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Boafo YA, Ohemeng FNA, Ayivor J, Ayitiah JA, Yirenya-Tawiah D, Mensah A, Datsa C, Annang TY, Adom L. Unraveling diarrheal disease knowledge, understanding, and management practices among climate change vulnerable coastal communities in Ghana. Front Public Health 2024; 12:1352275. [PMID: 38947353 PMCID: PMC11211366 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1352275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Diarrheal disease is a global public health concern, particularly in low-income countries. In Ghana, widespread issues like inadequate sanitation, unsafe drinking water, malnutrition, and poor hygiene practices contribute to the high incidence of diarrhea. Climate change exacerbates these challenges by increasing the frequency and severity of conditions that spread diarrheal diseases. This study explores households' knowledge, understanding, and management practices for diarrhea in climate change-vulnerable coastal communities. Methods The study is set in Ghana's central (Mumford, Opetekwei) and eastern (Anyako, Anyanui-Atiteti) coastlines. Using a cross-sectional study design, a structured questionnaire was administered to randomly sampled households (n = 419) to collect quantitative data. The study collected qualitative data from focus group discussions (n = 8), with groups separated into men and women, key informant interviews, and observations of food, water, and sanitation conditions across the studied communities. Results and discussion The study found significant variations between the studied communities and socio-demographic variables except for the respondents' gender. Multivariate regression analyses identified significant associations between socio-demographic variables (especially gender and educational status) and perceptions of diarrhea causes. The most used first management action against diarrhea is 'over-the-counter drugs', followed by home-made traditional remedies. Significant differences were observed in the usage of management practices across the studied communities. Trust, affordability, and availability were identified as the main factors influencing households' use of approved pharmaceutical drugs and traditional herbal remedies for managing behavior, with significant differences being observed across communities. The study recommends a multi-sectoral approach, including improved access to regularly flowing, safe water and sanitation facilities, education on preventing diarrhea, and adequate healthcare services. Community-based interventions such as promoting good hygiene practices at homes and community settings such as schools, lorry parks, funeral grounds, and recreational areas can also effectively reduce the burden of diarrhea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaw Agyeman Boafo
- Centre for Climate Change and Sustainability Studies, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Fidelia N. A. Ohemeng
- Department of Sociology, College of Humanities, University of Ghana, Legon, Greater Accra, Ghana
| | - Jesse Ayivor
- Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Joseph Armah Ayitiah
- Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Dzidzo Yirenya-Tawiah
- Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Adelina Mensah
- Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Cecilia Datsa
- Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Ted Yemoh Annang
- Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Lois Adom
- Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
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Lin C, Liu J, Yuan Y, Yu S, Feng L, Gu Y, Lu X, Liu J, Li H, Hu C, Liu H, Liu H. Unveiling the hidden dangers: enteropathogens carried by flies in Pudong New Area. BMC Infect Dis 2024; 24:569. [PMID: 38849747 PMCID: PMC11162034 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-024-09448-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Flies are acknowledged as vectors of diseases transmitted through mechanical means and represent a significant risk to human health. The study aimed to determine the prevalence of enteropathogens carried by flies in Pudong New Area to inform strategies for preventing and controlling flies. METHODS Samples were collected from various locations in the area using cage trapping techniques between April and November 2021, encompassing various habitats such as parks, residential areas, restaurants, and farmers' markets. The main fly species were identified using cryomicrography and taxonomic enumeration, with 20 samples per tube collected from different habitats. Twenty-five enteropathogens were screened using GI_Trial v3 TaqManTM microbial arrays. RESULTS A total of 3,875 flies were collected from 6,400 placements, resulting in an average fly density of 0.61 flies per cage. M. domestica were the most common species at 39.85%, followed by L. sericata at 16.57% and B. peregrina at 13.14%. Out of 189 samples, 93 tested positive for enteropathogens, with nine different pathogens being found. 12.70% of samples exclusively had parasites, a higher percentage than those with only bacteria or viruses. The study found that M. domestica had fewer enteropathogens than L. sericata and B. peregrina, which primarily harbored B. hominis instead of bacteria and viruses such as E. coli, Astrovirus, and Sapovirus. During spring testing, all three fly species exhibited low rates of detecting enteropathogens. M. domestica were found in residential areas with the highest number of pathogen species, totaling six. In contrast, L. sericata and B. peregrina were identified in farmers' markets with the highest number of pathogen species, totaling six and seven, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Flies have the potential to serve as vectors for the transmission of enteropathogens, thereby posing a substantial risk to public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Lin
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Yongting Yuan
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Siyu Yu
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Lei Feng
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Yingpei Gu
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Xinchen Lu
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Jingyi Liu
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Huihui Li
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Chenxi Hu
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Hongxia Liu
- Shanghai Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Hanzhao Liu
- Pudong New Area Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, 200136, China.
- Fudan University Pudong Institute of Preventive Medicine, Shanghai, 200136, China.
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3
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Liu Y, Chen Y, Wang N, Qin H, Zhang L, Zhang S. The global prevalence of parasites in non-biting flies as vectors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:25. [PMID: 36691084 PMCID: PMC9872427 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05650-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-biting flies such as the house fly (Musca domestica), the Australian sheep blowfly (Lucilia cuprina) and the oriental latrine fly (Chrysomya megacephala) may carry many parasites. In the present study, we performed a systematic overview of the different species of parasites carried by non-biting flies, as well as of isolation methods, different geographical distribution, seasonality and risk assessment. METHODS A meta-analysis was carried out with the aim to review the global prevalence of parasite transmission in non-biting flies. A total sample size of 28,718 non-biting flies reported in studies worldwide satisfied the predetermined selection criteria and was included in the quantitative analysis. RESULTS The global prevalence of parasites in non-biting flies was 42.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] 31.9-53.2%; n = 15,888/28,718), with the highest prevalence found for non-biting flies in Africa (58.3%; 95% CI 47.4-69.3%; n = 9144/13,366). A total of 43% (95% CI 32.1-54.4%; n = 7234/15,282) of house flies (M. domestica), the fly species considered to be the most closely associated with humans and animals, were found with parasites. The prevalence of parasites in the intestine of non-biting flies was 37.1% (95% CI 22.7-51.5%; n = 1045/3817), which was significantly higher than the prevalence of parasites isolated from the body surface (35.1%; 95% CI 20.8-49.4%; n = 1199/3649; P < 0.01). Of the 27 reported parasites, a total of 20 known zoonotic parasites were identified, with an infection rate of 38.1% (95% CI 28.2-48.0%; n = 13,572/28,494). CONCLUSIONS This study provides a theoretical basis for the public health and ecological significance of parasites transmitted by non-biting flies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufeng Liu
- grid.108266.b0000 0004 1803 0494College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046 People’s Republic of China ,International Joint Research Center for Animal Immunology of China, Zhengzhou, Henan People’s Republic of China ,grid.418524.e0000 0004 0369 6250Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products (Zhengzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuancai Chen
- grid.108266.b0000 0004 1803 0494College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046 People’s Republic of China ,International Joint Research Center for Animal Immunology of China, Zhengzhou, Henan People’s Republic of China ,grid.418524.e0000 0004 0369 6250Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products (Zhengzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Nanhao Wang
- grid.108266.b0000 0004 1803 0494College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046 People’s Republic of China ,International Joint Research Center for Animal Immunology of China, Zhengzhou, Henan People’s Republic of China ,grid.418524.e0000 0004 0369 6250Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products (Zhengzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Huikai Qin
- grid.108266.b0000 0004 1803 0494College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046 People’s Republic of China ,International Joint Research Center for Animal Immunology of China, Zhengzhou, Henan People’s Republic of China ,grid.418524.e0000 0004 0369 6250Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products (Zhengzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Longxian Zhang
- grid.108266.b0000 0004 1803 0494College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046 People’s Republic of China ,International Joint Research Center for Animal Immunology of China, Zhengzhou, Henan People’s Republic of China ,grid.418524.e0000 0004 0369 6250Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products (Zhengzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Sumei Zhang
- grid.108266.b0000 0004 1803 0494College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046 People’s Republic of China ,International Joint Research Center for Animal Immunology of China, Zhengzhou, Henan People’s Republic of China ,grid.418524.e0000 0004 0369 6250Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Poultry Products (Zhengzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
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Capone D, Adriano Z, Cumming O, Irish SR, Knee J, Nala R, Brown J. Urban Onsite Sanitation Upgrades and Synanthropic Flies in Maputo, Mozambique: Effects on Enteric Pathogen Infection Risks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:549-560. [PMID: 36516327 PMCID: PMC9835884 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c06864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Synanthropic filth flies transport enteric pathogens from feces to food, which upon consumption poses an infection risk. We evaluated the effect of an onsite sanitation intervention─including fly control measures─in Maputo, Mozambique, on the risk of infection from consuming fly-contaminated food. After enumerating flies at intervention and control sites, we cultured fecal indicator bacteria, quantified gene copies for 22 enteric pathogens via reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and developed quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) models to estimate annual risks of infection attributable to fly-contaminated foods. We found that the intervention reduced fly counts at latrine entrances by 69% (aRR = 0.31, [0.13, 0.75]) but not at food preparation areas (aRR = 0.92, [0.33, 2.6]). Half of (23/46) of individual flies were positive for culturable Escherichia coli, and we detected ≥1 pathogen gene from 45% (79/176) of flies, including enteropathogenic E. coli (37/176), adenovirus (25/176), Giardia spp. (13/176), and Trichuris trichiura (12/176). We detected ≥1 pathogen gene from half the flies caught in control (54%, 30/56) and intervention compounds (50%, 17/34) at baseline, which decreased 12 months post-intervention to 43% (23/53) at control compounds and 27% (9/33) for intervention compounds. These data indicate flies as a potentially important mechanical vector for enteric pathogen transmission in this setting. The intervention may have reduced the risk of fly-mediated enteric infection for some pathogens, but infrequent detection resulted in wide confidence intervals; we observed no apparent difference in infection risk between groups in a pooled estimate of all pathogens assessed (aRR = 0.84, [0.61, 1.2]). The infection risks posed by flies suggest that the design of sanitation systems and service delivery should include fly control measures to prevent enteric pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Capone
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Indiana University, 2719 E 10th St, Bloomington, Indiana47401, United States
| | - Zaida Adriano
- WE
Consult ltd, 177 Rua
Tomas Ribeiro, Maputo1102, Mozambique
| | - Oliver Cumming
- Department
of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, LondonWC1E 7HT, United
Kingdom
| | - Seth R. Irish
- Epidemiology
and Public Health Department, Swiss Tropical
and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, Allschwil4123, Switzerland
| | - Jackie Knee
- Department
of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, LondonWC1E 7HT, United
Kingdom
| | - Rassul Nala
- Ministério
da Saúde, Instituto Nacional de Saúde
Maputo, Maputo1102, Mozambique
| | - Joe Brown
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Public
Health, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina27599, United States
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Prevalence of Antibiotic-Resistant E. coli Strains in a Local Farm and Packing Facilities of Honeydew Melon in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11121789. [PMID: 36551446 PMCID: PMC9774811 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11121789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli threaten public health due to their virulence factors and antibiotic resistance. Additionally, the virulence of this bacterium varies by region depending on environmental conditions, agricultural practices, and the use of antibiotics and disinfectants. However, there is limited research on the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in agriculture. Therefore, this research aimed to determine the antibiotic resistance of E. coli isolated from the Honeydew melon production system in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. Thirty-two E. coli strains were isolated from 445 samples obtained from irrigation water, harvested melons, the hands of packaging workers, boxes, and discarded melons. The resistance profile of the E. coli strains was carried out to 12 antibiotics used in antimicrobial therapeutics against this bacterium; a high level of resistance to ertapenem (100%) was detected, followed by meropenem (97%), and ampicillin (94%); 47% of the strains were classified as multidrug-resistant. It was possible to identify the prevalence of the extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBLs) gene blaTEM (15.6%), as well as the non-ESBL genes qepA (3.1%) and aac(6')lb-cr (3.1%). The E. coli strains isolated from irrigation water were significantly associated with resistance to aztreonam, cefuroxime, amikacin, and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim. Irrigation water, packing workers' hands, and discarded melons showed a higher prevalence of antibiotic-resistant, ESBL, and non-ESBL genes of E. coli strains in a farm and packing facility of Honeydew melon in Hermosillo, Sonora.
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Wolde D, Tilahun GA, Kotiso KS, Medhin G, Eguale T. The Burden of Diarrheal Diseases and Its Associated Factors among Under-Five Children in Welkite Town: A Community Based Cross-Sectional Study. Int J Public Health 2022; 67:1604960. [PMID: 36312315 PMCID: PMC9596767 DOI: 10.3389/ijph.2022.1604960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: This study assessed the magnitude of diarrhea and associated risk factors among under-five children in Welkite town. Methods: We used a community-based cross-sectional study design. Data collection period was February to March 2021 and 426 parents/guardians of under-five children were the study participants. A structured questionnaire and observation checklist were used to collect the data. Results: The 2 weeks prevalence of diarrhea among under-five years old children was 20.7% (88/426); 95% CI (17.1, 24.6). The child’s mother/caregiver being merchant (AOR: 5.34; 95% CI: 2.1, 13.8) compared to housewife, partial immunization status (AOR: 2.67; 95% CI: 1.2, 5.8), disposing child’s stool into the garbage (AOR: 5.05; 95% CI: 1.1, 23.3) compared to putting in a toilet, not covering water storage materials (AOR: 2.4; 95% CI: 1.2, 4.7) and presence of flies in food preparation area (AOR: 2.24; 95% CI: 1.05, 4.8) were associated with increased odds of having diarrhea. Conclusion: The prevalence of diarrhea among under-five old children is high and it is associated with the occupation of the mothers/caregivers, the immunization status of children, unhygienic water storage condition and non-hygienic household practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deneke Wolde
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wachemo University, Hosssana, Ethiopia
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- *Correspondence: Deneke Wolde,
| | - Genet Asfaw Tilahun
- Department of Midwifery, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wolkite University, Wolkite, Ethiopia
| | - Kehabtimer Shiferaw Kotiso
- Department of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Worabe University, Worabe, Ethiopia
| | - Girmay Medhin
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Tadesse Eguale
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Chandrakar C, Shakya S, Patyal A, Jain A, Ali SL, Mishra OP. ERIC-PCR based molecular typing of multidrug resistant Escherichia coli isolated from houseflies (Musca domestica) in the environment of milk and meat shops. Lett Appl Microbiol 2022; 75:1549-1558. [PMID: 36038146 DOI: 10.1111/lam.13821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance has become a major global public health concern. A component of this problem is the spread of the antibiotic resistant bacteria. Flies move freely between habitats of food-producing animals and human beings and thus have great potential for dissemination of antimicrobial resistant bacteria from a contaminated environment to milk and meat markets, posing potential hazards for the consumers. During the present study, a total of 150 houseflies were captured from milk and meat shops located in Durg and Raipur city of Chhattisgarh, India. The E. coli were isolated from houseflies and characterized on the basis of cultural and molecular tests. Further, the isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing against frequently used antibiotics using disk diffusion method. The antibiotic resistance genes and int1 gene were detected using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A total of 45 E. coli isolates were obtained from the fly samples with overall prevalence rate of 30.0%. Antibiogram results confirmed that E. coli isolates were resistant to multiple antibiotics. Out of the (45) isolates of E. coli, 17 (37.8%) isolates were extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producer and multi-drug resistant (MDR). Out of the ESBL and MDR E.coli isolates, blaCTX-M (24.4%), blaTEM (11.1%), tetA (28.8%), tetB (26.7%), gyrA (26.7%), parC (31. 1%) and int1 genes (15.5%) were detected but none of the isolates were found positive for blaSHV gene. Findings of the present study confirm that MDR E. coli are widely distributed in houseflies and play an important role in transmission of antibiotic-resistant bacteria from contaminated environment to milk and meat shop environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choodamani Chandrakar
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Durg, 491001, India
| | - Sanjay Shakya
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Durg, 491001, India
| | - Anil Patyal
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Durg, 491001, India
| | - Asit Jain
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Durg, 491001, India
| | - Syed L Ali
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Durg, 491001, India
| | - O P Mishra
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Durg, 491001, India
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Asada Y, Chua ML, Tsurumi M, Yamauchi T, Nyambe I, Harada H. Detection of Escherichia coli, rotavirus, and Cryptosporidium spp. from drinking water, kitchenware, and flies in a periurban community of Lusaka, Zambia. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2022; 20:1027-1037. [PMID: 35902985 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2022.276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Fecal contamination with a poor water, sanitation and hygiene environment in urban informal settlements poses diarrhea risks. Little information is available on the contamination of environmental media with enteric pathogens in such settlements. We investigated the contamination of Escherichia coli, rotavirus, and Cryptosporidium spp. in water, on kitchenware, and on flies in urban informal settlements of Chawama and Kanyama, Lusaka, Zambia. These environmental media were examined by XM-G agar cultivation for E. coli and specific real-time RT-PCR assays to detect rotavirus and Cryptosporidium spp. E. coli; rotavirus, and Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in samples of household stored drinking water (6 of 10 samples, 3 of 10 samples, and 2 of 10 samples, respectively), cups (10 of 20 samples, 2 of 13 samples, 1 of 13 samples, respectively), and flies (35 of 55 samples, 5 of 17 samples, 1 of 17 samples, respectively). The ranges of rotavirus concentrations in household stored drinking water, on cups, and flies were 2.9 × 102-2.2 × 105 copies/L, 1.2 × 102-4.3 × 102 copies/cup, and 5.0 × 101-2.0 × 102 copies/fly, respectively. These results indicate the contribution of drinking water and kitchenware to enteric pathogen exposure and potential role of flies in microbial transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Asada
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Public Health, Saitama, Japan
| | - Min Li Chua
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Mayu Tsurumi
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Taro Yamauchi
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan; Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Imasiku Nyambe
- Integrated Water Resources Management Centre, c/o School of Mines, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Hidenori Harada
- Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan ; Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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Omatola CA, Olaniran AO. Rotaviruses: From Pathogenesis to Disease Control—A Critical Review. Viruses 2022; 14:v14050875. [PMID: 35632617 PMCID: PMC9143449 DOI: 10.3390/v14050875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Since their first recognition in human cases about four decades ago, rotaviruses have remained the leading cause of acute severe dehydrating diarrhea among infants and young children worldwide. The WHO prequalification of oral rotavirus vaccines (ORV) a decade ago and its introduction in many countries have yielded a significant decline in the global burden of the disease, although not without challenges to achieving global effectiveness. Poised by the unending malady of rotavirus diarrhea and the attributable death cases in developing countries, we provide detailed insights into rotavirus biology, exposure pathways, cellular receptors and pathogenesis, host immune response, epidemiology, and vaccination. Additionally, recent developments on the various host, viral and environmental associated factors impacting ORV performance in low-and middle-income countries (LMIC) are reviewed and their significance assessed. In addition, we review the advances in nonvaccine strategies (probiotics, candidate anti-rotaviral drugs, breastfeeding) to disease prevention and management.
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Hailu K, Alemu ZA, Adane M. Barriers to cleaning of shared latrines in slums of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263363. [PMID: 35271588 PMCID: PMC8912180 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Shared latrines and other shared sanitation facilities are vital for communities that lack private latrines. However, the cleanliness of shared latrines continues to be a problem in sub-Saharan Africa, including slums of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Investigating the barriers to cleaning of shared latrines may inform the future strengthening of comprehensive sanitation programs in slums of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Thus, a community-based unmatched case–control study was conducted among 100 case and 200 control households that were users of shared latrines from September to November 2017 in a slum district in Addis Ababa. Cases were those who had not cleaned their shared latrines and controls were those who had cleaned their shared latrines at least once during the week prior to data collection. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire and an on-the-spot-observational checklist and analyzed using bivariate (crude odds ratio [COD]) and multivariable (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]) unconditional logistic regression model. Variables having a p-value of less than 0.25 from the bivariate logistic regression analysis were retained into multivariable analysis. From the multivariable analysis, variables with p<0.05 were declared as factors significantly associated with barriers to cleaning of shared latrines. We found that about half 99 (49.5%) of shared latrines used by cases and almost one-third 32 (32.0%) of the shared latrines used by controls had visible cracks and spaces in the floor and slabs. The barriers to cleaning of shared latrines were found to be monthly household income of less than $55.60 USD (AOR = 1.80; 95%CI: 1.2–3.10), users feeling a lack of privacy during latrine use (AOR = 2.95; 95% CI: 1.60–5.43), no locking latch on the latrine door (AOR = 4.60; 95% CI: 2.43–8.79), inadequate ventilation of latrine (AOR: 4.88; 95% CI: 2.44–9.63), lack of regular monitoring of latrine by health extension workers (AOR = 2.86; 95%CI: 1.32–6.21) and a lack of enough water at home for cleaning the latrine (AOR = 4.91; 95% CI: 1.07–9.48). This study found several barriers to cleaning of shared latrines in slums of Addis Ababa. We recommend that stakeholders promote cleaning of shared latrines by designing programs to improve latrine privacy by adding or modifying the superstructure and including a door with locking latch, to make adjustments to the structure for better ventilation, to ensure regular monitoring of latrines by health extension workers and to make enough water consistently available for regular latrine cleaning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kidist Hailu
- Infection Prevention and Control (IPC) Unit, Bethzatha General Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Zewdie Aderaw Alemu
- Department of Public Health, Health Sciences College, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia
- GAMBY Medical and Business College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Metadel Adane
- Department of Environmental Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia
- * E-mail:
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Yushananta P, Ahyanti M. The Effectiveness of Betle Leaf (Piper betle L.) Extract as a Bio-pesticide for Controlled of Houseflies (Musca domestica L.). Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.3889/oamjms.2021.6886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: The housefly, Musca domestica L., spreads disease by contaminating food. However, chemical insecticides used to combat houseflies can pollute the environment and can harm non-target insects and humans; this demands safer alternatives and pest control options.
AIM: This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of Piper betle L. leaf extract as a bio-pesticide against houseflies.
METHODS: This study using a factorial design with six variations in concentration (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%), four variations in contact time (15, 30, 60, and 120 minutes), and 5-day-old M. domestica adults that were bred from residential areas.
RESULTS: The results show that mortality was affected by concentration (p-value < 0.000), contact time (p-value < 0.000), and the interaction between concentration and contact time (p-value = 0.0007). Of the three, concentration had the greatest effect.
CONCLUSION: As such, the use of Piper betle L. extract is a suitable, cheap, and environmentally safe method for controlling M. domestica.
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Barnes AN, Davaasuren A, Baasandavga U, Lantos PM, Gonchigoo B, Gray GC. Zoonotic enteric parasites in Mongolian people, animals, and the environment: Using One Health to address shared pathogens. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009543. [PMID: 34237083 PMCID: PMC8266129 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are important zoonotic enteric pathogens of One Health concern for humans, animals, and the environment. For this study, we investigated parasite prevalence and risk factors among rural, peri-urban, and urban households and environments of Mongolia. METHODS This cross-sectional study implemented a household risk factor survey at 250 home sites along with sample collection from humans, animals, flies, and drinking water. Multiplex real-time PCR analysis was conducted to look for Cryptosporidium spp. and/or Giardia duodenalis within household samples. RESULTS Lab analysis found one or both zoonotic parasites at 20% of the participating households (51/250). Human samples had a parasite prevalence of 6.4% (27/419), domestic animals at 3.3% (19/570), pooled filth flies at 14.8% (17/115), and drinking water samples at 2% (5/250). Parasite presence at the household was significantly associated with a household's use of an improved drinking water source (OR 0.27; CI 0.12-0.61; p = < 0.01), having an indoor handwashing site (OR 0.41; CI 0.19-0.92; p = 0.03), domestic animal ownership (OR 2.40; CI 1.02-5.65; p = 0.05), and rural location (OR 0.50; CI 0.25-0.98; p = 0.04). Household use of an improved drinking water source remained significant in the multivariate model (OR 0.16; CI 0.04-0.68; p = 0.01). CONCLUSION In Mongolia, public and veterinary health are intertwined, particularly for rural herding households. Increased access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure could help prevent further transmission of zoonotic enteric parasites. Public health interventions, policy and messaging should utilize a One Health framework employing joint leadership from local human and animal health sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber N. Barnes
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
- School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Public Health, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Anu Davaasuren
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
- National Center for Communicable Disease, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Uyanga Baasandavga
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
- National Center for Zoonotic Disease, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Paul M. Lantos
- School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | | | - Gregory C. Gray
- School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Global Health Research Institute, Duke-Kunshan University, Kunshan, Jiangsu, China
- Emerging Infectious Diseases Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
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González-Fernández D, Mazzini Salom AS, Herrera Bendezu F, Huamán S, Rojas Hernández B, Pevec I, Galarza Izquierdo EM, Armstrong N, Thomas V, Vela Gonzáles S, Gonzáles Saravia C, Scott ME, Koski KG. A Multi-Sectoral Approach Improves Early Child Development in a Disadvantaged Community in Peru: Role of Community Gardens, Nutrition Workshops and Enhanced Caregiver-Child Interaction: Project "Wawa Illari". Front Public Health 2020; 8:567900. [PMID: 33240834 PMCID: PMC7681241 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.567900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Multi-dimensional monitoring evaluation and learning strategies are needed to address the complex set of factors that affect early child development in marginalized populations, but few studies have explored their effectiveness. Objective: To compare improvement of health and development of children 0–3 years between intervention communities (IC) and control communities (CC) from peripheral settlements of Lima. Sequential interventions included: (1) home and community gardens, (2) conscious nutrition, and (3) parenting workshops following the International Child Development Program (ICDP). Methods: Interventions were delivered by community health promoters (CHPs) using a “step-by-step” learning system. Both IC and CC were monitored before the interventions began, at 8 and 12 months (n = 113 IC and 127 CC children). Data were collected on household characteristics, diet, food security, health indicators (history of diarrhea and respiratory infections, hemoglobin, intestinal parasites, anthropometry), caregiver-child interactions and stress, and achievement of Pan-American Health Organization age-specific developmental milestones. Stepwise multiple logistic regressions were used to determine if the interventions affected food insecurity, as well as motor, social/cognitive and language delays. Results: At baseline, 2.6% were categorized as “suspected developmental delay” and 14.2% were on “alert for development delay.” Food insecurity, diarrhea and respiratory infections were lowered following the interventions. Through the “step-by-step” approach, caregivers in IC gained skills in gardening, conscious nutrition and parenting that reduced the risk of food insecurity [Adjusted Risk Ratio = 0.20 (95% CI: 0.08–0.51)] and language delay [0.39 (0.19–0.82)] but not motor or social/cognitive delay. Use of a multiple micronutrient supplement decreased the risk of motor delay [0.12 (0.03–0.56)], but more pets were associated with higher risk of motor [3.24 (1.47–7.14)] and social/cognitive delay [2.72 (1.33–5.55)], and of food insecurity [1.73 (1.13–2.66)]. Conclusion: The combined interventions delivered by CHPs helped to mitigate the impact of adversity on food insecurity and language delay. Additional improvements may have been detected if the interventions had continued for a longer time. Our results indicate that control of infections and pets may be needed to achieve measurable results for motor and social/cognitive development. Continuous monitoring facilitated adjusting implementation strategies and achieving positive developmental outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sonia Huamán
- Pachacámac Health Center, Ministry of Health, Lima, Peru
| | - Bertha Rojas Hernández
- Laboratory School, Faculty of Medical Technology, Federico Villarreal National University, Lima, Peru
| | - Illène Pevec
- Community Engagement, Design and Research Center (CEDaR), University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, United States
| | | | | | - Virginia Thomas
- Susila Dharma International Association, Greenfield Park, QC, Canada
| | | | - Carlos Gonzáles Saravia
- Dermatology Service, Department of Medicine, National Institute for Children's Health (INSN), Lima, Peru
| | - Marilyn E Scott
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Sainte Anne de Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Kristine G Koski
- School of Human Nutrition, McGill University, Sainte Anne de Bellevue, QC, Canada
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14
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Dynamic Model for the Epidemiology of Diarrhea and Simulation Considering Multiple Disease Carriers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17165692. [PMID: 32781748 PMCID: PMC7460302 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17165692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Diarrhea is responsible for killing around 525,000 children every year, even though it is preventable and treatable. This research focuses on both houseflies’ roles and humans’ roles in carrying pathogens causing diarrhea as multiple disease carriers. Both human and fly compartmental models are simulated with five diseases control strategies in order to identify the epidemic dynamics. The framework considers the life cycle of flies modeled into eggs, larvae, pupae, susceptible flies, and carrier flies, while the human system follows a compartment model as susceptible, infected, recovered, and back to susceptible again (SIRS). The relationships are modeled into an ordinary differential equation-based compartmental system. Then, the control parameters of the compartmental framework are analyzed. In order to propose effective control methods, five control strategies are considered: (1) elimination of flies’ breeding site, (2) sanitation, (3) installation of UV light trap, (4) good personal and food hygiene, and (5) water purification. Then, overall, ten control scenarios using the five control strategies are analyzed. Among them, effective control solutions considering various dynamic epidemiology are provided with the simulations and analyses. The proposed framework contributes to an effective control strategy in reducing the number of both flies and infected humans, since it minimizes the spread of the disease and considers cost-effectiveness.
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15
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Abuzerr S, Nasseri S, Yunesian M, Hadi M, Zinszer K, Mahvi AH, Nabizadeh R, Abu Mustafa A, Mohammed SH. Water, sanitation, and hygiene risk factors of acute diarrhea among children under five years in the Gaza Strip. JOURNAL OF WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE FOR DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.2166/washdev.2019.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
This cross-sectional community household-based study aims to evaluate the water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities in the Gaza Strip and to investigate their associations with the occurrence of acute diarrhea among children under five years. A survey using a structured questionnaire was conducted on 1,857 households with an child under five years from August 2017 to June 2018. About 69.7% of heads of households reported a diarrheal episode among their children during the two months preceding the survey. Multivariable logistic regression showed that sewage water observed around the households was associated with an increased risk of acute diarrhea (AOR = 2.45; P < 0.001; 95% CI: 1.83–3.27). Nevertheless, the allocation of a special water tank for desalinated drinking water at home (AOR = 0.3; P = 0.02; 95% CI: 0.1–0.8), the connection of households to a closed sewerage system (AOR = 0.56; P < 0.001; 95% CI: 0.43–0.73), and handwashing practices before and after eating (AOR = 0.42; P = 0.003; 95% CI: 0.24–0.74 and AOR = 0.50; P = 0.03; 95% CI: 0.26–0.94, respectively), as well as using desalinated water sources for drinking purposes, were inversely associated with the incidence of acute diarrhea among children under five. Further improvements in the existing sewerage system and the intensification of sanitation and hygiene promotion programs at the household levels may reduce the risk of acute diarrhea among children under five years in the Gaza Strip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samer Abuzerr
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, International Campus, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- School of Public Health, Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Montreal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Simin Nasseri
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masud Yunesian
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Research Methodology and Data Analysis, Institute for Environmental Research, TUMS, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahdi Hadi
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kate Zinszer
- School of Public Health, Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Montreal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Amir Hossein Mahvi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ramin Nabizadeh
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ayman Abu Mustafa
- Department of Research, Directorate General of Human Resources Development, Ministry of Health, Gaza Strip, Palestine
| | - Shimels Hussien Mohammed
- Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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16
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Berendes DM, Leon JS, Kirby AE, Clennon JA, Raj SJ, Yakubu H, Robb KA, Kartikeyan A, Hemavathy P, Gunasekaran A, Roy S, Ghale BC, Kumar JS, Mohan VR, Kang G, Moe CL. Associations between open drain flooding and pediatric enteric infections in the MAL-ED cohort in a low-income, urban neighborhood in Vellore, India. BMC Public Health 2019; 19:926. [PMID: 31291914 PMCID: PMC6617624 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-7268-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Open drains are common methods of transporting solid waste and excreta in low-income urban neighborhoods. Open drains can overflow due to blockages with solid waste and during rainfall, posing exposure risks. The goal of this study was to evaluate whether pediatric enteric infection was associated with open drains and flooding in a dense, low-income, urban neighborhood. METHODS As part of the MAL-ED study in Vellore, India, a cohort of 230 children provided stool specimens at 14-17 scheduled home visits and during diarrheal episodes in the first two years of life. All specimens were analyzed for enteric pathogens. Caregivers in 100 households reported on flooding of drains and households and monthly frequency of contact with open drains and flood water. Household GPS points were collected. Monthly rainfall totals for the Vellore district were collected from the Indian Meteorological Department. Clustering of reported drain and house flooding were identified by Kulldorff's Bernoulli Spatial Scan. Differences in enteric infection were assessed for household responses and spatial clusters, with interactions between reported flooding and rainfall to approximate monthly drain flooding retrospectively, using multivariable, mixed-effects logistic regression models. RESULTS Coverage of household toilets was low (33%), and most toilets (82%) discharged directly into open drains, suggesting poor neighborhood fecal sludge management. Odds of enteric infection increased significantly with total monthly rainfall for children who lived in households that reported that the nearby drain flooded (4% increase per cm of rain: OR: 1.04, 95% CI: 1.00-1.08) and for children in households in a downstream spatial cluster of reported drain flooding (5% increase per cm of rain: OR: 1.05, 95% CI: 1.01-1.09). There was no association between odds of enteric infection and frequency of reported contact with drain or floodwater. CONCLUSIONS Children in areas susceptible to open drain flooding had increased odds of enteric infection as rainfall increased. Results suggested that infection increased with rainfall due to neighborhood infrastructure (including poor fecal sludge management) and not frequency of contact. Thus, these exposures may not be mitigated by changes in personal behaviors alone. These results underscore the importance of improving the neighborhood environment to improve children's health in low-income, urban settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Berendes
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Present address: Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Juan S Leon
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Amy E Kirby
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Julie A Clennon
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Suraja J Raj
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Habib Yakubu
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Katharine A Robb
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Arun Kartikeyan
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Priya Hemavathy
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Annai Gunasekaran
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Sheela Roy
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Ben Chirag Ghale
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - J Senthil Kumar
- Department of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | | | - Gagandeep Kang
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Christine L Moe
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Diarrhoeal disease accounts for millions of child deaths every year. Although the role of flies as vectors of infectious diarrhoea has been established, fly control is not often mentioned as an approach to decrease childhood diarrhoea. Theoretically, fly control for decreasing diarrhoea incidence can be achieved by intervening at four different levels: reduction or elimination of fly breeding sites; reduction of sources that attract houseflies; prevention of contact between flies and disease-causing organisms; and protection of people, food, and food utensils from contact with flies. OBJECTIVES To assess the impact of various housefly control measures on the incidence of diarrhoea and its related morbidity and mortality in children under five years of age. SEARCH METHODS We searched electronic databases including the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and LILACS, from database inception to 24 May 2018. We also searched trial registries for relevant grey literature and ongoing trials. We checked the references of the identified studies and reviews. We did not apply any filters for language, publication status (published, unpublished, in press, and ongoing), or publication date. SELECTION CRITERIA We planned to include randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs, and controlled before-and-after studies that studied the effect of fly control on diarrhoea in children under five years of age. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two review authors extracted the data and independently assessed the risk of bias in the included study. We planned to contact study authors for additional information, where necessary. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach. MAIN RESULTS We included one cluster-RCT (491 participants) conducted in Pakistan that evaluated insecticide spraying in the first two years and baited fly traps in the third year. Insecticide spraying reduced the fly population (house index) in the intervention group during the four months of the year when both flies and cases of diarrhoea were more common, but not at other times. On average, this was associated with a reduction in the incidence of diarrhoea in the first year (illustrative mean episodes per child-year in the intervention group was 6.3 while in the control group was 7.1) and second year of the intervention (illustrative mean episodes per child‒year in the intervention group was 4.4 while in the control group was 6.5; rate ratio (RaR) 0.77, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.67 to 0.89, low-certainty evidence). In the third year of the intervention, the baited fly traps did not demonstrate an effect on the fly population or on diarrhoea incidence (RaR 1.15, 95% CI 0.90 to 1.47, low-certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS The trial, conducted in a setting where there were clear seasonal peaks in fly numbers and associated diarrhoea, shows insecticide spraying may reduce diarrhoea in children. Further research on whether this finding is applicable to other setting is required, as well as work on other fly control methods, their effects, feasibility, costs, and acceptability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jai K Das
- Aga Khan University HospitalDivision of Women and Child HealthStadium RoadPO Box 3500KarachiSindPakistan
| | - Yousaf Bashir Hadi
- West Virginia UniversityDepartment of Internal Medicine1 Medical Center DriveMorgantownWest VirginiaUSA26506
| | - Rehana A Salam
- Aga Khan University HospitalDivision of Women and Child HealthStadium RoadPO Box 3500KarachiSindPakistan
| | - Mehar Hoda
- Aga Khan University HospitalDivision of Women and Child HealthStadium RoadPO Box 3500KarachiSindPakistan
| | - Zohra S Lassi
- The University of AdelaideThe Robinson Research InstituteAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia5005
| | - Zulfiqar A Bhutta
- The Hospital for Sick ChildrenCentre for Global Child HealthTorontoONCanadaM5G A04
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Yu F, Qi M, Zhao Z, Lv C, Wang Y, Wang R, Zhang L. The Potential Role of Synanthropic Rodents and Flies in the Transmission of Enterocytozoon bieneusi on a Dairy Cattle farm in China. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2018; 66:435-441. [PMID: 30191674 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Enterocytozoon bieneusi causes microsporidiosis, a condition with complex epidemiology involving both direct and indirect transmission routes. To assess the potential role of synanthropic rodents and flies in the transmission of this pathogen, a total of 277 cattle fecal samples, 199 synanthropic rodents, and 50 batches of 20 flies were collected from a cattle farm. These samples were screened for the presence of E. bieneusi by PCR and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA gene. The positive rates of cattle, synanthropic rodents, and flies were 11.9% (33/277), 4.0% (8/199) and 12.0% (6/50), respectively. Nineteen genotypes were identified, including 11 known genotypes (BEB6, I, COS-I, EbpC, D, J, CHS5, CHG1 to CHG3 and CHG14) and eight novel genotypes (named CHC9 to CHC16). The dominant genotype detected in the present study, BEB6, was found in all three categories of hosts. Moreover, human pathogenic genotypes D and EbpC were also observed in both synanthropic rodents and flies. These results demonstrate that synanthropic rodents and flies may act as biological disseminator or mechanical vector in the transmission of microsporidiosis to humans. Efforts should be made to minimize threats from these commensal animals to public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuchang Yu
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China
| | - Meng Qi
- College of Animal Science, Tarim University, Tarim Road 1487, Alar, Xinjiang, 843300, China
| | - Zifang Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China
| | - Chaochao Lv
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China
| | - Yange Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China
| | - Rongjun Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China
| | - Longxian Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Zoonotic Diseases of Henan, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China
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Xu Y, Tao S, Hinkle N, Harrison M, Chen J. Salmonella, including antibiotic-resistant Salmonella, from flies captured from cattle farms in Georgia, U.S.A. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 616-617:90-96. [PMID: 29107782 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Revised: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Flies can be transmission vehicles of Salmonella from cattle to humans. This study determined the prevalence of Salmonella in/on flies captured from 33 cattle farms, including 5 beef and 28 dairy farms, in Georgia, USA, and characterized antibiotic resistance profiles of the isolated Salmonella. Twenty-six out of the 33 cattle farms (79%) and 185 out of the 1650 flies (11%) tested positive for Salmonella in the study. The incidence of Salmonella-positive flies varied from farm to farm, ranging from 0 to 78%. Among the 185 Salmonella isolated from flies, 29% were resistant to ampicillin, 28% to tetracycline, 21% to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, 20% to cefoxitin, and 12% to streptomycin. Incidences of resistance against other tested antibiotics were low, ranging from 0 to 3%. Furthermore, 28% of the Salmonella isolates were multidrug resistant, demonstrating resistance to 3 or more antibiotics. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of ampicillin, cefoxitin, streptomycin, and tetracycline against the Salmonella isolates ranged from 32 to >2048, 64 to 2048, 128 to 1024, and 32 to 1024μg/mL, respectively. These data suggest that flies could be effective vehicles of transmitting antibiotic resistant Salmonella and disseminating antibiotic resistance genes on cattle farms, posing risks to human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumin Xu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The University of Georgia, Griffin, GA 30223-1797, USA
| | - Sha Tao
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, The University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793-5766, USA
| | - Nancy Hinkle
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, USA
| | - Mark Harrison
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, USA
| | - Jinru Chen
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The University of Georgia, Griffin, GA 30223-1797, USA.
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20
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Doza S, Jabeen Rahman M, Islam MA, Kwong LH, Unicomb L, Ercumen A, Pickering AJ, Parvez SM, Naser AM, Ashraf S, Das KK, Luby SP. Prevalence and Association of Escherichia coli and Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli in Stored Foods for Young Children and Flies Caught in the Same Households in Rural Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2018; 98:1031-1038. [PMID: 29436348 PMCID: PMC5928814 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Consumption of contaminated stored food can cause childhood diarrhea. Flies carry enteropathogens, although their contribution to food contamination remains unclear. We investigated the role of flies in contaminating stored food by collecting food and flies from the same households in rural Bangladesh. We selected 182 households with children ≤ 24 months old that had stored foods for later feeding at room temperature for ≥ 3 hours. We collected food samples and captured flies with fly tapes hung by the kitchen. We used the IDEXX Quanti-Tray System (Colilert-18 media; IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME) to enumerate Escherichia coli with the most probable number (MPN) method. Escherichia coli–positive IDEXX wells were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction for pathogenic E. coli genes (eae, ial, bfp, ipaH, st, lt, aat, aaiC, stx1, and stx2). Escherichia coli was detected in 61% (111/182) of food samples, with a mean of 1.1 log10 MPN/dry g. Fifteen samples (8%) contained pathogenic E. coli; seven (4%) had enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) genes (eae and/or bfp); and 10 (5%) had enteroaggregative E. coli genes (aat and/or aaiC). Of flies captured in 68 (37%) households, E. coli was detected in 41 (60%, mean 2.9 log10 MPN/fly), and one fly (1%) had an EPEC gene (eae). For paired fly-food samples, each log10 MPN E. coli increase in flies was associated with a 0.31 log10 MPN E. coli increase in stored food (95% confidence interval: 0.07, 0.55). In rural Bangladesh, flies possibly a likely route for fecal contamination of stored food. Controlling fly populations may reduce contamination of food stored for young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solaiman Doza
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | | | | | - Leanne Unicomb
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California
| | | | - Sarker Masud Parvez
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Abu Mohd Naser
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sania Ashraf
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health University, Baltimore, Maryland.,International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Kishor Kumar Das
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Stanford University, Stanford, California.,International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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21
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Lindeberg YL, Egedal K, Hossain ZZ, Phelps M, Tulsiani S, Farhana I, Begum A, Jensen PKM. CanEscherichia colifly? The role of flies as transmitters ofE. colito food in an urban slum in Bangladesh. Trop Med Int Health 2017; 23:2-9. [DOI: 10.1111/tmi.13003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yrja Lisa Lindeberg
- Department of Public Health; Global Health Section; Copenhagen University; København Denmark
| | - Karen Egedal
- Department of Public Health; Global Health Section; Copenhagen University; København Denmark
| | - Zenat Zebin Hossain
- Department of Public Health; Global Health Section; Copenhagen University; København Denmark
| | - Matthew Phelps
- Department of Public Health; Global Health Section; Copenhagen University; København Denmark
| | - Suhella Tulsiani
- Department of Public Health; Global Health Section; Copenhagen University; København Denmark
| | - Israt Farhana
- Department of Microbiology; University of Dhaka; Dhaka Bangladesh
| | - Anowara Begum
- Department of Microbiology; University of Dhaka; Dhaka Bangladesh
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22
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Adane M, Mengistie B, Kloos H, Medhin G, Mulat W. Sanitation facilities, hygienic conditions, and prevalence of acute diarrhea among under-five children in slums of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Baseline survey of a longitudinal study. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0182783. [PMID: 28854200 PMCID: PMC5576656 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In developing countries, children under the age of five years who live in slums are highly vulnerable to diarrhea. However, there is a paucity of information on the relationship between sanitation facilities and hygienic conditions to acute diarrhea among under-five children in slum areas of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Therefore, this study examines the sanitation facilities and hygienic conditions in the slums of Addis Ababa and identifies the main factors significantly associated with acute diarrhea among children aged 0-50 months in those slums. METHODS A community-based cross-sectional household survey was carried out between September and November 2014, that then served as the baseline survey of a longitudinal study. For this survey, 697 children aged 0-50 months were recruited from two slum districts in Addis Ababa. A pre-tested structured questionnaire and an observational checklist were used for data collection. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify sanitation facilities and hygiene-related factors that were significantly associated with acute diarrhea by controlling potential confounding effects of selected socio-demographic factors. Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) was used to quantify the strength of association. MAIN FINDINGS The prevalence of acute diarrhea among children aged 0-50 months in the study area was 11.9% and 94.6% of the sanitation facilities were unimproved. Sharing of a sanitation facility by six or more households (AOR = 4.7; 95% CI: 2.4-9.4), proximity of sanitation facilities within 15 meters of homes (AOR = 6.6; 95% CI: 2.5-17.0), presence of feces (AOR = 3.9; 95% CI: 1.5-10.3) and flies (AOR = 2.5; 95% CI: 1.3-5.0) on the floor of and/or around sanitation facilities, and presence of uncollected garbage inside house compounds (AOR = 3.2; 95% CI: 1.2-8.4) were significantly associated with acute diarrhea. CONCLUSION This study reveals the slum environment to be high risk for diarrhea due to close proximity of sanitation facilities to homes, sharing of sanitation facilities, and poor hygiene of the sanitation facilities and housing compounds. We recommend the development of a comprehensive diarrheal disease prevention program that focuses on improving the cleanliness of the sanitation facilities and housing compounds. Increasing the number of improved sanitation facilities at an appropriate distance from houses is also essential in order to reduce the number of households that share one latrine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Metadel Adane
- Ethiopian Institute of Water Resources (EIWR), Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Bezatu Mengistie
- College of Health and Medical Sciences, Haramaya University, Haramaya, Ethiopia
| | - Helmut Kloos
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, United States of America
| | - Girmay Medhin
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Worku Mulat
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, United States of America
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23
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Berendes D, Kirby A, Clennon JA, Raj S, Yakubu H, Leon J, Robb K, Kartikeyan A, Hemavathy P, Gunasekaran A, Ghale B, Kumar JS, Mohan VR, Kang G, Moe C. The Influence of Household- and Community-Level Sanitation and Fecal Sludge Management on Urban Fecal Contamination in Households and Drains and Enteric Infection in Children. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2017; 96:1404-1414. [PMID: 28719269 PMCID: PMC5462580 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Urban sanitation necessitates management of fecal sludge inside and outside the household. This study examined associations between household sanitation, fecal contamination, and enteric infection in two low-income neighborhoods in Vellore, India. Surveys and spatial analysis assessed the presence and clustering of toilets and fecal sludge management (FSM) practices in 200 households. Fecal contamination was measured in environmental samples from 50 households and household drains. Enteric infection was assessed from stool specimens from children under 5 years of age in these households. The two neighborhoods differed significantly in toilet coverage (78% versus 33%) and spatial clustering. Overall, 49% of toilets discharged directly into open drains (“poor FSM”). Children in households with poor FSM had 3.78 times higher prevalence of enteric infection when compared with children in other households, even those without toilets. In the neighborhood with high coverage of household toilets, children in households with poor FSM had 10 times higher prevalence of enteric infection than other children in the neighborhood and drains in poor FSM clusters who had significantly higher concentrations of genogroup II norovirus. Conversely, children in households with a toilet that contained excreta in a tank onsite had 55% lower prevalence of enteric infection compared with the rest of the study area. Notably, households with a toilet in the neighborhood with low toilet coverage had more fecal contamination on floors where children played compared with those without a toilet. Overall, both toilet coverage levels and FSM were associated with environmental fecal contamination and, subsequently, enteric infection prevalence in this urban setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Berendes
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia.,Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Amy Kirby
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Julie A Clennon
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Suraja Raj
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Habib Yakubu
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Juan Leon
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Katharine Robb
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Arun Kartikeyan
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Priya Hemavathy
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Annai Gunasekaran
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Ben Ghale
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - J Senthil Kumar
- Department of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | | | - Gagandeep Kang
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Christine Moe
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia
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24
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Berendes D, Leon J, Kirby A, Clennon J, Raj S, Yakubu H, Robb K, Kartikeyan A, Hemavathy P, Gunasekaran A, Roy S, Ghale BC, Kumar JS, Mohan VR, Kang G, Moe C. Household sanitation is associated with lower risk of bacterial and protozoal enteric infections, but not viral infections and diarrhoea, in a cohort study in a low-income urban neighbourhood in Vellore, India. Trop Med Int Health 2017; 22:1119-1129. [PMID: 28653489 PMCID: PMC5601219 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Objective This study examined associations between household sanitation and enteric infection – including diarrhoeal‐specific outcomes – in children 0–2 years of age in a low‐income, dense urban neighbourhood. Methods As part of the MAL‐ED study, 230 children in a low‐income, urban, Indian neighbourhood provided stool specimens at 14–17 scheduled time points and during diarrhoeal episodes in the first 2 years of life that were analysed for bacterial, parasitic (protozoa and helminths) and viral pathogens. From interviews with caregivers in 100 households, the relationship between the presence (and discharge) of household sanitation facilities and any, pathogen‐specific, and diarrhoea‐specific enteric infection was tested through mixed‐effects Poisson regression models. Results Few study households (33%) reported having toilets, most of which (82%) discharged into open drains. Controlling for season and household socio‐economic status, the presence of a household toilet was associated with lower risks of enteric infection (RR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.79–1.06), bacterial infection (RR: 0.87, 95% CI: 0.75–1.02) and protozoal infection (RR: 0.64, 95% CI: 0.39–1.04), although not statistically significant, but had no association with diarrhoea (RR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.68–1.45) or viral infections (RR: 1.12, 95% CI: 0.79–1.60). Models also suggested that the relationship between household toilets discharging to drains and enteric infection risk may vary by season. Conclusions The presence of a household toilet was associated with lower risk of bacterial and protozoal enteric infections, but not diarrhoea or viral infections, suggesting the health effects of sanitation may be more accurately estimated using outcome measures that account for aetiologic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Berendes
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Juan Leon
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Amy Kirby
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Julie Clennon
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Suraja Raj
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Habib Yakubu
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Katharine Robb
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Arun Kartikeyan
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Priya Hemavathy
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Annai Gunasekaran
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Sheela Roy
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Ben Chirag Ghale
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - J Senthil Kumar
- Department of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | | | - Gagandeep Kang
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Christine Moe
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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25
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Wolfe MK, Dentz HN, Achando B, Mureithi M, Wolfe T, Null C, Pickering AJ. Adapting and Evaluating a Rapid, Low-Cost Method to Enumerate Flies in the Household Setting. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2017; 96:449-456. [PMID: 27956654 PMCID: PMC5303052 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Diarrhea is a leading cause of death among children under 5 years of age worldwide. Flies are important vectors of diarrheal pathogens in settings lacking networked sanitation services. There is no standardized method for measuring fly density in households; many methods are cumbersome and unvalidated. We adapted a rapid, low-cost fly enumeration technique previously developed for industrial settings, the Scudder fly grill, for field use in household settings. We evaluated its performance in comparison to a sticky tape fly trapping method at latrine and food preparation areas among households in rural Kenya. The grill method was more sensitive; it detected the presence of any flies at 80% (433/543) of sampling locations versus 64% (348/543) of locations by the sticky tape. We found poor concordance between the two methods, suggesting that standardizing protocols is important for comparison of fly densities between studies. Fly species identification was feasible with both methods; however, the sticky tape trap allowed for more nuanced identification. Both methods detected a greater presence of bottle flies near latrines compared with food preparation areas (P < 0.01). The grill method detected more flies at the food preparation area compared with near the latrine (P = 0.014) while the sticky tape method detected no difference. We recommend the Scudder grill as a sensitive fly enumeration tool that is rapid and low cost to implement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene K. Wolfe
- Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts
- Innovations for Poverty Action, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Holly N. Dentz
- Innovations for Poverty Action, New Haven, Connecticut
- University of California Davis, Davis, California
| | - Beryl Achando
- Innovations for Poverty Action, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Tim Wolfe
- Innovations for Poverty Action, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Clair Null
- Innovations for Poverty Action, New Haven, Connecticut
- Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- Mathematica Policy Research, Washington, District of Columbia
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26
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Assessing the feasibility of fly based surveillance of wildlife infectious diseases. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37952. [PMID: 27901062 PMCID: PMC5128827 DOI: 10.1038/srep37952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Monitoring wildlife infectious agents requires acquiring samples suitable for analyses, which is often logistically demanding. A possible alternative to invasive or non-invasive sampling of wild-living vertebrates is the use of vertebrate material contained in invertebrates feeding on them, their feces, or their remains. Carrion flies have been shown to contain vertebrate DNA; here we investigate whether they might also be suitable for wildlife pathogen detection. We collected 498 flies in Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, a tropical rainforest and examined them for adenoviruses (family Adenoviridae), whose DNA is frequently shed in feces of local mammals. Adenoviral DNA was detected in 6/142 mammal-positive flies. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that five of these sequences were closely related to sequences obtained from local non-human primates, while the sixth sequence was closely related to a murine adenovirus. Next-generation sequencing-based DNA-profiling of the meals of the respective flies identified putative hosts that were a good fit to those suggested by adenoviral sequence affinities. We conclude that, while characterizing the genetic diversity of wildlife infectious agents through fly-based monitoring may not be cost-efficient, this method could probably be used to detect the genetic material of wildlife infectious agents causing wildlife mass mortality in pristine areas.
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27
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Alarcon Falconi TM, Kulinkina AV, Mohan VR, Francis MR, Kattula D, Sarkar R, Ward H, Kang G, Balraj V, Naumova EN. Quantifying tap-to-household water quality deterioration in urban communities in Vellore, India: The impact of spatial assumptions. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2016; 220:29-36. [PMID: 27773615 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Revised: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Municipal water sources in India have been found to be highly contaminated, with further water quality deterioration occurring during household storage. Quantifying water quality deterioration requires knowledge about the exact source tap and length of water storage at the household, which is not usually known. This study presents a methodology to link source and household stored water, and explores the effects of spatial assumptions on the association between tap-to-household water quality deterioration and enteric infections in two semi-urban slums of Vellore, India. To determine a possible water source for each household sample, we paired household and tap samples collected on the same day using three spatial approaches implemented in GIS: minimum Euclidean distance; minimum network distance; and inverse network-distance weighted average. Logistic and Poisson regression models were used to determine associations between water quality deterioration and household-level characteristics, and between diarrheal cases and water quality deterioration. On average, 60% of households had higher fecal coliform concentrations in household samples than at source taps. Only the weighted average approach detected a higher risk of water quality deterioration for households that do not purify water and that have animals in the home (RR=1.50 [1.03, 2.18], p=0.033); and showed that households with water quality deterioration were more likely to report diarrheal cases (OR=3.08 [1.21, 8.18], p=0.02). Studies to assess contamination between source and household are rare due to methodological challenges and high costs associated with collecting paired samples. Our study demonstrated it is possible to derive useful spatial links between samples post hoc; and that the pairing approach affects the conclusions related to associations between enteric infections and water quality deterioration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Venkata Raghava Mohan
- Department of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Mark R Francis
- Division of Gastrointestinal Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Deepthi Kattula
- Division of Gastrointestinal Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Rajiv Sarkar
- Division of Gastrointestinal Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Honorine Ward
- Division of Gastrointestinal Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India; Department of Geographic Medicine, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gagandeep Kang
- Division of Gastrointestinal Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Vinohar Balraj
- Department of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Elena N Naumova
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA; Division of Gastrointestinal Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India; Friedman School of Nutrition Science & Policy, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA.
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28
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Assessing the impact of sanitation on indicators of fecal exposure along principal transmission pathways: A systematic review. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2016; 219:709-723. [PMID: 27720133 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Fecal-oral transmission of enteric and other pathogens due to poor sanitation is a major cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in low- or middle-income settings. Few studies have investigated the impact of sanitation on indicators of transmission, a prerequisite to achieving health gains. This review attempts to summarize the literature to date. METHODS We searched leading databases to identify studies that address the effect of sanitation on various transmission pathways including fecal pathogens or indicator bacteria in drinking water, hand contamination, sentinel toys, food, household and latrine surfaces and soil, as well as flies and observations of human feces. This also included studies that assessed the impact of fecal contamination of water supplies based on distance from sanitation facilities. We identified 29 studies that met the review's eligibility criteria. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Overall, the studies found little to no effect from sanitation interventions on these transmission pathways. There was no evidence of effects on water quality (source or household), hand or sentinel toy contamination, food contamination, or contamination of surfaces or soil. There is some evidence that sanitation was associated with reductions in flies and a small effect on observations of feces (Risk Difference -0.03, 95%CI -0.06 to 0.01). Studies show an inverse relationship between the distance of a water supply from a latrine and level of fecal contamination of such water supply. Future evaluations of sanitation interventions should include assessments of effects along transmission pathways in order to better understand the circumstances under which interventions may be effective at preventing disease.
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29
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Julian TR. Environmental transmission of diarrheal pathogens in low and middle income countries. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2016; 18:944-955. [PMID: 27384220 DOI: 10.1039/c6em00222f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Every year, more than half a million children die due to diarrheal diseases. Recent studies have identified the most important etiologies of diarrheal disease are enterotoxigenic and enteropathogenic E. coli, Shigella spp., rotavirus, norovirus and Cryptosporidium spp. These etiologies are unsurprisingly characterized by a combination of high shedding, high infectivity, and transmissibility through multiple environmental reservoirs. The relative importance of the transmission routes is likely site-specific. So the impact of interventions, which typically target only one or two environmental reservoirs, is likely also site-specific. The factors influencing the transmission routes most important for diarrheal disease are complex, including - at a minimum - etiology of endemic disease; and water, sanitation, and hygiene infrastructure and practices. The site-specific nature - and complexity of transmission - helps explain the observed variation in impacts of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions. It may also render efforts to estimate or quantify global means for interventions' impacts irrelevant. The theme of this Perspective is that greater reductions in diarrheal disease transmission in LMICs can be achieved by designing interventions to interrupt the most important environmental transmission pathways. Intervention choice should be informed by site-specific conditions, most notably: diarrheal etiology and existing water, sanitation, and hygiene infrastructure and practices. The theme is discussed through the lens of the characteristics of the most important diarrheal diseases (shedding, infectivity, growth, and persistence) and the general characteristics of environmental reservoirs (exposure pathways and fecal contamination). The discussion highlights when interventions - and combinations of interventions - will be most effective at reducing diarrheal disease burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy R Julian
- Pathogens and Human Health, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Swiss Federal Research Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Eawag, BU-F08, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
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ÖZMEN Ö, SERPİN N, JAMSHIDI K. KUZU VE OĞLAKLARDA KRİPTOSPORİDİOZİSTE PATOLOJİK VE İMMUNOHİSTOKİMYASAL BULGULAR. MEHMET AKIF ERSOY ÜNIVERSITESI VETERINER FAKÜLTESI DERGISI 2016. [DOI: 10.24880/maeuvfd.260785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
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Mellor JE, Levy K, Zimmerman J, Elliott M, Bartram J, Carlton E, Clasen T, Dillingham R, Eisenberg J, Guerrant R, Lantagne D, Mihelcic J, Nelson K. Planning for climate change: The need for mechanistic systems-based approaches to study climate change impacts on diarrheal diseases. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 548-549:82-90. [PMID: 26799810 PMCID: PMC4818006 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Increased precipitation and temperature variability as well as extreme events related to climate change are predicted to affect the availability and quality of water globally. Already heavily burdened with diarrheal diseases due to poor access to water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, communities throughout the developing world lack the adaptive capacity to sufficiently respond to the additional adversity caused by climate change. Studies suggest that diarrhea rates are positively correlated with increased temperature, and show a complex relationship with precipitation. Although climate change will likely increase rates of diarrheal diseases on average, there is a poor mechanistic understanding of the underlying disease transmission processes and substantial uncertainty surrounding current estimates. This makes it difficult to recommend appropriate adaptation strategies. We review the relevant climate-related mechanisms behind transmission of diarrheal disease pathogens and argue that systems-based mechanistic approaches incorporating human, engineered and environmental components are urgently needed. We then review successful systems-based approaches used in other environmental health fields and detail one modeling framework to predict climate change impacts on diarrheal diseases and design adaptation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan E Mellor
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut, 261 Glenbrook Road, Storrs, CT 06269-3037, USA.
| | - Karen Levy
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Julie Zimmerman
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering & Applied Science, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mark Elliott
- Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, The College of Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
| | - Jamie Bartram
- Water Institute, Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Elizabeth Carlton
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado at Denver, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Rebecca Dillingham
- The Center for Global Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Joseph Eisenberg
- School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Richard Guerrant
- The Center for Global Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Daniele Lantagne
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
| | - James Mihelcic
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The College of Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Kara Nelson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
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Romero-Salas D, Alvarado-Esquivel C, Cruz-Romero A, Aguilar-Domínguez M, Ibarra-Priego N, Merino-Charrez JO, Pérez de León AA, Hernández-Tinoco J. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium in small ruminants from Veracruz, Mexico. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:14. [PMID: 26785744 PMCID: PMC4717630 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0638-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium spp. that can affect domestic animal and human populations. In newborn ruminants, cryptosporidiosis is characterized by outbreaks of diarrhea, which can result in high morbidity and economic impact. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in small ruminants from the Perote municipality in Veracruz State, Mexico. One hundred and sixty small ruminants (80 sheep and 80 goats) from eight farms located in four towns of the Perote municipality were examined following a cross-sectional study design. Stool samples were analyzed by a modification of the Faust centrifugation method, and the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts was examined using a modification of the Ziehl-Neelsen staining procedure. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess the association of Cryptosporidium infection and the general characteristics of the animals studied. RESULTS Overall, 112 (70%, 95% CI: 62.3-76.9) of the 160 small ruminants sampled were infected with Cryptosporidium spp. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infection in goats was 72.5% (95% CI: 61.4-81.9) and in sheep 67.5% (95% CI: 56.1-77.6). Small ruminants aged 1 month old had the highest (88.2%; 95% CI: 63.6-98.5) prevalence of infection. Prevalence varied from 60% to 85% among herds. Animal species, age, sex, breed, farm, town or cohabitation with cattle did not influence the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection. CONCLUSIONS A high prevalence of infection with Cryptosporidium spp. was observed in small ruminants from the Perote municipality in Veracruz, Mexico. Infection was widely distributed among sheep and goats regardless of their age, breed or farm location. Further research is required to identify risk factors for, and to assess the veterinary public health significance of Cryptosporidium infection among sheep and goats in the Mexican state of Veracruz.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dora Romero-Salas
- Laboratorio de Parasitología. UD PZTM. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - Cosme Alvarado-Esquivel
- Laboratorio de Investigación Biomédica. Facultad de Medicina y Nutrición, Juárez University of Durango State, Avenida Universidad S/N, 34000, Durango, Mexico.
| | - Anabel Cruz-Romero
- Laboratorio de Parasitología. UD PZTM. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - Mariel Aguilar-Domínguez
- Laboratorio de Parasitología. UD PZTM. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - Nelly Ibarra-Priego
- Laboratorio de Parasitología. UD PZTM. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - José O Merino-Charrez
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Cd. Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico.
| | - Adalberto A Pérez de León
- USDA-ARS Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory, and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, Kerrville, TX, USA.
| | - Jesús Hernández-Tinoco
- Institute for Scientific Research "Dr. Roberto Rivera Damm", Juárez University of Durango State, Durango, Mexico.
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