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Backer HD, Derlet RW, Hill VR. Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines on Water Treatment for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2024 Update. Wilderness Environ Med 2024; 35:45S-66S. [PMID: 38379474 PMCID: PMC10961906 DOI: 10.1177/10806032231218722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
To provide guidance to medical providers, wilderness users, and travelers, the Wilderness Medical Society convened an expert panel to develop evidence-based guidelines for treating water in situations where the potability of available water is not assured, including wilderness and international travel, areas impacted by disaster, and other areas without adequate sanitation. The guidelines present the available methods for reducing or eliminating microbiological contamination of water for individuals, groups, or households; evaluation of their effectiveness; and practical considerations. The evidence base includes both laboratory and clinical publications. The panel graded the recommendations based on the quality of supporting evidence and the balance between benefits and risks/burdens according to the criteria published by the American College of Chest Physicians.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert W. Derlet
- Emergency Department, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA
| | - Vincent R. Hill
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
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2
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Rabiu AG, Marcus AJ, Olaitan MO, Falodun OI. Systematic review and meta-analyses of the role of drinking water sources in the environmental dissemination of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli in Africa. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38379376 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2024.2320934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Escherichia coli are pathogenic and antibiotic-resistant organisms that can spread to humans through water. However, there is sparse synthesised information on the dissemination of antibiotic-resistant E. coli through drinking water in Africa. This review provides an overview of the environmental spread of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli through drinking water in Africa. We performed a systematic review based on PRISMA guidelines, and 40 eligible studies from 12 countries were identified until June 2023. Four electronic databases (PubMed, Elsevier, AJOL, and DOAJ) were searched. Studies that employed phenotypic tests (n = 24/40) in identifying the bacterium outstripped those that utilised genome-based methods (n = 13). Of the 40 studies, nine and five, respectively, assessed the bacterium for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) phenotype and genotype. Multiple antibiotic resistance indices of 0.04-0.1 revealed a low level of antibiotic resistance. The detection of multidrug-resistant E. coli carrying resistance genes in certain water sources suggests that AMR-surveillance expansion should include drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akeem Ganiyu Rabiu
- Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Health Sciences, Ila-Orangun, Nigeria
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3
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Alabi OS, Akintayo I, Odeyemi JS, Oloche JJ, Babalola CM, Nwimo C, Popoola O, Mogeni OD, Marks F, Okeke IN. Suboptimal Bacteriological Quality of Household Water in Municipal Ibadan, Nigeria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2024; 110:346-355. [PMID: 38167625 PMCID: PMC10859799 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.23-0134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Access to potable water is difficult for many African residents. This study evaluated the bacteriological quality of household water collected in the dry and wet seasons across five municipal local government areas (LGAs) in Ibadan, a large city in southwest Nigeria. A total of 447 water samples (dry season, n = 250; wet season, n = 197) were aseptically collected from a random sample of mapped households within Ibadan's five municipal LGAs. The pH values and total aerobic and coliform bacterial counts were measured, and samples were screened for Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Yersinia by standard phenotypic techniques and multiplex polymerase chain reaction. The most common source of water was well (53.2%), followed by borehole (34%). None of the households used municipal tap water. Cumulatively, aerobic (P = 0.0002) and coliform (P = 0.0001) counts as well as pH values (P = 0.0002) changed significantly between seasons, with increasing and decreasing counts depending on the LGA. Nonpotable water samples were found to be very common during the dry (86.8%) and wet (74.1%) seasons. Escherichia coli spp., as indicators of recent fecal contamination, were isolated from 115 (25.7%) of the household water sources. Thirty three Salmonella, four enteroaggregative E. coli, and four enterotoxigenic E. coli isolates but no Shigella or Yersinia isolates were identified. This study revealed the absence of treated tap water and the poor quality of alternative sources with detectable pathogens in municipal Ibadan. Addressing the city-wide lack of access to potable water is an essential priority for preventing a high prevalence of feco-orally transmitted infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olumuyiwa S. Alabi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Ifeoluwa Akintayo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Jesutofunmi S. Odeyemi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Jeremiah J. Oloche
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Health Sciences, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria
| | - Chibuzor M. Babalola
- Keck School of Medicine, Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Chukwuemeka Nwimo
- Department of Community Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Oluwafemi Popoola
- Department of Community Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Ondari D. Mogeni
- Epidemiology, Public Health, Implementation & Clinical Development Unit, International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Florian Marks
- Epidemiology, Public Health, Implementation & Clinical Development Unit, International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Madagascar Institute for Vaccine Research, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Iruka N. Okeke
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
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4
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Capone D, Bivins A, Brown J. Producing ratio measures of effect with quantitative microbial risk assessment. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2023. [PMID: 35689350 DOI: 10.17605/osf.io/jwzy9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Estimating the risk of infections or other outcomes incident to pathogen exposure is a primary goal of quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Such estimates are useful to predict population-level risks, to evaluate exposures based on normative or tolerable risk guidelines, and to interpret the likely public health relevance of microbial measurements in environmental media. To evaluate alternative control measures (interventions), ratio estimates of effect (e.g., odds and risk ratios) are needed that are more broadly interpretable in the health sciences and consistent with convention in epidemiology. In this paper, we propose a general method for estimating widely used ratio measures of effect derived from stochastic QMRA approaches, including the generation of appropriate confidence intervals. Such QMRA-derived ratios can be used as a basis for evaluating interventions via hypothesis testing and for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analyses in a form consistent with risk estimation approaches commonly used in epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Capone
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Aaron Bivins
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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5
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Capone D, Bivins A, Brown J. Producing ratio measures of effect with quantitative microbial risk assessment. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2023; 43:917-927. [PMID: 35689350 PMCID: PMC9734285 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Estimating the risk of infections or other outcomes incident to pathogen exposure is a primary goal of quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Such estimates are useful to predict population-level risks, to evaluate exposures based on normative or tolerable risk guidelines, and to interpret the likely public health relevance of microbial measurements in environmental media. To evaluate alternative control measures (interventions), ratio estimates of effect (e.g., odds and risk ratios) are needed that are more broadly interpretable in the health sciences and consistent with convention in epidemiology. In this paper, we propose a general method for estimating widely used ratio measures of effect derived from stochastic QMRA approaches, including the generation of appropriate confidence intervals. Such QMRA-derived ratios can be used as a basis for evaluating interventions via hypothesis testing and for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analyses in a form consistent with risk estimation approaches commonly used in epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Capone
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Aaron Bivins
- Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Joe Brown
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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6
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Hata A, Meuchi Y, Liu M, Torii S, Katayama H. Surfactant Treatment for Efficient Gene Detection of Enteric Viruses and Indicators in Surface Water Concentrated by Ultrafiltration. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2023; 15:8-20. [PMID: 36592278 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-022-09543-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The hollow fiber ultrafiltration (HFUF)-based microbial concentration method is widely applied for monitoring pathogenic viruses and microbial indicators in environmental water samples. However, the HFUF-based method can co-concentrate substances that interfere with downstream molecular processes-nucleic acid extraction, reverse transcription (RT), and PCR. These inhibitory substances are assumed to be hydrophobic and, therefore, expected to be excluded by a simple surfactant treatment before the silica membrane-based RNA extraction process. In this study, the efficacy and limitations of the sodium deoxycholate (SD) treatment were assessed by quantifying a process control and indigenous viruses using 42 surface water samples concentrated with HFUF. With some exceptions, which tended to be seen in samples with high turbidity (> 4.0 NTU), virus recovery by the ultrafiltration method was sufficiently high (> 10%). RNA extraction-RT-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) efficiency of the process control was insufficient (10%) for 30 of the 42 HFUF concentrates without any pretreatments, but it was markedly improved for 21 of the 30 inhibitory concentrates by the SD treatment. Detection rates of indigenous viruses were also improved and no substantial loss of viral RNA was observed. The SD treatment was particularly effective in mitigating RT-qPCR inhibition, although it was not effective in improving RNA extraction efficiency. The methodology is simple and easily applied. These findings indicate that SD treatment can be a good alternative to sample dilution, which is widely applied to mitigate the effect of RT-qPCR inhibition, and can be compatible with other countermeasures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiko Hata
- Department of Environmental and Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama, 939-0398, Japan.
| | - Yuno Meuchi
- Department of Environmental and Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama, 939-0398, Japan
| | - Miaomiao Liu
- Department of Urban Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Shotaro Torii
- Department of Urban Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
- School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Hiroyuki Katayama
- Department of Urban Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
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7
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Zhou N, Ong A, Fagnant-Sperati C, Harrison J, Kossik A, Beck N, Shirai J, Burnor E, Swanstrom R, Demeke B, Patel S, Scott Meschke J. Evaluation of Sampling and Concentration Methods for Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi Detection from Wastewater. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2023; 108:482-491. [PMID: 36746655 PMCID: PMC9978546 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.22-0427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar (Salmonella Typhi) is the causative bacterial agent of typhoid fever. Environmental surveillance of wastewater and wastewater-impacted surface waters has proven effective in monitoring various pathogens and has recently been applied to Salmonella Typhi. This study evaluated eight sample collection and concentration methods with 12 variations currently being developed and used for Salmonella Typhi surveillance globally to better understand the performance of each method based on its ability to detect Salmonella Typhi and its feasibility. Salmonella Typhi strains Ty21a and Ty2 were seeded to influent wastewater at known concentrations to evaluate the following methods: grab sampling using electropositive filters, centrifugation, direct enrichment, or membrane filtration and trap sampling using Moore swabs. Concentrated samples underwent nucleic acid extraction and were detected and/or quantified via quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Results suggest that all methods tested can be successful at concentrating Salmonella Typhi for subsequent detection by qPCR, although each method has its own strengths and weaknesses, including the Salmonella Typhi concentration it is best suited for, with a range of positive detections observed as low as 0.1-0.001 colony-forming units (CFU) Ty21a/mL and 0.01 CFU Ty2/mL. These factors should be considered when identifying a method for environmental surveillance and will greatly depend on the use case planned.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - John Scott Meschke
- Address correspondence to John Meschke, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, 4225 Roosevelt Way NE, Ste. 100, Seattle, WA 98105. E-mail:
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Rabiu AG, Falodun OI, Fagade OE, Dada RA, Okeke IN. Potentially pathogenic Escherichia coli from household water in peri-urban Ibadan, Nigeria. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2022; 20:1137-1149. [PMID: 35902995 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2022.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Feco-orally transmitted infectious diseases are common in Nigeria where the potable water access is poor. In the south-western Nigerian Ibadan metropolis, supply of municipal water is meagre as residents depend on household wells and boreholes. The likelihood of fecal contamination of household water sources in Ibadan was examined longitudinally to quantify and understand its impact. Well and borehole water samples aseptically collected from 96 households in Ibadan were assessed for total heterotrophic counts (THCs), total coliform counts (TCCs) and total Escherichia coli counts (TECs) using a pour plate technique. E. coli were identified by uidA and whole-genome sequencing using Illumina technology, whereas virulence factors were predicted using VirulenceFinder. There was season-independent abundance of THC and TCC in the well and borehole with a significant recovery of E. coli in the wells during the wet season compared to the dry season (P = 0.0001). Virulence genes associated with pathogenic E. coli were identified in 13 (52%) strains with one E. coli each classified as extra-intestinal E. coli, avian pathogenic E. coli and enteroaggregative E. coli. High heterotrophic and coliform counts, with rainfall-driven E. coli contamination revealed that the water sources evaluated in this study are unfit for consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akeem Ganiyu Rabiu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria E-mail:
| | | | | | | | - Iruka N Okeke
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
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9
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An Overview of Microbial Source Tracking Using Host-Specific Genetic Markers to Identify Origins of Fecal Contamination in Different Water Environments. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14111809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Fecal contamination of water constitutes a serious health risk to humans and environmental ecosystems. This is mainly due to the fact that fecal material carries a variety of enteropathogens, which can enter and circulate in water bodies through fecal pollution. In this respect, the prompt identification of the polluting source(s) is pivotal to guiding appropriate target-specific remediation actions. Notably, microbial source tracking (MST) is widely applied to determine the host origin(s) contributing to fecal water pollution through the identification of zoogenic and/or anthropogenic sources of fecal environmental DNA (eDNA). A wide array of host-associated molecular markers have been developed and exploited for polluting source attribution in various aquatic ecosystems. This review is intended to provide the most up-to-date overview of genetic marker-based MST studies carried out in different water types, such as freshwaters (including surface and groundwaters) and seawaters (from coasts, beaches, lagoons, and estuaries), as well as drinking water systems. Focusing on the latest scientific progress/achievements, this work aims to gain updated knowledge on the applicability and robustness of using MST for water quality surveillance. Moreover, it also provides a future perspective on advancing MST applications for environmental research.
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10
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Walekhwa AW, Ntaro M, Kawungezi P, Nimusiima E, Achangwa C, Musoke D, Mulogo EM. Water quality of improved water sources and associated factors in Kibuku District, Eastern Uganda. SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 2022; 8:50. [PMID: 35224175 PMCID: PMC8861603 DOI: 10.1007/s40899-022-00604-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Globally, billions of people still lack access to safe water, including basic drinking water services, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. We analyzed water quality for improved water sources and associated factors in Kibuku district, Eastern Uganda. The mixed-methods study employed included; water quality analysis, a questionnaire survey, and key informant interviews conducted in the months of April-June 2020. A total of 249 improved water sources were sampled for analysis of bacteriological quality, pH, and electrical conductivity. This was followed by a sanitary and people's attitudes survey at all the water sources visited. Among the water sources, 62.3% deep boreholes, 63.5% public tap stands, 14.3% rain-water harvesting tanks, and 28.6% protected springs had zero thermotolerant coliforms with 63.8% having acceptable pH levels (6.5-8.5) and 35.3% having acidic levels (less than 6.4). Furthermore, 96.3% deep boreholes, 99.1% public tap stands, all (100%) rain-water harvesting tanks, and 50% protected springs had their turbidity levels in the acceptable range (less than 5NTUs). Additionally, only 22.1% of improved water sources had electrical conductivity in the acceptable range (less than 300 microSiemens). Among the 249 participants, majority (91.2%) had low knowledge levels about various methods that can be used in improving the quality of water. Generally, water sources had poor quality of water which was attributed to agricultural activities, dirty water collection containers, and poor attitude to water chlorination. The Ministry of Health, Ministry of Water and Environment, and other agencies need to design sustainable and feasible models for water treatment for low resourced setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abel Wilson Walekhwa
- Department of Community Health, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, P.O. BOX 1410, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Moses Ntaro
- Department of Community Health, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, P.O. BOX 1410, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Peter Kawungezi
- Department of Community Health, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, P.O. BOX 1410, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Evas Nimusiima
- Department of Community Health, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, P.O. BOX 1410, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Chiara Achangwa
- Department of Public Health and Hygiene, University of Buea, P.O. BOX 63, Buea, Cameroon
| | - David Musoke
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Heath, School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Edgar Mugema Mulogo
- Department of Community Health, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, P.O. BOX 1410, Mbarara, Uganda
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11
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Cao Q, Yang L, Wang Z, Liang C, Wang Y. Investigation and source analysis of bacterial contamination in groundwater in Liuzhou City, China. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2021; 193:760. [PMID: 34719740 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-021-09540-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Groundwater is an important water source to consider when ensuring the safety of urban water supply. Groundwater contaminated by bacteria poses a potential health risk to the drinking water supply. This study focuses on the water supply of Liuzhou City, a famous industrial city in China. Analyses of the concentrations, spatial distribution, and pollution sources of bacteria in the groundwater were conducted based on samples collected from 27 wells during the wet and dry seasons in 2018. The total colony counts and total coliform were high during both the wet and dry seasons, posing a severe threat to the emergency water supply security for more than one million people in the city. The groundwater in Liuzhou City is generally contaminated by bacteria, with higher pollution levels in the northern urban-rural fringe and central urban areas. Domestic pollution is the main sources of groundwater bacteria. In addition, bacterially contaminated rivers (Liujiang River) passing through the urban area likely transfer bacteria to the groundwater due to the circulation of the groundwater and surface river water. Controlling the bacterial pollution of groundwater in this region requires adherence to a long-term management plan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyi Cao
- College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Liu Yang
- College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, 100083, China.
| | - Zhiying Wang
- College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Chaoming Liang
- College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yuetian Wang
- College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, 100083, China
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12
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Wispriyono B, Arsyina L, Ardiansyah I, Pratiwi LD, Arminsih R, Hartono B, Nurmalasari N, Novirsa R. The Role of Hygiene and Sanitation to the Escherichia coli Contamination in Drinking Water in Depok City, Indonesia. Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.3889/oamjms.2021.6152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Drinking water is a vital aspect in human life. The quality of drinking water should be monitored to ensure public from any health effects caused by contaminated water. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is one of the indicators of fecal contamination should not be present in drinking water (0 cfu/100 ml). However, poor hygiene and sanitation contributes to E. coli contamination in drinking water, particularly in developing countries.
AIM: We investigated the household hygiene and sanitation factors and the relationship with E. coli detection in the household drinking water.
METHODS: A cross-sectional study design was conducted to collect the data from three districts in the Depok city, that is, Sawangan, Bojongsari, and Cipayung. A total of 300 houses and the corresponding drinking water samples were collected during August–September 2019. E. coli was determined as microbiological indicator using total plate count method.
RESULTS: The results showed that E. coli was detected in 174 (58%) of household water samples. The water container condition (OR = 2,60; CI 95%: 1.18–5.71) and the hand washing practice with soap (OR = 1,65; CI 95%: 1.04–2.62) were significantly correlated with the presence of E. coli in the water samples.
CONCLUSIONS: The condition of the water container was the most dominant factors which contributed to E. coli content in the household drinking water.
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13
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Liu P, Ibaraki M, Kapoor R, Amin N, Das A, Miah R, Mukhopadhyay AK, Rahman M, Dutta S, Moe CL. Development of Moore Swab and Ultrafiltration Concentration and Detection Methods for Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi A in Wastewater and Application in Kolkata, India and Dhaka, Bangladesh. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:684094. [PMID: 34335510 PMCID: PMC8320291 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.684094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric fever is a severe systemic infection caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (ST) and Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi A (SPA). Detection of ST and SPA in wastewater can be used as a surveillance strategy to determine burden of infection and identify priority areas for water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions and vaccination campaigns. However, sensitive and specific detection of ST and SPA in environmental samples has been challenging. In this study, we developed and validated two methods for concentrating and detecting ST/SPA from wastewater: the Moore swab trap method for qualitative results, and ultrafiltration (UF) for sensitive quantitative detection, coupled with qPCR. We then applied these methods for ST and SPA wastewater surveillance in Kolkata, India and Dhaka, Bangladesh, two enteric fever endemic areas. The qPCR assays had a limit of detection of 17 equivalent genome copies (EGC) for ST and 25 EGC for SPA with good reproducibility. In seeded trials, the Moore swab method had a limit of detection of approximately 0.05–0.005 cfu/mL for both ST and SPA. In 53 Moore swab samples collected from three Kolkata pumping stations between September 2019 and March 2020, ST was detected in 69.8% and SPA was detected in 20.8%. Analysis of sewage samples seeded with known amount of ST and SPA and concentrated via the UF method, followed by polyethylene glycol precipitation and qPCR detection demonstrated that UF can effectively recover approximately 8, 5, and 3 log10 cfu of seeded ST and SPA in 5, 10, and 20 L of wastewater. Using the UF method in Dhaka, ST was detected in 26.7% (8/30) of 20 L drain samples with a range of 0.11–2.10 log10 EGC per 100 mL and 100% (4/4) of 20 L canal samples with a range of 1.02–2.02 log10 EGC per 100 mL. These results indicate that the Moore swab and UF methods provide sensitive presence/absence and quantitative detection of ST/SPA in wastewater samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengbo Liu
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Makoto Ibaraki
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Renuka Kapoor
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Nuhu Amin
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Abhishek Das
- Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (NICID), Kolkata, India
| | - Rana Miah
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Asish K Mukhopadhyay
- Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (NICID), Kolkata, India
| | - Mahbubur Rahman
- Environmental Interventions Unit, Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Shanta Dutta
- Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (NICID), Kolkata, India
| | - Christine L Moe
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
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14
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Andrews JR, Yu AT, Saha S, Shakya J, Aiemjoy K, Horng L, Qamar F, Garrett D, Baker S, Saha S, Luby SP. Environmental Surveillance as a Tool for Identifying High-risk Settings for Typhoid Transmission. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 71:S71-S78. [PMID: 32725227 PMCID: PMC7446943 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric fever remains a major cause of morbidity in developing countries with poor sanitation conditions that enable fecal contamination of water distribution systems. Historical evidence has shown that contamination of water systems used for household consumption or agriculture are key transmission routes for Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi A. The World Health Organization now recommends that typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCV) be used in settings with high typhoid incidence; consequently, governments face a challenge regarding how to prioritize typhoid against other emerging diseases. A key issue is the lack of typhoid burden data in many low- and middle-income countries where TCV could be deployed. Here we present an argument for utilizing environmental sampling for the surveillance of enteric fever organisms to provide data on community-level typhoid risk. Such an approach could complement traditional blood culture-based surveillance or even replace it in settings where population-based clinical surveillance is not feasible. We review historical studies characterizing the transmission of enteric fever organisms through sewage and water, discuss recent advances in the molecular detection of typhoidal Salmonella in the environment, and outline challenges and knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to establish environmental sampling as a tool for generating actionable data that can inform public health responses to enteric fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason R Andrews
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Alexander T Yu
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Senjuti Saha
- Child Health Research Foundation, Department of Microbiology, Dhaka Shishu Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Jivan Shakya
- Dhulikhel Hospital, Kathmandu University Hospital, Dhulikhel, Nepal
| | - Kristen Aiemjoy
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Lily Horng
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Farah Qamar
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Aga Khan University Hospital Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | | | - Stephen Baker
- Department of Medicine, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology & Infectious Disease (CITIID) University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Samir Saha
- Child Health Research Foundation, Department of Microbiology, Dhaka Shishu Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
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15
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Matrajt G, Lillis L, Meschke JS. Review of Methods Suitable for Environmental Surveillance of Salmonella Typhi and Paratyphi. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 71:S79-S83. [PMID: 32725228 PMCID: PMC7388719 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Typhoid fever is an enteric disease caused by the pathogens Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi. Clinical surveillance networks are lacking in many affected areas, thus presenting a need to understand transmission and population prevalence. Environmental surveillance (ES) has been suggested as a potentially effective method in the absence of (or in supplement to) clinical surveillance. This review summarizes methods identified in the literature for sampling and detection of typhoidal Salmonella from environmental samples including drinking water, wastewater, irrigation water, and surface waters. Methods described use a trap or grab sampling approach combined with various selective culture and molecular methods. The level to which the performance of identified methods is characterized for ES in the literature is variable, thus arguing for the optimization and standardization of ES techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graciela Matrajt
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - J Scott Meschke
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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16
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Appiah GD, Chung A, Bentsi-Enchill AD, Kim S, Crump JA, Mogasale V, Pellegrino R, Slayton RB, Mintz ED. Typhoid Outbreaks, 1989-2018: Implications for Prevention and Control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 102:1296-1305. [PMID: 32228795 PMCID: PMC7253085 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Typhoid fever remains an important public health problem in low- and middle-income countries, with large outbreaks reported from Africa and Asia. Although the WHO recommends typhoid vaccination for control of confirmed outbreaks, there are limited data on the epidemiologic characteristics of outbreaks to inform vaccine use in outbreak settings. We conducted a literature review for typhoid outbreaks published since 1990. We found 47 publications describing 45,215 cases in outbreaks occurring in 25 countries from 1989 through 2018. Outbreak characteristics varied considerably by WHO region, with median outbreak size ranging from 12 to 1,101 cases, median duration from 23 to 140 days, and median case fatality ratio from 0% to 1%. The largest number of outbreaks occurred in WHO Southeast Asia, 13 (28%), and African regions, 12 (26%). Among 43 outbreaks reporting a mode of disease transmission, 24 (56%) were waterborne, 17 (40%) were foodborne, and two (5%) were by direct contact transmission. Among the 34 outbreaks with antimicrobial resistance data, 11 (32%) reported Typhi non-susceptible to ciprofloxacin, 16 (47%) reported multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains, and one reported extensively drug-resistant strains. Our review showed a longer median duration of outbreaks caused by MDR strains (148 days versus 34 days for susceptible strains), although this difference was not statistically significant. Control strategies focused on water, sanitation, and food safety, with vaccine use described in only six (13%) outbreaks. As typhoid conjugate vaccines become more widely used, their potential role and impact in outbreak control warrant further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace D Appiah
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Alexandria Chung
- Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Adwoa D Bentsi-Enchill
- Department of Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sunkyung Kim
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - John A Crump
- Centre for International Health, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.,Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Vittal Mogasale
- Policy and Economic Research Department, Development and Delivery Unit, International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea
| | | | - Rachel B Slayton
- Division of Healthcare Quality and Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Eric D Mintz
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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17
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Reducing Groundwater Contamination from On-Site Sanitation in Peri-Urban Sub-Saharan Africa: Reviewing Transition Management Attributes towards Implementation of Water Safety Plans. SUSTAINABILITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/su12104210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
High urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has resulted in increased peri-urban groundwater contamination by on-site sanitation. The World Health Organization introduced Water Safety Plans (WSP) towards the elimination of contamination risks to water supply systems; however, their application to peri-urban groundwater sources has been limited. Focusing on Uganda, Ghana, and Tanzania, this paper reviews limitations of the existing water regime in addressing peri-urban groundwater contamination through WSPs and normative attributes of Transition Management (TM) towards a sustainable solution. Microbial and nutrient contamination remain prevalent hazards in peri-urban SSA, arising from on-site sanitation within a water regime following Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) principles. Limitations to implementation of WSPs for peri-urban groundwater protection include policy diversity, with low focus on groundwater; institutional incoherence; highly techno-centric management tools; and limited regard for socio-cultural and urban-poor aspects. In contrast, TM postulates a prescriptive approach promoted by community-led frontrunners, with flexible and multi-domain actors, experimenting through socio-technical tools towards a shared vision. Thus, a unified risk-based management framework, harnessing attributes of TM and IWRM, is proposed towards improved WSP implementation. The framework could assist peri-urban communities and policymakers in formulating sustainable strategies to reduce groundwater contamination, thereby contributing to improved access to safe water.
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18
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Cost-effectiveness of using environmental surveillance to target the roll-out typhoid conjugate vaccine. Vaccine 2020; 38:1661-1670. [PMID: 31917040 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.12.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 12/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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19
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Adesegun O, Adeyemi O, Ehioghae O, Rabor D, Binuyo T, Alafin B, Nnagha O, Idowu A, Osonuga A. Current trends in the epidemiology and management of enteric fever in Africa: A literature review. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2020. [DOI: 10.4103/1995-7645.283515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
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20
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Backer HD, Derlet RW, Hill VR. Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations. Wilderness Environ Med 2019; 30:S100-S120. [PMID: 31668519 PMCID: PMC10961709 DOI: 10.1016/j.wem.2019.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To provide guidance to clinicians, the Wilderness Medical Society convened experts to develop evidence-based guidelines for water disinfection in situations where the potability of available water is not ensured, including wilderness and international travel, areas affected by disaster, and other areas without adequate sanitation. The guidelines present the available methods for reducing or eliminating microbiologic contamination of water for individuals, groups, or households; evaluation of their effectiveness; and practical considerations. The evidence evaluation includes both laboratory and clinical publications. The panel graded the recommendations based on the quality of supporting evidence and the balance between benefits and risks or burdens, according to the criteria published by the American College of Chest Physicians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard D Backer
- California Emergency Medical Services Authority, Racho Cordova, CA.
| | - Robert W Derlet
- Emergency Department, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA
| | - Vincent R Hill
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
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21
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Zhang CM, Xu LM, Mou X, Xu H, Liu J, Miao YH, Wang XC, Li X. Characterization and evolution of antibiotic resistance of Salmonella in municipal wastewater treatment plants. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 251:109547. [PMID: 31539702 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the evolution of antibiotic resistance phenotypes, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and Class 1 integron of Salmonella in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). A total of 221 Salmonella strains were isolated from different stages of three WWTPs. After the susceptibility testing, high frequency of resistance was observed for tetracycline (TET, 47.5% of isolates) and sulfamethoxazole (SMZ, 38.5%), followed by ampicillin (AMP, 25.3%), streptomycin (STP, 17.6%), chloramphenicol (CHL, 15.4%), and gentamicin (GEN, 11.3%). Low prevalence of resistance was detected for norfloxacin (0.45%), ciprofloxacin (0.9%), and cefotaxime (0.9%). The tetA and sul3 genes were most frequently detected among the Salmonella isolates. Statistically significant correlations among AMP, CHL, GEN, and STP resistances were observed. High detection frequencies of Class 1 integron were observed in double antibiotic-resistant and multiple-antibiotic-resistant (MAR) Salmonella, which were 94.3% and 85.7%, respectively. The proliferation of MAR Salmonella and transfer of ARGs occurred in WWTPs. Class 1 integron plays a crucial role in the evolution of MAR Salmonella during WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong-Miao Zhang
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
| | - Li-Mei Xu
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; College of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018, China.
| | - Xiao Mou
- Shaanxi Institute for Food and Drug Control, Xi'an, 710065, China
| | - Huan Xu
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; School of Civil Engineering, Yulin University, Yulin, 719000, China
| | - Yan-Hui Miao
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Xiaochang C Wang
- Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Xiaochen Li
- College of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018, China
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22
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Ssemugabo C, Wafula ST, Ndejjo R, Oporia F, Osuret J, Musoke D, Halage AA. Knowledge and practices of households on safe water chain maintenance in a slum community in Kampala City, Uganda. Environ Health Prev Med 2019; 24:45. [PMID: 31200642 PMCID: PMC6570909 DOI: 10.1186/s12199-019-0799-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background More than half of the disease burden in Uganda can be prevented through improving water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). In slum communities, water supply is insufficient but also highly contaminated; therefore, ensuring that the safe water chain is maintained by households is paramount to preventing water-related diseases. This study aimed at assessing knowledge and practices of households on safe water chain maintenance in slum communities in Kampala City, Uganda. Methods This was a community-based cross-sectional study carried out among 395 households in slum communities in Kampala, Uganda. Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. Prevalence ratios (PRs) and their 95% confidence intervals were used as a measure of association between safe water chain management and associated knowledge and practice factors. The PRs were obtained using a multivariable modified Poisson regression with logarithm as the link function, with robust standard errors. Results Majority (76.7%, 303/395) of the households collected their water from a piped water system and paid for the water (72.9%, 288/395). Almost all (97.2%, 384/395) of the participants said that they knew the dangers associated with drinking unsafe water, boiled their drinking water (95.4%, 377/395), and used storage containers that minimize contamination (97.0%, 383/395). However, only (32.4%, 128/395) of the households satisfactorily maintained the safe water chain. Female- (adjusted PR = 1.82, 95% CI (1.19–2.78)) and student-led households (adjusted PR = 1.58, 95% CI (1.03–2.41)) and those whose heads had attained post-primary education (adjusted PR = 1.48, 95% CI (1.02–2.17)) were more likely to satisfactorily maintain the safe water chain. This was similar among members who thought most contamination occurs during storage (adjusted PR = 1.47, 95% CI (1.10–1.97)). Conclusion Only a third of the households maintained the safe water chain satisfactory. Female-led, student-led, and post-primary educated-led household and household that thought most contamination occurs during storage were more likely to maintain the safe water chain. There is a need to improve the level of awareness about the importance of the safe water chain among slum dwellers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Ssemugabo
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Solomon Tsebeni Wafula
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Rawlance Ndejjo
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Frederick Oporia
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Jimmy Osuret
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - David Musoke
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Abdullah Ali Halage
- Department of Disease Control and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
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Safety of Drinking Water from Primary Water Sources and Implications for the General Public in Uganda. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 2019:7813962. [PMID: 31019536 PMCID: PMC6452567 DOI: 10.1155/2019/7813962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Background There is scarcity of information about the quality and safety of drinking water in Africa. Without such vital information, sustainable development goal number 6 which promotes availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation remains elusive especially in developing countries. The study aimed at determining concentrations of inorganic compounds, estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR), and identify safe drinking water source sources in Southwestern Uganda. Methods This was an observational study in which 40 drinking water samples were collected from georeferenced boreholes, springs, open wells, bottled, and taps within Bushenyi district of Southwestern Uganda. Water samples were analyzed for copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr) levels using atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). Water safety measures (EDI, HI, and ILCR) were established for each water source and compared with local and international water permissible standards for each analyte. A spatial map was drawn using qGIS®, and analysis of quantitative data was done using MS Excel 2013 at 95% significance. Results Heavy metals were present in the following order: 11.276 ppm > 4.4623 ppm > 0.81 ppm > 0.612 ppm > 0.161 ppm for Fe, Zn, Pb, Cu, and Cd, respectively, while Cr was not detected. Fe was the primary water heavy metal in the order of open well > borehole > tap > spring > bottled water. This was followed by Zn levels in the order of tap > bottled > spring > borehole > open well. All compounds were within international water safety standards except Pb. Hence, there is need for the government of Uganda to establish water filtration systems, particularly for Pb to improve the quality of water for the general public. The EDI was similar (P > 0.05) for water consumed from spring, bottled, and tap sources for Fe and Zn levels. Similarly, no differences were found in the EDI for children and adults (P > 0.05). Furthermore, the HI showed an absence of noncarcinogenic risk associated (HI < 1), although the ILCR was higher in adults than children (P < 0.05) due to high Cd concentrations. Conclusion The current identified Fe is a major heavy metal in drinking water of Uganda, and boreholes were the major safest sources of drinking water identified in this study.
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A bioassay-based protocol for chemical neutralization of human faecal wastes treated by physico-chemical disinfection processes: A case study on benzalkonium chloride. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2018; 222:155-167. [PMID: 30424942 PMCID: PMC7172796 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In situ physico-chemical disinfection of high risk faecal waste is both effective and widely used as a sanitation management strategy for infection prevention and control. Systematic tests where the performance of alternative physico-chemical disinfection methods is systematically compared and optimized must be based on reliable protocols. These protocol are currently not adequately addressing the neutralization related issues: the neutralization of the tested disinfectant after specified conditions of concentration and contact time (CT) is necessary to prevent continued disinfection after the intended contact time; moreover such neutralization is often necessary in practice and on a large scale to prevent adverse health and ecological impacts from remaining disinfectant after the target CT is achieved. Few studies adequately assess the extent of neutralization of the chemical disinfectant and are intended to optimize on-site disinfection practices for waste matrices posing high microbial risks. Hence, there is a need for effective and reproducible neutralization protocols in chemical disinfection trials and practice. Furthermore, for most of chemical disinfectants used in healthcare settings there is no practical methodology to reliably and conveniently measure the residual disinfectant concentration after its neutralization and also determine the optimum concentration of the neutralizer. Because some neutralizing compounds can themselves be toxic to the test microorganisms, it is necessary to optimize neutralization procedures in disinfection experiments for the development of infection control practices using accepted positive control microbes. In the presented work, a stepwise bioassay-based protocol using representative faecal indicator microbes is described for optimizing chemical disinfection and subsequent disinfectant neutralization of any infectious faecal waste matrix. The example described is for the quaternary ammonium compound benzalkonium chloride and its recommended chemical neutralizer in a high strength human faecal waste matrix.
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