.

A Reduction of Transcriptional Regulation in Aquatic Oligotrophic Microorganisms Enhances Fitness in Nutrient-Poor Environments

In this review, we consider the regulatory strategies of aquatic oligotrophs, microbial cells that are adapted to thrive under low-nutrient concentrations in oceans, lakes, and other aquatic ecosystems. Many reports have concluded that oligotrophs use less transcriptional regulation than copiotrophic cells, which are adapted to high nutrient concentrations and are far more common subjects for laboratory investigations of regulation. It is theorized that oligotrophs have retained alternate mechanisms of regulation, such as riboswitches, that provide shorter response times and smaller amplitude responses and require fewer cellular resources. We examine the accumulated evidence for distinctive regulatory strategies in oligotrophs. We explore differences in the selective pressures copiotrophs and oligotrophs encounter and ask why, although evolutionary history gives copiotrophs and oligotrophs access to the same regulatory mechanisms, they might exhibit distinctly different patterns in how these mechanisms are used. We discuss the implications of these findings for understanding broad patterns in the evolution of microbial regulatory networks and their relationships to environmental niche and life history strategy. We ask whether these observations, which have emerged from a decade of increased investigation of the cell biology of oligotrophs, might be relevant to recent discoveries of many microbial cell lineages in nature that share with oligotrophs the property of reduced genome size.

Differences in the regulatory strategies of marine oligotrophs and copiotrophs reflect differences in motility

Aquatic bacteria frequently are divided into lifestyle categories oligotroph or copiotroph. Oligotrophs have proportionately fewer transcriptional regulatory genes than copiotrophs and are generally non-motile/chemotactic. We hypothesized that the absence of chemotaxis/motility in oligotrophs prevents them from occupying nutrient patches long enough to benefit from transcriptional regulation. We first confirmed that marine oligotrophs are generally reduced in genes for transcriptional regulation and motility/chemotaxis. Next, using a non-motile oligotroph (Ca. Pelagibacter st. HTCC7211), a motile copiotroph (Alteromonas macleodii st. HOT1A3), and [¹⁴ C]l-alanine, we confirmed that l-alanine catabolism is not transcriptionally regulated in HTCC7211 but is in HOT1A3. We then found that HOT1A3 took 2.5-4 min to initiate l-alanine oxidation at patch l-alanine concentrations, compared to <30 s for HTCC7211. By modelling cell trajectories, we predicted that, in most scenarios, non-motile cells spend <2 min in patches, compared to >4 min for chemotactic/motile cells. Thus, the time necessary for transcriptional regulation to initiate prevents transcriptional regulation from being beneficial for non-motile oligotrophs. This is supported by a mechanistic model we developed, which predicted that HTCC7211 cells with transcriptional regulation of l-alanine metabolism would produce 12% of their standing ATP stock upon encountering an l-alanine patch, compared to 880% in HTCC7211 cells without transcriptional regulation.

Clp protease and antisense RNA jointly regulate the global regulator CarD to mediate mycobacterial starvation response

Under starvation conditions, bacteria tend to slow down their translation rate by reducing rRNA synthesis, but the way they accomplish that may vary in different bacteria. In Mycobacterium species, transcription of rRNA is activated by the RNA polymerase (RNAP) accessory transcription factor CarD, which interacts directly with RNAP to stabilize the RNAP-promoter open complex formed on rRNA genes. The functions of CarD have been extensively studied, but the mechanisms that control its expression remain obscure. Here, we report that the level of CarD was tightly regulated when mycobacterial cells switched from nutrient-rich to nutrient-deprived conditions. At the translational level, an antisense RNA of carD (AscarD) was induced in a SigF-dependent manner to bind with carD mRNA and inhibit CarD translation, while at the post-translational level, the residual intracellular CarD was quickly degraded by the Clp protease. AscarD thus worked synergistically with Clp protease to decrease the CarD level to help mycobacterial cells cope with the nutritional stress. Altogether, our work elucidates the regulation mode of CarD and delineates a new mechanism for the mycobacterial starvation response, which is important for the adaptation and persistence of mycobacterial pathogens in the host environment.

Why Environmental Biomarkers Work: Transcriptome-Proteome Correlations and Modeling of Multistressor Experiments in the Marine Bacterium Trichodesmium

Ocean microbial communities are important contributors to the global biogeochemical reactions that sustain life on Earth. The factors controlling these communities are being increasingly explored using metatranscriptomic and metaproteomic environmental biomarkers. Using published proteomes and transcriptomes from the abundant colony-forming cyanobacterium Trichodesmium (strain IMS101) grown under varying Fe and/or P limitation in low and high CO₂, we observed robust correlations of stress-induced proteins and RNAs (i.e., involved in transport and homeostasis) that yield useful information on the nutrient status under low and/or high CO₂. Conversely, transcriptional and translational correlations of many other central metabolism pathways exhibit broad discordance. A cellular RNA and protein production/degradation model demonstrates how biomolecules with small initial inventories, such as environmentally responsive proteins, achieve large increases in fold-change units as opposed to those with a higher basal expression and inventory such as metabolic systems. Microbial cells, due to their immersion in the environment, tend to show large adaptive responses in both RNA and protein that result in transcript-protein correlations. These observations and model results demonstrate multi-omic coherence for environmental biomarkers and provide the underlying mechanism for those observations, supporting the promise for global application in detecting responses to environmental stimuli in a changing ocean.

Isolation and identification of marine microbial products

Background

The ocean is one of the world’s most important sources of bioactive chemicals in the marine environment. Microbiologists, ecologists, agronomists, taxonomists, and evolutionary biologists have been increasingly interested in marine microbial natural products (MMNPs) in recent decades.

Main body

Diverse marine bacteria appear to get the ability to manufacture an astounding diversity of MMNPs with a wide range of biological actions, including anti-tumor, antimicrobial, and anti-cardiovascular agents according to numerous studies.

Short conclusions

Innovative isolation and culture methodologies, tactics for identifying novel MMNPs via routine screens, metagenomics, genomics, combinatorial biosynthesis, and synthetic biology are all discussed in this review. There is also a discussion of potential issues and future directions for studying MMNPs.

SAR11 Cells Rely on Enzyme Multifunctionality To Metabolize a Range of Polyamine Compounds

In the ocean surface layer and cell culture, the polyamine transport protein PotD of SAR11 bacteria is often one of the most abundant proteins detected. Polyamines are organic cations at seawater pH produced by all living organisms and are thought to be an important component of dissolved organic matter (DOM) produced in planktonic ecosystems. We hypothesized that SAR11 cells uptake and metabolize multiple polyamines and use them as sources of carbon and nitrogen. Metabolic footprinting and fingerprinting were used to measure the uptake of five polyamine compounds (putrescine, cadaverine, agmatine, norspermidine, and spermidine) in two SAR11 strains that represent the majority of SAR11 cells in the surface ocean environment, “Candidatus Pelagibacter” strain HTCC7211 and “Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique” strain HTCC1062. Both strains took up all five polyamines and concentrated them to micromolar or millimolar intracellular concentrations. Both strains could use most of the polyamines to meet their nitrogen requirements, but polyamines did not fully substitute for their requirements of glycine (or related compounds) or pyruvate (or related compounds). Our data suggest that potABCD transports all five polyamines and that spermidine synthase, speE, is reversible, catalyzing the breakdown of spermidine and norspermidine, in addition to its usual biosynthetic role. These findings provide support for the hypothesis that enzyme multifunctionality enables streamlined cells in planktonic ecosystems to increase the range of DOM compounds they metabolize.

Trait dimensions in bacteria and archaea compared to vascular plants

Bacteria and archaea have very different ecology compared to plants. One similarity, though, is that much discussion of their ecological strategies has invoked concepts such as oligotrophy or stress tolerance. For plants, so-called 'trait ecology'-strategy description reframed along measurable trait dimensions-has made global syntheses possible. Among widely measured trait dimensions for bacteria and archaea three main axes are evident. Maximum growth rate in association with rRNA operon copy number expresses a rate-yield trade-off that is analogous to the acquisitive-conservative spectrum in plants, though underpinned by different trade-offs. Genome size in association with signal transduction expresses versatility. Cell size has influence on diffusive uptake and on relative wall costs. These trait dimensions, and potentially others, offer promise for interpreting ecology. At the same time, there are very substantial differences from plant trait ecology. Traits and their underpinning trade-offs are different. Also, bacteria and archaea use a variety of different substrates. Bacterial strategies can be viewed both through the facet of substrate-use pathways, and also through the facet of quantitative traits such as maximum growth rate. Preliminary evidence shows the quantitative traits vary widely within substrate-use pathways. This indicates they convey information complementary to substrate use.

Characterization of a New M4 Metalloprotease With Collagen-Swelling Ability From Marine Vibrio pomeroyi Strain 12613

The ocean harbors a variety of bacteria that contain huge protease resources and offer a great potential for industrial and biotechnological applications. Here, we isolated a protease-secreting bacterium Vibrio pomeroyi strain 12613 from Atlantic seawater and purified a protease VP9 from strain 12613. VP9 was identified as a metalloprotease of the M4 family. VP9 could hydrolyze casein and gelatin but not elastin and collagen. With gelatin as the substrate, VP9 showed the highest activity at 40°C and pH 6.0–8.0. It was stable at temperatures of 50°C and less and in the range of pH 5.0–11.0. VP9 also had good tolerance to NaCl, non-ionic detergents, and organic solvent methanol. Unlike other M4 metalloproteases, VP9 has distinct collagen-swelling ability, and its collagen-swelling effect was concentration dependent. The relative expansion volume of collagen increased by approximately eightfold after treatment with 10 μM VP9 at 37°C for 12 h. The collagen-swelling mechanism of VP9 on bovine-insoluble type I collagen was further studied. Atomic force microscopy observation and biochemical analyses showed that VP9 can degrade proteoglycans in collagen fibers, resulting in the release of collagen fibrils from collagen fibers and the swelling of the latter. In addition, VP9 can degrade glycoproteins, a non-collagenous constituent interacting with collagen in the skin. The characteristics of VP9, such as sufficient specificity toward proteoglycans and glycoproteins but no activity toward collagen, suggest its promising potential in the unhairing and fiber-opening processing in leather industry.

Impact of Ocean Acidification on the Intestinal Microbiota of the Marine Sea Bream (Sparus aurata L.)

Within a scenario of increasing atmospheric CO2 and ocean acidification (OA), it is highly relevant to investigate its impacts not only on fish performance but also on fish intestinal microbiome and how that reflects on host performance and health. The main objective of this study was to establish if the intestinal microbiota of the sea bream (Sparus aurata) was affected by high level of CO2 in line with the predictions for this century. The bacterial communities of the intestinal fluid were characterized in animals kept at the present-day level of CO2 (400 μatm) and in animals switched to high CO2 (1200 μatm) for 1 month. Bacterial taxa identification was based on molecular methods, using the DNA coding for the 16S ribosomal RNA and primers targeting the regions V1-V3. Amplicons obtained from DNA samples of animals in the same tank were combined, cloned to obtain a bacterial DNA library, and the clones were sequenced. No significant differences were found between the two treatments for alpha diversity. However, beta diversity analysis revealed distinct dysbiosis in response to hypercapnia, with phylum Firmicutes absent from the bacterial communities of fish exposed to 1200 μatm CO2, whereas Proteobacteria relative abundance was increased at elevated CO2, due to the presence of Gammaproteobacteria (Vibrionaceae and Alteromonadaceae), a class not present in the control samples. This study provides a first glimpse at the impact of OA in fish intestinal microbiota and highlights potential downstream effects to the general condition of fishes under hypercapnia.

SAR11 bacteria have a high affinity and multifunctional glycine betaine transporter

Marine bacterioplankton face stiff competition for limited nutrient resources. SAR11, a ubiquitous clade of very small and highly abundant Alphaproteobacteria, are known to devote much of their energy to synthesizing ATP-binding cassette periplasmic proteins that bind substrates. We hypothesized that their small size and relatively large periplasmic space might enable them to outcompete other bacterioplankton for nutrients. Using uptake experiments with ¹⁴ C-glycine betaine, we discovered that two strains of SAR11, Candidatus Pelagibacter sp. HTCC7211 and Cand. P. ubique HTCC1062, have extraordinarily high affinity for glycine betaine (GBT), with half-saturation (K _s ) values around 1 nM and specific affinity values between 8 and 14 L mg cell^-1  h^-1 . Competitive inhibition studies indicated that the GBT transporters in these strains are multifunctional, transporting multiple substrates in addition to GBT. Both strains could use most of the transported compounds for metabolism and ATP production. Our findings indicate that Pelagibacter cells are primarily responsible for the high affinity and multifunctional GBT uptake systems observed in seawater. Maximization of whole-cell affinities may enable these organisms to compete effectively for nutrients during periods when the gross transport capacity of the heterotrophic plankton community exceeds the supply, depressing ambient concentrations.

Survival of the fewest: Microbial dormancy and maintenance in marine sediments through deep time

Microorganisms buried in marine sediments are known to endure starvation over geologic timescales. However, the mechanisms of how these microorganisms cope with prolonged energy limitation is unknown and therefore yet to be captured in a quantitative framework. Here, we present a novel mathematical model that considers (a) the physiological transitions between the active and dormant states of microorganisms, (b) the varying requirement for maintenance power between these phases, and (c) flexibility in the provenance (i.e., source) of energy from exogenous and endogenous catabolism. The model is applied to sediments underlying the oligotrophic South Pacific Gyre where microorganisms endure ultra-low fluxes of energy for tens of millions of years. Good fits between model simulations and measurements of cellular carbon and organic carbon concentrations are obtained and are interpreted as follows: (a) the unfavourable microbial habitat in South Pacific Gyre sediments triggers rapid mortality and a transition to dormancy; (b) there is minimal biomass growth, and organic carbon consumption is dominated by catabolism to support maintenance activities rather than new biomass synthesis; (c) the amount of organic carbon that microorganisms consume for maintenance activities is equivalent to approximately 2% of their carbon biomass per year; and (d) microorganisms must rely solely on exogenous rather than endogenous catabolism to persist in South Pacific Gyre sediments over long timescales. This leads us to the conclusion that under oligotrophic conditions, the fitness of an organism is determined by its ability to simply stay alive, rather than to grow. This modelling framework is designed to be flexible for application to other sites and habitats, and thus serves as a new quantitative tool for determining the habitability of and an ultimate limit for life in any environment.

Physiological and proteomic analyses of Fe(III)-reducing co-cultures of Desulfotomaculum reducens MI-1 and Geobacter sulfurreducens PCA

We established Fe(III)-reducing co-cultures of two species of metal-reducing bacteria, the Gram-positive Desulfotomaculum reducens MI-1 and the Gram-negative Geobacter sulfurreducens PCA. Co-cultures were given pyruvate, a substrate that D. reducens can ferment and use as electron donor for Fe(III) reduction. G. sulfurreducens relied upon products of pyruvate oxidation by D. reducens (acetate, hydrogen) for use as electron donor in the co-culture. Co-cultures reduced Fe(III) to Fe(II) robustly, and Fe(II) was consistently detected earlier in co-cultures than pure cultures. Notably, faster cell growth, and correspondingly faster pyruvate oxidation, was observed by D. reducens in co-cultures. Global comparative proteomic analysis was performed to observe differential protein abundance during co-culture vs. pure culture growth. Proteins previously associated with Fe(III) reduction in G. sulfurreducens, namely c-type cytochromes and type IV pili proteins, were significantly increased in abundance in co-cultures relative to pure cultures. D. reducens ribosomal proteins were significantly increased in co-cultures, likely a reflection of faster growth rates observed for D. reducens cells while in co-culture. Furthermore, we developed multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) assays to quantitate specific biomarker peptides. The assays were validated in pure and co-cultures, and protein abundance ratios from targeted MRM and global proteomic analysis correlate significantly.

Nutrient recycling facilitates long-term stability of marine microbial phototroph-heterotroph interactions

Biological interactions underpin the functioning of marine ecosystems, be it via competition, predation, mutualism, or symbiosis processes. Microbial phototroph-heterotroph interactions propel the engine that results in the biogeochemical cycling of individual elements and are critical for understanding and modelling global ocean processes. Unfortunately, studies thus far have focused on exponentially-growing cultures in nutrient-rich media, meaning knowledge of such interactions under in situ conditions is rudimentary at best. Here, we performed long-term phototroph-heterotroph co-culture experiments under nutrient-amended and natural seawater conditions which showed that it is not the concentration of nutrients but rather their circulation that maintains a stable interaction and a dynamic system. Using the Synechococcus-Roseobacter interaction as a model phototroph-heterotroph case study we show that whilst Synechococcus is highly specialised for carrying out photosynthesis and carbon-fixation it relies on the heterotroph to re-mineralise the inevitably leaked organic matter making nutrients circulate in a mutualistic system. In this sense we challenge the general belief that marine phototrophs and heterotrophs compete for the same scarce nutrients and niche space, but instead suggest these organisms more likely benefit from each other because of their different levels of specialization and complementarity within long-term stable-state systems.

Discrimination of Four Marine Biofilm-Forming Bacteria by LC-MS Metabolomics and Influence of Culture Parameters

Most marine bacteria can form biofilms, and they are the main components of biofilms observed on marine surfaces. Biofilms constitute a widespread life strategy, as growing in such structures offers many important biological benefits. The molecular compounds expressed in biofilms and, more generally, the metabolomes of marine bacteria remain poorly studied. In this context, a nontargeted LC-MS metabolomics approach of marine biofilm-forming bacterial strains was developed. Four marine bacteria, Persicivirga (Nonlabens) mediterranea TC4 and TC7, Pseudoalteromonas lipolytica TC8, and Shewanella sp. TC11, were used as model organisms. The main objective was to search for some strain-specific bacterial metabolites and to determine how culture parameters (culture medium, growth phase, and mode of culture) may affect the cellular metabolism of each strain and thus the global interstrain metabolic discrimination. LC-MS profiling and statistical partial least-squares discriminant analyses showed that the four strains could be differentiated at the species level whatever the medium, the growth phase, or the mode of culture (planktonic vs biofilm). A MS/MS molecular network was subsequently built and allowed the identification of putative bacterial biomarkers. TC8 was discriminated by a series of ornithine lipids, while the P. mediterranea strains produced hydroxylated ornithine and glycine lipids. Among the P. mediterranea strains, TC7 extracts were distinguished by the occurrence of diamine derivatives, such as putrescine amides.

Comparative proteomics reveals signature metabolisms of exponentially growing and stationary phase marine bacteria

Much of the phenotype of a microorganism consists of its repertoire of metabolisms and how and when its proteins are deployed under different growth conditions. Hence, analyses of protein expression could provide important understanding of how bacteria adapt to different environmental settings. To characterize the flexibility of proteomes of marine bacteria, we investigated protein profiles of three important marine bacterial lineages - Oceanospirillaceae (Neptuniibacter caesariensis strain MED92), Roseobacter (Phaeobacter sp. MED193) and Flavobacteria (Dokdonia sp. MED134) - during transition from exponential to stationary phase. As much as 59-80% of each species' total proteome was expressed. Moreover, all three bacteria profoundly altered their expressed proteomes during growth phase transition, from a dominance of proteins involved in translation to more diverse proteomes, with a striking appearance of enzymes involved in different nutrient-scavenging metabolisms. Whereas the three bacteria shared several overarching metabolic strategies, they differed in important details, including distinct expression patterns of membrane transporters and proteins in carbon and phosphorous metabolism and storage compounds. These differences can be seen as signature metabolisms - metabolisms specific for lineages. These findings suggest that quantitative proteomics can inform about the divergent ecological strategies of marine bacteria in adapting to changes in environmental conditions.

Transcriptional Control in Marine Copiotrophic and Oligotrophic Bacteria with Streamlined Genomes

Bacteria often respond to environmental stimuli using transcriptional control, but this may not be the case for marine bacteria such as "Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique," a cultivated representative of the SAR11 clade, the most abundant organism in the ocean. This bacterium has a small, streamlined genome and an unusually low number of transcriptional regulators, suggesting that transcriptional control is low in Pelagibacter and limits its response to environmental conditions. Transcriptome sequencing during batch culture growth revealed that only 0.1% of protein-encoding genes appear to be under transcriptional control in Pelagibacter and in another oligotroph (SAR92) whereas >10% of genes were under transcriptional control in the copiotrophs Polaribacter sp. strain MED152 and Ruegeria pomeroyi When growth levels changed, transcript levels remained steady in Pelagibacter and SAR92 but shifted in MED152 and R. pomeroyi Transcript abundances per cell, determined using an internal RNA sequencing standard, were low (<1 transcript per cell) for all but a few of the most highly transcribed genes in all four taxa, and there was no correlation between transcript abundances per cell and shifts in the levels of transcription. These results suggest that low transcriptional control contributes to the success of Pelagibacter and possibly other oligotrophic microbes that dominate microbial communities in the oceans.

IMPORTANCE

Diverse heterotrophic bacteria drive biogeochemical cycling in the ocean. The most abundant types of marine bacteria are oligotrophs with small, streamlined genomes. The metabolic controls that regulate the response of oligotrophic bacteria to environmental conditions remain unclear. Our results reveal that transcriptional control is lower in marine oligotrophic bacteria than in marine copiotrophic bacteria. Although responses of bacteria to environmental conditions are commonly regulated at the level of transcription, metabolism in the most abundant bacteria in the ocean appears to be regulated by other mechanisms.

Proteome Remodeling in Response to Sulfur Limitation in "Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique"

The alphaproteobacterium "Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique" strain HTCC1062 and most other members of the SAR11 clade lack genes for assimilatory sulfate reduction, making them dependent on organosulfur compounds that occur naturally in seawater. To investigate how these cells adapt to sulfur limitation, batch cultures were grown in defined medium containing either limiting or nonlimiting amounts of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) as the sole sulfur source. Protein and mRNA expression were measured before, during, and after the transition from exponential growth to stationary phase. Two distinct responses were observed, one as DMSP became exhausted and another as the cells acclimated to a sulfur-limited environment. The first response was characterized by increased transcription and translation of all "Ca. Pelagibacter ubique" genes downstream from the previously confirmed S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) riboswitches bhmT, mmuM, and metY. The proteins encoded by these genes were up to 33 times more abundant as DMSP became limiting. Their predicted function is to shunt all available sulfur to methionine. The secondary response, observed during sulfur-limited stationary phase, was a 6- to 10-fold increase in the transcription of the heme c shuttle-encoding gene ccmC and two small genes of unknown function (SAR11_1163 and SAR11_1164). This bacterium's strategy for coping with sulfur stress appears to be intracellular redistribution to support methionine biosynthesis rather than increasing organosulfur import. Many of the genes and SAM riboswitches involved in this response are located in a hypervariable genome region (HVR). One of these HVR genes, ordL, is located downstream from a conserved motif that evidence suggests is a novel riboswitch. IMPORTANCE "Ca. Pelagibacter ubique" is a key driver of marine biogeochemistry cycles and a model for understanding how minimal genomes evolved in free-living anucleate organisms. This study explores the unusual sulfur acquisition strategy that has evolved in these cells, which lack assimilatory sulfate reduction and instead rely on reduced sulfur compounds found in oxic marine environments to meet their cellular quotas. Our findings demonstrate that the sulfur acquisition systems are constitutively expressed but the enzymatic steps leading to the essential sulfur-containing amino acid methionine are regulated by a unique array of riboswitches and genes, many of which are encoded in a rapidly evolving genome region. These findings support mounting evidence that streamlined cells have evolved regulatory mechanisms that minimize transcriptional switching and, unexpectedly, localize essential sulfur acquisition genes in a genome region normally associated with adaption to environmental variation.

Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Desulfotomaculum reducens MI-1: Insights into the Metabolic Versatility of a Gram-Positive Sulfate- and Metal-Reducing Bacterium

The proteomes of the metabolically versatile and poorly characterized Gram-positive bacterium Desulfotomaculum reducens MI-1 were compared across four cultivation conditions including sulfate reduction, soluble Fe(III) reduction, insoluble Fe(III) reduction, and pyruvate fermentation. Collectively across conditions, we observed at high confidence ~38% of genome-encoded proteins. Here, we focus on proteins that display significant differential abundance on conditions tested. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first full-proteome study focused on a Gram-positive organism cultivated either on sulfate or metal-reducing conditions. Several proteins with uncharacterized function encoded within heterodisulfide reductase (hdr)-containing loci were upregulated on either sulfate (Dred_0633-4, Dred_0689-90, and Dred_1325-30) or Fe(III)-citrate-reducing conditions (Dred_0432-3 and Dred_1778-84). Two of these hdr-containing loci display homology to recently described flavin-based electron bifurcation (FBEB) pathways (Dred_1325-30 and Dred_1778-84). Additionally, we propose that a cluster of proteins, which is homologous to a described FBEB lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) complex, is performing lactate oxidation in D. reducens (Dred_0367-9). Analysis of the putative sulfate reduction machinery in D. reducens revealed that most of these proteins are constitutively expressed across cultivation conditions tested. In addition, peptides from the single multiheme c-type cytochrome (MHC) in the genome were exclusively observed on the insoluble Fe(III) condition, suggesting that this MHC may play a role in reduction of insoluble metals.

Marine-derived fungi: diversity of enzymes and biotechnological applications

The ocean is considered to be a great reservoir of biodiversity. Microbial communities in marine environments are ecologically relevant as intermediaries of energy, and play an important role in nutrient regeneration cycles as decomposers of dead and decaying organic matter. In this sense, marine-derived fungi can be considered as a source of enzymes of industrial and/or environmental interest. Fungal strains isolated from different substrates, such as invertebrates, decaying wood, seawater, sediments, and mangrove detritus, have been reported to be producers of hydrolytic and/or oxidative enzymes, with alginate lyase, amylase, cellulase, chitinase, glucosidase, inulinase, keratinase, ligninase, lipase, nuclease, phytase, protease, and xylanase being among the enzymes produced by fungi of marine origin. These enzymes present temperature and pH optima ranging from 35 to 70(∘)C, and 3.0 to 11.0, respectively. High-level production in bioreactors is mainly performed using submerged-state fermentation. Certain marine-derived fungal strains present enzymes with alkaline and cold-activity characteristics, and salinity is considered an important condition in screening and production processes. The adaptability of marine-derived fungi to oceanic conditions can be considered an attractive point in the field of fungal marine biotechnology. In this review, we focus on the advances in discovering enzymes from marine-derived fungi and their biotechnological relevance.

Systems biology perspectives on minimal and simpler cells

The concept of the minimal cell has fascinated scientists for a long time, from both fundamental and applied points of view. This broad concept encompasses extreme reductions of genomes, the last universal common ancestor (LUCA), the creation of semiartificial cells, and the design of protocells and chassis cells. Here we review these different areas of research and identify common and complementary aspects of each one. We focus on systems biology, a discipline that is greatly facilitating the classical top-down and bottom-up approaches toward minimal cells. In addition, we also review the so-called middle-out approach and its contributions to the field with mathematical and computational models. Owing to the advances in genomics technologies, much of the work in this area has been centered on minimal genomes, or rather minimal gene sets, required to sustain life. Nevertheless, a fundamental expansion has been taking place in the last few years wherein the minimal gene set is viewed as a backbone of a more complex system. Complementing genomics, progress is being made in understanding the system-wide properties at the levels of the transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome. Network modeling approaches are enabling the integration of these different omics data sets toward an understanding of the complex molecular pathways connecting genotype to phenotype. We review key concepts central to the mapping and modeling of this complexity, which is at the heart of research on minimal cells. Finally, we discuss the distinction between minimizing the number of cellular components and minimizing cellular complexity, toward an improved understanding and utilization of minimal and simpler cells.

Incomplete Wood-Ljungdahl pathway facilitates one-carbon metabolism in organohalide-respiring Dehalococcoides mccartyi

The acetyl-CoA "Wood-Ljungdahl" pathway couples the folate-mediated one-carbon (C1) metabolism to either CO2 reduction or acetate oxidation via acetyl-CoA. This pathway is distributed in diverse anaerobes and is used for both energy conservation and assimilation of C1 compounds. Genome annotations for all sequenced strains of Dehalococcoides mccartyi, an important bacterium involved in the bioremediation of chlorinated solvents, reveal homologous genes encoding an incomplete Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. Because this pathway lacks key enzymes for both C1 metabolism and CO2 reduction, its cellular functions remain elusive. Here we used D. mccartyi strain 195 as a model organism to investigate the metabolic function of this pathway and its impacts on the growth of strain 195. Surprisingly, this pathway cleaves acetyl-CoA to donate a methyl group for production of methyl-tetrahydrofolate (CH3-THF) for methionine biosynthesis, representing an unconventional strategy for generating CH3-THF in organisms without methylene-tetrahydrofolate reductase. Carbon monoxide (CO) was found to accumulate as an obligate by-product from the acetyl-CoA cleavage because of the lack of a CO dehydrogenase in strain 195. CO accumulation inhibits the sustainable growth and dechlorination of strain 195 maintained in pure cultures, but can be prevented by CO-metabolizing anaerobes that coexist with D. mccartyi, resulting in an unusual syntrophic association. We also found that this pathway incorporates exogenous formate to support serine biosynthesis. This study of the incomplete Wood-Ljungdahl pathway in D. mccartyi indicates a unique bacterial C1 metabolism that is critical for D. mccartyi growth and interactions in dechlorinating communities and may play a role in other anaerobic communities.

Giovannoni et al. reply

Replying to S. Våge, J. E. Storesund & T. F. Thingstad Nature 499, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12387 (2013). In the debate about top-down versus bottom-up control, most would argue that both are important. The most probable scenario is that in the absence of high rates of transport, the equilibrium between these competing processes determines bacterial abundance. In their Brief Communication Arising, Våge and co-workers respond to our Letter, arguing the case for defense specialism. ‘Defence specialism’ is not synonymous with ‘defence’. Because of the prevalence of viruses, it is probable that most bacteria have acquired defences against predation. ‘Defence specialism’ refers to success by defence, in the sense that a cell might allocate a large proportion of its resources to defence and thereby become successful.

Development of an ecophysiological model for Diplosphaera colotermitum TAV2, a termite hindgut Verrucomicrobium

Termite hindguts are populated by a dense and diverse community of microbial symbionts working in concert to transform lignocellulosic plant material and derived residues into acetate, to recycle and fix nitrogen, and to remove oxygen. Although much has been learned about the breadth of microbial diversity in the hindgut, the ecophysiological roles of its members is less understood. In this study, we present new information about the ecophysiology of microorganism Diplosphaera colotermitum strain TAV2, an autochthonous member of the Reticulitermes flavipes gut community. An integrated high-throughput approach was used to determine the transcriptomic and proteomic profiles of cells grown under hypoxia (2% O2) or atmospheric (20% O2) concentrations of oxygen. Our results revealed that genes and proteins associated with energy production and utilization, carbohydrate transport and metabolism, nitrogen fixation, and replication and recombination were upregulated under 2% O2. The metabolic map developed for TAV2 indicates that this microorganism may be involved in biological nitrogen fixation, amino-acid production, hemicellulose degradation and consumption of O2 in the termite hindgut. Variation of O2 concentration explained 55.9% of the variance in proteomic profiles, suggesting an adaptive evolution of TAV2 to the hypoxic periphery of the hindgut. Our findings advance the current understanding of microaerophilic microorganisms in the termite gut and expand our understanding of the ecological roles for members of the phylum Verrucomicrobia.

Strategies developed by the marine bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens BA3SM1 to resist metals: A proteome analysis

A global proteomic evaluation of the response of the marine bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens BA3SM1 to Cd, Zn and Cu was performed by two dimensional gel electrophoresis followed by mass spectrometry. When stressed with Cd, the most toxic metal for P. fluorescens BA3SM1, cell growth is rapidly affected and the number of proteins up-regulated (sixteen for 0.4 mM Cd) remains low in comparison with results obtained for Zn and Cu (twenty eight for 1.5mM Zn and forty four for 1.5 mM Cu). The changes in protein expression indicate that the cell adapts to metals by inducing essentially seven defense mechanisms: cell aggregation/biofilm formation (Zn=Cu>Cd); modification of envelope properties to increase the extracellular metal biosorption and/or control the uptake of metal (Cu>Zn); metal export (Cd=Zn and probably Cu); responses to oxidative stress (Cu>Zn>Cd); intracellular metal sequestration (Zn=Cu and probably Cd); hydrolysis of abnormally folded proteins (Cd=Cu), and the over-synthesis of proteins inhibited by metal (Cd>Cu>Zn). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report showing that a marine P. fluorescens is able to acquire a metal-resistant phenotype, making the strain BA3SM1 a promising agent for bioremediation processes.

Combined analyses of the ITS loci and the corresponding 16S rRNA genes reveal high micro- and macrodiversity of SAR11 populations in the Red Sea

Bacteria belonging to the SAR11 clade are among the most abundant prokaryotes in the pelagic zone of the ocean. 16S rRNA gene-based analyses indicate that they constitute up to 60% of the bacterioplankton community in the surface waters of the Red Sea. This extremely oligotrophic water body is further characterized by an epipelagic zone, which has a temperature above 24 °C throughout the year, and a remarkable uniform temperature (~22 °C) and salinity (~41 psu) from the mixed layer (~200 m) to the bottom at over 2000 m depth. Despite these conditions that set it apart from other marine environments, the microbiology of this ecosystem is still vastly understudied. Prompted by the limited phylogenetic resolution of the 16S rRNA gene, we extended our previous study by sequencing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of SAR11 in different depths of the Red Sea's water column together with the respective 16S fragment. The overall diversity captured by the ITS loci was ten times higher than that of the corresponding 16S rRNA genes. Moreover, species estimates based on the ITS showed a highly diverse population of SAR11 in the mixed layer that became diminished in deep isothermal waters, which was in contrast to results of the related 16S rRNA genes. While the 16S rRNA gene-based sequences clustered into three phylogenetic subgroups, the related ITS fragments fell into several phylotypes that showed clear depth-dependent shifts in relative abundances. Blast-based analyses not only documented the observed vertical partitioning and universal co-occurrence of specific phylotypes in five other distinct oceanic provinces, but also highlighted the influence of ecosystem-specific traits (e.g., temperature, nutrient availability, and concentration of dissolved oxygen) on the population dynamics of this ubiquitous marine bacterium.

Marine proteomics: a critical assessment of an emerging technology

The application of proteomics to marine sciences has increased in recent years because the proteome represents the interface between genotypic and phenotypic variability and, thus, corresponds to the broadest possible biomarker for eco-physiological responses and adaptations. Likewise, proteomics can provide important functional information regarding biosynthetic pathways, as well as insights into mechanism of action, of novel marine natural products. The goal of this review is to (1) explore the application of proteomics methodologies to marine systems, (2) assess the technical approaches that have been used, and (3) evaluate the pros and cons of this proteomic research, with the intent of providing a critical analysis of its future roles in marine sciences. To date, proteomics techniques have been utilized to investigate marine microbe, plant, invertebrate, and vertebrate physiology, developmental biology, seafood safety, susceptibility to disease, and responses to environmental change. However, marine proteomics studies often suffer from poor experimental design, sample processing/optimization difficulties, and data analysis/interpretation issues. Moreover, a major limitation is the lack of available annotated genomes and proteomes for most marine organisms, including several "model species". Even with these challenges in mind, there is no doubt that marine proteomics is a rapidly expanding and powerful integrative molecular research tool from which our knowledge of the marine environment, and the natural products from this resource, will be significantly expanded.

Distribution and functions of TonB-dependent transporters in marine bacteria and environments: implications for dissolved organic matter utilization

Background

Bacteria play critical roles in marine nutrient cycles by incorporating and redistributing dissolved organic matter (DOM) and inorganic nutrients in the ocean. TonB-dependent transporter (TBDT) proteins allow Gram-negative bacteria to take up scarce resources from nutrient-limiting environments as well as siderophores, heme, vitamin B12, and recently identified carbohydrates. Thus, the characterization of TBDT distribution and functions is essential to better understand the contribution TBDT to DOM assimilation and its consequences on nutrient cycling in the environment.

Methodology/Principal Findings

This study presents the distribution of encoded known and putative TBDT proteins in the genomes of microorganisms and from the Global Ocean Survey data. Using a Lek clustering algorithm and substrate specificities, the TBDT sequences were mainly classified into the following three groups: (1) DOM transporters; (2) Siderophores/Vitamins transporters; and (3) Heme/Hemophores/Iron(heme)-binding protein transporters. Diverse TBDTs were found in the genomes of oligotroph Citromicrobium bathyomarinum JL354 and Citromicrobium sp JLT1363 and were highly expressed in the stationary phase of bacterial growth. The results show that the Gammaproteobacteria and the Cytophaga-Flavobacterium-Bacteroides (CFB) group bacteria accounted for the majority of the TBDT gene pool in marine surface waters.

Conclusions/Significance

The results of this study confirm the ecological importance of TBDTs in DOM assimilation for bacteria in marine environments owing to a wide range of substrate utilization potential in the ubiquitous Gammaproteobacteria and CFB group bacteria.

A metaproteomic assessment of winter and summer bacterioplankton from Antarctic Peninsula coastal surface waters

A metaproteomic survey of surface coastal waters near Palmer Station on the Antarctic Peninsula, West Antarctica, was performed, revealing marked differences in the functional capacity of summer and winter communities of bacterioplankton. Proteins from Flavobacteria were more abundant in the summer metaproteome, whereas winter was characterized by proteins from ammonia-oxidizing Marine Group I Crenarchaeota. Proteins prevalent in both seasons were from SAR11 and Rhodobacterales clades of Alphaproteobacteria, as well as many lineages of Gammaproteobacteria. The metaproteome data were used to elucidate the main metabolic and energy generation pathways and transport processes occurring at the microbial level in each season. In summer, autotrophic carbon assimilation appears to be driven by oxygenic photoautotrophy, consistent with high light availability and intensity. In contrast, during the dark polar winter, the metaproteome supported the occurrence of chemolithoautotrophy via the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle and the reverse tricarboxylic acid cycle of ammonia-oxidizing archaea and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, respectively. Proteins involved in nitrification were also detected in the metaproteome. Taurine appears to be an important source of carbon and nitrogen for heterotrophs (especially SAR11), with transporters and enzymes for taurine uptake and degradation abundant in the metaproteome. Divergent heterotrophic strategies for Alphaproteobacteria and Flavobacteria were indicated by the metaproteome data, with Alphaproteobacteria capturing (by high-affinity transport) and processing labile solutes, and Flavobacteria expressing outer membrane receptors for particle adhesion to facilitate the exploitation of non-labile substrates. TonB-dependent receptors from Gammaproteobacteria and Flavobacteria (particularly in summer) were abundant, indicating that scavenging of substrates was likely an important strategy for these clades of Southern Ocean bacteria. This study provides the first insight into differences in functional processes occurring between summer and winter microbial communities in coastal Antarctic waters, and particularly highlights the important role that 'dark' carbon fixation has in winter.

Effects of arsenite stress on growth and proteome of Klebsiella pneumoniae

In the present study an arsenite, As(III), tolerating bacterium, MR4, was isolated from Mulla River Pune, India, capable of reducing arsenate to arsenite and identified as Klebsiella pneumoniae (HQ857583). Comparative proteomic analysis using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DGE) and matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight-time of flight (MALDI-TOF/TOF) was used to monitor the proteins undergoing changes in expression levels under 2.5 mM As(III) stress. The 2-DGE proteome map has shown that 60 proteins were differentially expressed under As(III) stress, of which 39 proteins were successfully identified with a MASCOT score greater than 70 (p<0.05). Among the identified proteins, membrane transport/binding proteins, porins, and amino acid metabolism enzymes were down-regulated while stress responsive proteins and antioxidant enzymes were up-regulated. Proteins involved in carbohydrate metabolism, particularly those in pentose phosphate pathway were also up-regulated while those involved in pyruvate metabolism were down-regulated. However, proteins involved in glycolysis and tricarboxylic acid cycle showed a mixed regulation response. These findings provide new insights into the probable mechanisms by which K. pneumoniae (HQ857583) could be adapting to As(III) stress.

Examination of microbial proteome preservation techniques applicable to autonomous environmental sample collection

Improvements in temporal and spatial sampling frequency have the potential to open new windows into the understanding of marine microbial dynamics. In recent years, efforts have been made to allow automated samplers to collect microbial biomass for DNA/RNA analyses from moored observatories and autonomous underwater vehicles. Measurements of microbial proteins are also of significant interest given their biogeochemical importance as enzymes that catalyze reactions and transporters that interface with the environment. We examined the influence of five preservatives solutions (SDS-extraction buffer, ethanol, trichloroacetic acid, B-PER, and RNAlater) on the proteome integrity of the marine cyanobacterium Synechococcus WH8102 after 4 weeks of storage at room temperature. Four approaches were used to assess degradation: total protein recovery, band integrity on an SDS detergent polyacrylamide electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) gel, and number of protein identifications and relative abundances by 1-dimensional LC–MS/MS proteomic analyses. Total protein recoveries from the preserved samples were lower than the frozen control due to processing losses, which could be corrected for with internal standardization. The trichloroacetic acid preserved sample showed significant loss of protein band integrity on the SDS-PAGE gel. The RNAlater preserved sample showed the highest number of protein identifications (103% relative to the control; 520 ± 31 identifications in RNAlater versus 504 ± 4 in the control), equivalent to the frozen control. Relative abundances of individual proteins in the RNAlater treatment were quite similar to that of the frozen control (average ratio of 1.01 ± 0.27 for the 50 most abundant proteins), while the SDS-extraction buffer, ethanol, and B-PER all showed significant decreases in both number of identifications and relative abundances of individual proteins. Based on these findings, RNAlater was an effective proteome preservative, although further study is warranted on additional marine microbes.

Proteomic insights into the lifestyle of an environmentally relevant marine bacterium

In terms of lifestyle, free-living bacteria are classified as either oligotrophic/specialist or opportunist/generalist. Heterogeneous marine environments such as coastal waters favour the establishment of marine generalist bacteria, which code for a large pool of functions. This is basically foreseen to cope with the heterogeneity of organic matter supplied to these systems. Nevertheless, it is not known what fraction of a generalist proteome is needed for house-keeping functions or what fraction is modified to cope with environmental changes. Here, we used high-throughput proteomics to define the proteome of Ruegeria pomeroyi DSS-3, a model marine generalist bacterium of the Roseobacter clade. We evaluated its genome expression under several natural environmental conditions, revealing the versatility of the bacterium to adapt to anthropogenic influence, poor nutrient concentrations or the presence of the natural microbial community. We also assayed 30 different laboratory incubations to increase proteome coverage and to dig further into the functional genomics of the bacterium. We established its core proteome and the proteome devoted to adaptation to general cellular physiological variations (almost 50%). We suggest that the other half of its theoretical proteome is the opportunist genetic pool devoted exclusively to very specific environmental conditions.

Energy starved Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique substitutes light-mediated ATP production for endogenous carbon respiration

Previous studies have demonstrated that Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique, a member of the SAR11 clade, constitutively expresses proteorhodopsin (PR) proteins that can function as light-dependent proton pumps. However, exposure to light did not significantly improve the growth rate or final cell densities of SAR11 isolates in a wide range of conditions. Thus, the ecophysiological role of PR in SAR11 remained unresolved. We investigated a range of cellular properties and here show that light causes dramatic changes in physiology and gene expression in Cand. P. ubique cells that are starved for carbon, but provides little or no advantage during active growth on organic carbon substrates. During logarithmic growth there was no difference in oxygen consumption by cells in light versus dark. Energy starved cells respired endogenous carbon in the dark, becoming spheres that approached the minimum predicted size for cells, and produced abundant pili. In the light, energy starved cells maintained size, ATP content, and higher substrate transport rates, and differentially expressed nearly 10% of their genome. These findings show that PR is a vital adaptation that supports Cand. P. ubique metabolism during carbon starvation, a condition that is likely to occur in the extreme conditions of ocean environments.

Seasonal bloom dynamics and ecophysiology of the freshwater sister clade of SAR11 bacteria 'that rule the waves' (LD12)

Alphaproteobacteria are common members of marine bacterioplankton assemblages, but are believed to be rare in lacustrine systems. However, uncultured Alphaproteobacteria of the freshwater LD12 lineage form a tight monophyletic sister group with the numerically dominant bacteria in marine epipelagic waters, the SAR11 clade or genus Pelagibacter. Comparative rRNA sequence analysis reveals a global occurrence of LD12 bacteria in freshwater systems. The association of genotypic subclades with single-study systems moreover suggests a regional diversification. LD12 bacteria exhibit distinct and annually recurring spatio-temporal distribution patterns in prealpine lakes, as assessed by seasonally resolved vertical profiling and high-throughput cell counting. During the summer months, these ultramicrobacteria can form cell densities in the surface (epilimnetic) water layers that are comparable to those of their marine counterparts (>5 × 10(8) cells per l). LD12 bacteria had a pronounced preference for glutamine and glutamate over 7 other amino acids in situ, and they exhibited substantially higher uptake of these two substrates (and glycine) than the microbial assemblage in general. In addition, members of LD12 were also able to exploit other monomeric sources of organic carbon such as glucose, fructose or acetate. LD12 seemed to follow an oligotrophic lifestyle with slow but efficient uptake already at low substrate concentrations. Thus, LD12 bacteria do not only share phenotypic and metabolic traits with Pelagibacter, but also seem to thrive in the analogous spatiotemporal niche in freshwaters. The two groups together form one of the rare monophyletic lineages of ultramicrobacteria that have successfully traversed the barrier between marine and freshwater habitats.

Diurnal rhythms result in significant changes in the cellular protein complement in the cyanobacterium Cyanothece 51142

Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 is a diazotrophic cyanobacterium notable for its ability to perform oxygenic photosynthesis and dinitrogen fixation in the same single cell. Previous transcriptional analysis revealed that the existence of these incompatible cellular processes largely depends on tightly synchronized expression programs involving ∼30% of genes in the genome. To expand upon current knowledge, we have utilized sensitive proteomic approaches to examine the impact of diurnal rhythms on the protein complement in Cyanothece 51142. We found that 250 proteins accounting for ∼5% of the predicted ORFs from the Cyanothece 51142 genome and 20% of proteins detected under alternating light/dark conditions exhibited periodic oscillations in their abundances. Our results suggest that altered enzyme activities at different phases during the diurnal cycle can be attributed to changes in the abundance of related proteins and key compounds. The integration of global proteomics and transcriptomic data further revealed that post-transcriptional events are important for temporal regulation of processes such as photosynthesis in Cyanothece 51142. This analysis is the first comprehensive report on global quantitative proteomics in a unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacterium and uncovers novel findings about diurnal rhythms.

Microbial seed banks: the ecological and evolutionary implications of dormancy

Dormancy is a bet-hedging strategy used by a wide range of taxa, including microorganisms. It refers to an organism's ability to enter a reversible state of low metabolic activity when faced with unfavourable environmental conditions. Dormant microorganisms generate a seed bank, which comprises individuals that are capable of being resuscitated following environmental change. In this Review, we highlight mechanisms that have evolved in microorganisms to allow them to successfully enter and exit a dormant state, and discuss the implications of microbial seed banks for evolutionary dynamics, population persistence, maintenance of biodiversity, and the stability of ecosystem processes.

Iron conservation by reduction of metalloenzyme inventories in the marine diazotroph Crocosphaera watsonii

The marine nitrogen fixing microorganisms (diazotrophs) are a major source of nitrogen to open ocean ecosystems and are predicted to be limited by iron in most marine environments. Here we use global and targeted proteomic analyses on a key unicellular marine diazotroph Crocosphaera watsonii to reveal large scale diel changes in its proteome, including substantial variations in concentrations of iron metalloproteins involved in nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis, as well as nocturnal flavodoxin production. The daily synthesis and degradation of enzymes in coordination with their utilization results in a lowered cellular metalloenzyme inventory that requires ∼40% less iron than if these enzymes were maintained throughout the diel cycle. This strategy is energetically expensive, but appears to serve as an important adaptation for confronting the iron scarcity of the open oceans. A global numerical model of ocean circulation, biogeochemistry and ecosystems suggests that Crocosphaera's ability to reduce its iron-metalloenzyme inventory provides two advantages: It allows Crocosphaera to inhabit regions lower in iron and allows the same iron supply to support higher Crocosphaera biomass and nitrogen fixation than if they did not have this reduced iron requirement.

The impact of microbial metabolism on marine dissolved organic matter

Microbes mediate global biogeochemical cycles through their metabolism, and all metabolic processes begin with the interaction between the microbial cell wall or membrane and the external environment. For all heterotrophs and many autotrophs, critical growth substrates and factors are present within the dilute and heterogeneous mixture of compounds that constitutes dissolved organic matter (DOM). In short, the microbe-molecule interaction is one of the fundamental reactions within the global carbon cycle. Here, I summarize recent findings from studies that examine DOM-microbe interactions from either the DOM perspective (organic geochemistry) or the microbe perspective (microbial ecology). Gaps in our knowledge are highlighted and future integrative research directions are proposed.

Metaproteomic and metagenomic analyses of defined oceanic microbial populations using microwave cell fixation and flow cytometric sorting

A major obstacle in the molecular investigation of natural, especially oceanic, microbial cells is their adequate preservation for further land-based molecular analyses. Here, we examined the use of microwaves for cell fixation before high-speed flow cytometric sorting to define the metaproteomes and metagenomes of key microbial populations. The microwave fixation procedure was established using cultures of Synechococcus cyanobacteria, the photosynthetic eukaryote Micromonas pusilla and the gammaproteobacterium Halomonas variabilis. Shotgun proteomic analyses showed that the profile of microwave-fixed and -unfixed Synechococcus sp. WH8102 cells was the same, and hence proteome identification of microwave-fixed sorted cells by nanoLC-MS/MS is possible. Microwave-fixed flow-sorted Synechococcus cells can also be successfully used for whole-genome amplification and fosmid library construction. We then carried out successful metaproteomic and metagenomic analyses of microwave-fixed Synechococcus cells flow sorted from concentrates of microbial cells, collected in the North Atlantic Ocean. Thus, the microwave fixation procedure developed appears to be useful for molecular studies of microbial populations in aquatic ecosystems.

Distribution of Roseobacter RCA and SAR11 lineages in the North Sea and characteristics of an abundant RCA isolate

The Roseobacter group and SAR11 clade constitute high proportions of the marine bacterioplankton, but only scarce information exists on the abundance of distinct populations of either lineage. Therefore, we quantified the abundance of the largest cluster of the Roseobacter group, the RCA (Roseobacter clade affiliated) cluster together with the SAR11 clade by quantitative PCR in the southern and eastern North Sea. The RCA cluster constituted up to 15 and 21% of total bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes in September 2005 and May 2006, respectively. At a few stations, the RCA cluster exceeded the SAR11 clade, whereas at most stations, SAR11 constituted higher fractions with maxima of 37%. In most samples, only one RCA ribotype was detected. RCA abundance was positively correlated with phaeopigments, chlorophyll, dissolved and particulate organic carbon (POC), turnover rates of dissolved free amino acids (DFAAs), temperature, and negatively correlated with salinity. The SAR11 clade was only correlated with POC (negatively, May) and with DFAA turnover rates (positively, September). An abundant RCA strain, 'Candidatus Planktomarina temperata', was isolated from the southern North Sea. This strain has an identical 16S rRNA gene sequence to the dominant RCA ribotype. Detection of the pufM gene, coding for a subunit of the reaction center of bacteriochlorophyll a, indicates the potential of the isolate for aerobic anoxygenic photosynthesis. Our study shows that a distinct population of the RCA cluster constitutes an abundant bacterioplankton group in a neritic sea of the temperate zone and indicates that this population has an important role during decaying phytoplankton blooms.

Life cycle analysis of the model organism Rhodopirellula baltica SH 1(T) by transcriptome studies

The marine organism Rhodopirellula baltica is a representative of the globally distributed phylum Planctomycetes whose members exhibit an intriguing lifestyle and cell morphology. The analysis of R. baltica's genome has revealed many biotechnologically promising features including a set of unique sulfatases and C1‐metabolism genes. Salt resistance and the potential for adhesion in the adult phase of the cell cycle were observed during cultivation. To promote the understanding of this model organism and to specify the functions of potentially useful genes, gene expression throughout a growth curve was monitored using a whole genome microarray approach. Transcriptional profiling suggests that a large number of hypothetical proteins are active within the cell cycle and in the formation of the different cell morphologies. Numerous genes with potential biotechnological applications were found to be differentially regulated, revealing further characteristics of their functions and regulation mechanisms. More specifically, the experiments shed light on the expression patterns of genes belonging to the organism's general stress response, those involved in the reorganization of its genome and those effecting morphological changes. These transcriptomic results contribute to a better understanding of thus far unknown molecular elements of cell biology. Further, they pave the way for the biotechnological exploitation of R. baltica's distinctive metabolic features as a step towards sourcing the phylum Planctomycetes at large.

Transcriptional and translational regulatory responses to iron limitation in the globally distributed marine bacterium Candidatus pelagibacter ubique

Iron is recognized as an important micronutrient that limits microbial plankton productivity over vast regions of the oceans. We investigated the gene expression responses of Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique cultures to iron limitation in natural seawater media supplemented with a siderophore to chelate iron. Microarray data indicated transcription of the periplasmic iron binding protein sfuC increased by 16-fold, and iron transporter subunits, iron-sulfur center assembly genes, and the putative ferroxidase rubrerythrin transcripts increased to a lesser extent. Quantitative peptide mass spectrometry revealed that sfuC protein abundance increased 27-fold, despite an average decrease of 59% across the global proteome. Thus, we propose sfuC as a marker gene for indicating iron limitation in marine metatranscriptomic and metaproteomic ecological surveys. The marked proteome reduction was not directly correlated to changes in the transcriptome, implicating post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms as modulators of protein expression. Two RNA-binding proteins, CspE and CspL, correlated well with iron availability, suggesting that they may contribute to the observed differences between the transcriptome and proteome. We propose a model in which the RNA-binding activity of CspE and CspL selectively enables protein synthesis of the iron acquisition protein SfuC during transient growth-limiting episodes of iron scarcity.

Proteogenomic basis for ecological divergence of closely related bacteria in natural acidophilic microbial communities

Bacterial species concepts are controversial. More widely accepted is the need to understand how differences in gene content and sequence lead to ecological divergence. To address this relationship in ecosystem context, we investigated links between genotype and ecology of two genotypic groups of Leptospirillum group II bacteria in comprehensively characterized, natural acidophilic biofilm communities. These groups share 99.7% 16S rRNA gene sequence identity and 95% average amino acid identity between their orthologs. One genotypic group predominates during early colonization, and the other group typically proliferates in later successional stages, forming distinct patches tens to hundreds of micrometers in diameter. Among early colonizing populations, we observed dominance of five genotypes that differed from each other by the extent of recombination with the late colonizing type. Our analyses suggest that the specific recombinant variant within the early colonizing group is selected for by environmental parameters such as temperature, consistent with recombination as a mechanism for ecological fine tuning. Evolutionary signatures, and strain-resolved expression patterns measured via mass spectrometry-based proteomics, indicate increased cobalamin biosynthesis, (de)methylation, and glycine cleavage in the late colonizer. This may suggest environmental changes within the biofilm during development, accompanied by redirection of compatible solutes from osmoprotectants toward metabolism. Across 27 communities, comparative proteogenomic analyses show that differential regulation of shared genes and expression of a small subset of the approximately 15% of genes unique to each genotype are involved in niche partitioning. In summary, the results show how subtle genetic variations can lead to distinct ecological strategies.

The presence of the glycolysis operon in SAR11 genomes is positively correlated with ocean productivity

Bacteria in the SAR11 clade are highly abundant in marine surface waters, but currently little is known about the carbon compounds that support these large heterotrophic populations. To better understand the carbon requirements of these organisms, we conducted a multiphasic exploration of carbohydrate utilization among SAR11 isolates from the Northeast Pacific Ocean and the Sargasso Sea. A comparison of three SAR11 genomes showed they all lacked a recognizable PTS system, the oxidative portion of the pentose phosphate shunt (zwf-, pgl-), genes for the Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas (pfk-, pyk-) and Entner-Doudoroff (eda-) pathways of glycolysis. Strain HTCC7211, isolated from an ocean gyre, was missing other glycolysis genes as well. Growth assays, radioisotopes, metagenomics and microarrays were used to test the hypothesis that these isolates might be limited in their abilities to transport and oxidize exogenous carbohydrates. Galactose, fucose, rhamnose, arabinose, ribose and mannose could not serve as carbon sources for the isolates tested. However, differences in glucose utilization were detected between coastal and ocean gyre isolates, with the coastal isolates capable of transporting, incorporating and oxidizing glucose while the open ocean isolate could not. Subsequent microarray analysis of a coastal isolate suggested that an operon encoding a variant of the Entner-Doudoroff pathway is likely responsible for the observed differences in glucose utilization. Metagenomic analysis indicated this operon is more commonly found in coastal environments and is positively correlated with chlorophyll a concentrations. Our results indicated that glycolysis is a variable metabolic property of SAR11 metabolism and suggest that glycolytic SAR11 are more common in productive marine environments.

A variant riboswitch aptamer class for S-adenosylmethionine common in marine bacteria

Riboswitches that sense S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) are widely distributed throughout a variety of bacterial lineages. Four classes of SAM-binding riboswitches have been reported to date, constituting the most diverse collection of riboswitch classes that sense the same compound. Three of these classes, termed SAM-I, SAM-II, and SAM-III represent unique structures that form distinct binding pockets for the ligand. SAM-IV riboswitches carry different conserved sequence and structural features compared to other SAM riboswitches, but nucleotides and substructures corresponding to the ligand binding pocket are identical to SAM-I aptamers. In this article, we describe a fifth class of SAM binding aptamer, which we have termed SAM-V. SAM-V was discovered by analyzing GC-rich intergenic regions preceding metabolic genes in the marine alpha-proteobacterium "Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique." Although the motif is nearly unrepresented in cultured bacteria whose genomes have been completely sequenced, SAM-V is prevalent in marine metagenomic sequences. The consensus sequence and structure of SAM-V show some similarities to that of the SAM-II riboswitch, and it is likely that the two aptamers form similar ligand binding pockets. In addition, we identified numerous examples of a tandem SAM-II/SAM-V aptamer architecture. In this arrangement, the SAM-II aptamer is always positioned 5' of the SAM-V aptamer and the SAM-II aptamer is followed by a predicted intrinsic transcription terminator stem. The SAM-V aptamer, however, appears to use a ribosome binding site occlusion mechanism for genetic regulation. This tandem riboswitch arrangement exhibits an architecture that can potentially control both the transcriptional and translational stages of gene expression.

Growth phase-dependent global protein and metabolite profiles of Phaeobacter gallaeciensis strain DSM 17395, a member of the marine Roseobacter-clade

The marine heterotrophic roseobacter Phaeobacter gallaeciensis DSM 17395 was grown with glucose in defined mineral medium. Relative abundance changes of global protein (2-D DIGE) and metabolite (GC-MS) profiles were determined across five different time points of growth. In total, 215 proteins were identified and 147 metabolites detected (101 structurally identified), among which 60 proteins and 87 metabolites displayed changed abundances upon entry into stationary growth phase. Glucose breakdown to pyruvate apparently proceeds via the Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway, since phosphofructokinase of the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway is missing and the key metabolite of the ED-pathway, 2-keto-3-desoxygluconate, was detected. The absence of pfk in other genome-sequenced roseobacters suggests that the use of the ED pathway is an important physiological property among these heterotrophic marine bacteria. Upon entry into stationary growth phase (due to glucose starvation), sulfur assimilation (including cysteine biosynthesis) and parts of cell envelope synthesis (e.g. the lipid precursor 1-monooleoylglycerol) were down-regulated and cadaverine formation up-regulated. In contrast, central carbon catabolism remained essentially unchanged, pointing to a metabolic "stand-by" modus as an ecophysiological adaptation strategy. Stationary phase response of P. gallaeciensis differs markedly from that of standard organisms such as Escherichia coli, as evident e.g. by the absence of an rpoS gene.