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Kim T, Zhao X, Hozalski RM, LaPara TM. Residual disinfectant effectively suppresses Legionella species in drinking water distribution systems supplied by surface water in Minnesota, USA. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 940:173317. [PMID: 38788954 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Seven public water systems in Minnesota, USA were analyzed from one to five times over a two-year period to assess temporal changes in the concentrations of total bacteria, Legionella spp., and Legionella pneumophila from source (i.e., raw water) through the water treatment process to the end water user. Bacterial biomass was collected by filtering large volumes of raw water (12 to 425 L, median: 38 L) or finished and tap water (27 to 1205 L, median: 448 L) using ultrafiltration membrane modules. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was then used to enumerate all bacteria (16S rRNA gene fragments), all Legionella spp. (ssrA), and Legionella pneumophila (mip). Total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and L. pneumophila also were quantified in the water samples via cultivation. Median concentrations of total bacteria and Legionella spp. (ssrA) in raw water (8.5 and 4.3 log copies/L, respectively) decreased by about 2 log units during water treatment. The concentration of Legionella spp. (ssrA) in water collected from distribution systems inversely correlated with the total chlorine concentration for chloraminated systems significantly (p = 0.03). Although only 8 samples were collected from drinking water distribution systems using free chlorine as a residual disinfectant, these samples had significantly lower concentrations of Legionella spp. (ssrA) than samples collected from the chloraminated systems (p = 5 × 10-4). There was considerable incongruity between the results obtained via cultivation-independent (qPCR) and cultivation-dependent assays. Numerous samples were positive for L. pneumophila via cultivation, none of which tested positive for L. pneumophilia (mip) via qPCR. Conversely, a single sample tested positive for L. pneumophilia (mip) via qPCR, but this sample tested negative for L. pneumophilia via cultivation. Overall, the results suggest that conventional treatment is effective at reducing, but not eliminating, Legionella spp. from surface water supplies and that residual disinfection is effective at suppressing these organisms within drinking water distribution systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taegyu Kim
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin-Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Xiaotian Zhao
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin-Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Raymond M Hozalski
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin-Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, MN, USA; Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 1479 Gortner Ave, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Timothy M LaPara
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin-Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, MN, USA; Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 1479 Gortner Ave, St. Paul, MN, USA.
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Li N, Fan XY, Li X. Unveiling the characteristics of free-living and particle-associated antibiotic resistance genes associated with bacterial communities along different processes in a full-scale drinking water treatment plant. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 476:135194. [PMID: 39003808 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 06/30/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) as emerging contaminants, often co-occur with mobile genetic elements (MGEs) and are prevalent in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). In this study, the characteristics of free-living (FL) and particle-associated (PA) ARGs associated with bacterial communities were investigated along two processes within a full-scale DWTP. A total of 13 ARGs and two MGEs were detected. FL-ARGs with diverse subtypes and PA-ARGs with high abundances displayed significantly different structures. PA-MGEs showed a strong positive correlation with PA-ARGs. Chlorine dioxide disinfection achieved 1.47-log reduction of FL-MGEs in process A and 0.24-log reduction of PA-MGEs in process B. Notably, PA-fraction virtually disappeared after treatment, while blaTEM, sul2, mexE, mexF and IntI1 of FL-fraction remained in the finished water. Moreover, Acinetobacter lwoffii (0.04 % ∼ 45.58 %) and Acinetobacter schindleri (0.00 % ∼ 18.54 %) dominated the 16 pathogens, which were more abundant in FL than PA bacterial communities. PA bacteria exhibited a more complex structure with more keystone species than FL bacteria. MGEs contributed 20.23 % and 19.31 % to the changes of FL-ARGs and PA-ARGs respectively, and water quality was a key driver (21.73 %) for PA-ARGs variation. This study provides novel insights into microbial risk control associated with size-fractionated ARGs in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Li
- China Architecture Design and Research Group, Beijing 100044, PR China; Faculty of Architecture, Civil and Transportation Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, PR China
| | - Xiao-Yan Fan
- Faculty of Architecture, Civil and Transportation Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, PR China.
| | - Xing Li
- Faculty of Architecture, Civil and Transportation Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, PR China
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Bontemps Z, Paranjape K, Guy L. Host-bacteria interactions: ecological and evolutionary insights from ancient, professional endosymbionts. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2024; 48:fuae021. [PMID: 39081075 PMCID: PMC11338181 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuae021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 07/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Interactions between eukaryotic hosts and their bacterial symbionts drive key ecological and evolutionary processes, from regulating ecosystems to the evolution of complex molecular machines and processes. Over time, endosymbionts generally evolve reduced genomes, and their relationship with their host tends to stabilize. However, host-bacteria relationships may be heavily influenced by environmental changes. Here, we review these effects on one of the most ancient and diverse endosymbiotic groups, formed by-among others-Legionellales, Francisellaceae, and Piscirickettsiaceae. This group is referred to as Deep-branching Intracellular Gammaproteobacteria (DIG), whose last common ancestor presumably emerged about 2 Ga ago. We show that DIGs are globally distributed, but generally at very low abundance, and are mainly identified in aquatic biomes. Most DIGs harbour a type IVB secretion system, critical for host-adaptation, but its structure and composition vary. Finally, we review the different types of microbial interactions that can occur in diverse environments, with direct or indirect effects on DIG populations. The increased use of omics technologies on environmental samples will allow a better understanding of host-bacterial interactions and help unravel the definition of DIGs as a group from an ecological, molecular, and evolutionary perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zélia Bontemps
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, 75237 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Kiran Paranjape
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, 75237 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lionel Guy
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, 75237 Uppsala, Sweden
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Zhao B, Liu R, Li Y, Xu H, Li X, Gu J, Zhang X, Wang Y, Wang Y. Changes of putative pathogenic species within the water bacterial community in large-scale drinking water treatment and distribution systems. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 249:120947. [PMID: 38043356 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
Although the management of microbes in drinking water is of paramount importance for public health, there remain challenges in comprehensively examining pathogenic bacteria in the water supply system at the species level. In this study, high-throughput sequencing of nearly full-length 16S rRNA genes was performed to investigate the changes of the water bacterial community in three large-scale drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and their corresponding distribution systems during winter and summer. Our findings revealed significant differences in the bacterial community structure between winter and summer water samples for each DWTP and its distribution management area (DMA). In the groundwater-fed DWTP, selective enrichment of mycobacterial species was observed in both seasons, and the subsequent DMA also exhibited strong selection for specific mycobacterial species. In one of the surface water-fed DWTPs, certain Legionella species present in the source water in winter were selectively enriched in the bacterial community after pre-oxidation, although they were susceptible to the subsequent purification steps. A variety of putative pathogenic species (n = 83) were identified based on our pathogen identification pipeline, with the dominant species representing opportunistic pathogens commonly found in water supply systems. While pathogen removal primarily occurred during the purification processes of DWTPs, especially for surface water-fed plants, the relative abundance of pathogenic bacteria in the DMA water flora was lower than that in the DWTP effluent flora, indicating a diminished competitiveness of pathogens within the DMA ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei Zhao
- Beijing Waterworks Group Co., Ltd, Beijing, PR China; Beijing Engineering Research Center for Drinking Water Quality, Beijing, PR China
| | - Ruyin Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, PR China; Weiqiao-UCAS Science and Technology Park, Binzhou Institute of Technology, Binzhou, Shandong, PR China.
| | - Yuxian Li
- Beijing Waterworks Group Co., Ltd, Beijing, PR China; Beijing Engineering Research Center for Drinking Water Quality, Beijing, PR China
| | - Hao Xu
- Beijing Waterworks Group Co., Ltd, Beijing, PR China; Beijing Engineering Research Center for Drinking Water Quality, Beijing, PR China
| | - Xiangyi Li
- Beijing Waterworks Group Co., Ltd, Beijing, PR China; Beijing Engineering Research Center for Drinking Water Quality, Beijing, PR China
| | - Junnong Gu
- Beijing Waterworks Group Co., Ltd, Beijing, PR China; Beijing Engineering Research Center for Drinking Water Quality, Beijing, PR China
| | - Xiaolan Zhang
- Beijing Waterworks Group Co., Ltd, Beijing, PR China; Beijing Engineering Research Center for Drinking Water Quality, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yue Wang
- Beijing Waterworks Group Co., Ltd, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yansong Wang
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, PR China
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Bergman O, Be'eri-Shlevin Y, Ninio S. Sodium levels and grazing pressure shape natural communities of the intracellular pathogen Legionella. MICROBIOME 2023; 11:167. [PMID: 37518067 PMCID: PMC10388490 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-023-01611-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Legionella are parasites of freshwater protozoa, responsible for Legionellosis. Legionella can be found in a variety of aquatic environments, including rivers, lakes, and springs, as well as in engineered water systems where they can potentially lead to human disease outbarks. Legionella are considered to be predominantly freshwater organisms with a limited ability to proliferate in saline environments. Exposure of Legionella to high sodium concentrations inhibits growth and virulence of laboratory strains, particularly under elevated temperatures. Nonetheless, Legionella have been identified in some saline environments where they likely interact with various protozoan hosts. In this work, we examine how these selection pressures, sodium and grazing, help shape Legionella ecology within natural environments. Utilizing Legionella-specific primers targeting a variable region of the Legionella 16S rRNA gene, we characterized Legionella abundance, diversity, and community composition in natural spring clusters of varying sodium concentrations, focusing on high sodium concentrations and elevated temperatures. RESULTS We observed the highest abundance of Legionella in spring clusters of high salinity, particularly in combination with elevated temperatures. Legionella abundance was strongly related to sodium concentrations. The Legionella community structure in saline environments was characterized by relatively low diversity, compared to spring clusters of lower salinity. The community composition in high salinity was characterized by few dominant Legionella genotypes, not related to previously described species. Protozoan microbial community structure and composition patterns resembled those of Legionella, suggesting a common response to similar selection pressures. We examined Legionella co-occurrence with potential protozoan hosts and found associations with Ciliophora and Amoebozoa representatives. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that selection forces in saline environments favor a small yet dominant group of Legionella species that are not closely related to known species. These novel environmental genotypes interact with various protozoan hosts, under environmental conditions of high salinity. Our findings suggest that alternative survival mechanisms are utilized by these species, representing mechanisms distinct from those of well-studied laboratory strains. Our study demonstrate how salinity can shape communities of opportunistic pathogens and their hosts, in natural environments, shedding light on evolutionary forces acting within these complex environments. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oded Bergman
- Kinneret Limnological Laboratory (KLL), Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research (IOLR), P.O. Box 447, 49500, Migdal, Israel
| | - Yaron Be'eri-Shlevin
- Kinneret Limnological Laboratory (KLL), Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research (IOLR), P.O. Box 447, 49500, Migdal, Israel
| | - Shira Ninio
- Kinneret Limnological Laboratory (KLL), Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research (IOLR), P.O. Box 447, 49500, Migdal, Israel.
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Kim T, Zhao X, LaPara TM, Hozalski RM. Flushing Temporarily Improves Microbiological Water Quality for Buildings Supplied with Chloraminated Surface Water but Has Little Effect for Groundwater Supplies. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:5453-5463. [PMID: 36952669 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Microbial communities in premise plumbing systems were investigated after more than 2 months of long-term stagnation, during a subsequent flushing event, and during post-flush stagnation. Water samples were collected from showers in buildings supplied with chlorinated groundwater, untreated groundwater, and chloraminated surface water. The building supplied with chlorinated groundwater generally had the lowest bacterial concentrations across all sites (ranging from below quantification limit to 5.2 log copies/L). For buildings supplied with untreated groundwater, bacterial concentrations (5.0 to 7.6 log copies/L) and microbial community diversity index (ACE) values were consistent throughout sampling. Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) and Legionella pneumophila were not detected in any groundwater-supplied buildings. Total bacteria, Legionella spp., and NTM were abundant in the surface water-supplied buildings following long-term stagnation (up to 7.6, 6.2, and 7.6 log copies/L, respectively). Flushing decreased these concentrations by ∼1 to >4 log units and reduced microbial community diversity, but the communities largely recovered within a week of post-flush stagnation. The results suggest that buildings supplied with disinfected surface water are more likely than buildings supplied with treated or untreated groundwater to experience deleterious changes in microbiological water quality during stagnation and that the water quality improvements from flushing with chloraminated water, while substantial, are short-lived.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taegyu Kim
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo- Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Xiaotian Zhao
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo- Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Timothy M LaPara
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo- Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 1479 Gortner Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, United States
| | - Raymond M Hozalski
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo- Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 1479 Gortner Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, United States
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Kanarek P, Bogiel T, Breza-Boruta B. Legionellosis risk-an overview of Legionella spp. habitats in Europe. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:76532-76542. [PMID: 36161570 PMCID: PMC9511453 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-22950-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
An increase in the number of reports of legionellosis in the European Union and the European Economic Area have been recorded in recent years. The increase in cases is significant: from 6947 reports in 2015 to 11,298 in 2019. This is alarming as genus Legionella, which comprises a large group of bacteria inhabiting various aquatic systems, poses a serious threat to human health and life, since more than 20 species can cause legionellosis, with L. pneumophila being responsible for the majority of cases. The ability to colonize diverse ecosystems makes the eradication of these microorganisms difficult. A detailed understanding of the Legionella habitat may be helpful in the effective control of this pathogen. This paper provides an overview of Legionella environments in Europe: natural (lakes, groundwater, rivers, compost, soil) and anthropogenic (fountains, air humidifiers, water supply systems), and the role of Legionella spp. in nosocomial infections, which are potentially fatal for children, the elderly and immunocompromised patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Kanarek
- Department of Microbiology and Food Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, 6 Bernardyńska Street, 85-029, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Tomasz Bogiel
- Department of Microbiology, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, 9 Skłodowska-Curie Street, 85-094, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Barbara Breza-Boruta
- Department of Microbiology and Food Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, 6 Bernardyńska Street, 85-029, Bydgoszcz, Poland.
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Eriksson KIA, Thelaus J, Andersson A, Ahlinder J. Microbial Interactions - Underexplored Links Between Public Health Relevant Bacteria and Protozoa in Coastal Environments. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:877483. [PMID: 35770179 PMCID: PMC9235517 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.877483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The co-existence of bacteria and protozoa in aquatic environments has led to the evolution of predation defense mechanisms by the bacteria. Some of the predation-resistant bacteria (PRB) are also pathogenic to humans and other mammals. The links between PRB and protozoa in natural aquatic systems are poorly known, but they are important in predicting outbreaks and determining the long-term consequences of a contamination event. To elucidate co-occurrence patterns between PRB (16S rRNA) and bacterivorous protozoa (18S rRNA), we performed a field study in a coastal area in the northern Baltic Sea. Interactions between bacteria and protozoa were explored by using two complementary statistical tools. We found co-occurrence patterns between specific PRB and protozoa, such as Legionella and Ciliophora, and we also found that the interactions are genotype-specific as, for example, Rickettsia. The PRB sequence diversity was larger in bays and freshwater inlets compared to offshore sites, indicating local adaptions. Considering the PRB diversity in the freshwater in combination with the large spring floods in the area, freshwater influxes should be considered a potential source of PRB in the coastal northern Baltic Sea. These findings are relevant for the knowledge of survival and dispersal of potential pathogens in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina I. A. Eriksson
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Johanna Thelaus
- Division of CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Umeå, Sweden
| | - Agneta Andersson
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Umeå Marine Sciences Centre, Umeå University, Hörnefors, Sweden
| | - Jon Ahlinder
- Division of CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Umeå, Sweden
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Schwake DO, Alum A, Abbaszadegan M. Legionella Occurrence beyond Cooling Towers and Premise Plumbing. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9122543. [PMID: 34946143 PMCID: PMC8706379 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9122543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Revised: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionella is an environmental pathogen that is responsible for respiratory disease and is a common causative agent of water-related outbreaks. Due to their ability to survive in a broad range of environments, transmission of legionellosis is possible from a variety of sources. Unfortunately, a disproportionate amount of research that is devoted to studying the occurrence of Legionella in environmental reservoirs is aimed toward cooling towers and premise plumbing. As confirmed transmission of Legionella has been linked to many other sources, an over-emphasis on the most common sources may be detrimental to increasing understanding of the spread of legionellosis. This review aims to address this issue by cataloguing studies which have examined the occurrence of Legionella in less commonly investigated environments. By summarizing and discussing reports of Legionella in fresh water, ground water, saltwater, and distribution system drinking water, future environmental and public health researchers will have a resource to aid in investigating these pathogens in relevant sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Otto Schwake
- Department of Natural Sciences, Middle Georgia State University, 100 University Pkwy, Macon, GA 31206, USA;
| | - Absar Alum
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA;
| | - Morteza Abbaszadegan
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-480-965-3868
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Shimada S, Nakai R, Aoki K, Kudoh S, Imura S, Shimoeda N, Ohno G, Watanabe K, Miyazaki Y, Ishii Y, Tateda K. Characterization of the First Cultured Psychrotolerant Representative of Legionella from Antarctica Reveals Its Unique Genome Structure. Microbiol Spectr 2021; 9:e0042421. [PMID: 34668737 PMCID: PMC8528123 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00424-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Culture-independent analysis shows that Legionella spp. inhabit a wide range of low-temperature environments, but to date, no psychrotolerant or psychrophilic strains have been reported. Here, we characterized the first cultivated psychrotolerant representative, designated strain TUM19329T, isolated from an Antarctic lake using a polyphasic approach and comparative genomic analysis. A genome-wide phylogenetic tree indicated that this strain was phylogenetically separate at the species level. Strain TUM19329T shared common physiological traits (e.g., Gram-negative, limited growth on buffered charcoal-yeast extract α-ketoglutarate [BCYEα] agar with l-cysteine requirements) with its relatives, but it also showed psychrotolerant growth properties (e.g., growth at 4°C to 25°C). Moreover, this strain altered its own cellular fatty acid composition to accumulate unsaturated fatty acid at a lower temperature, which may help maintain the cell membrane fluidity. Through comparative genomic analysis, we found that this strain possessed massive mobile genetic elements compared with other species, amounting to up to 17% of the total genes. The majority of the elements were the result of the spread of only a few insertion sequences (ISs), which were spread throughout the genome by a "copy-and-paste" mechanism. Furthermore, we found metabolic genes, such as fatty acid synthesis-related genes, acquired by horizontal gene transfer (HGT). The expansion of ISs and HGT events may play a major role in shaping the phenotype and physiology of this strain. On the basis of the features presented here, we propose a new species-Legionella antarctica sp. nov.-represented by strain TUM19329T (= GTC 22699T = NCTC 14581T). IMPORTANCE This study characterized a unique cultivated representative of the genus Legionella isolated from an Antarctic lake. This psychrotolerant strain had some common properties of known Legionella species but also displayed other characteristics, such as plasticity in fatty acid composition and an enrichment of mobile genes in the genome. These remarkable properties, as well as other factors, may contribute to cold hardiness, and this first cultivated cold-tolerant strain of the genus Legionella may serve as a model bacterium for further studies. It is worth noting that environmentally derived 16S rRNA gene phylotypes closely related to the strain characterized here have been detected from diverse environments outside Antarctica, suggesting a wide distribution of psychrotolerant Legionella bacteria. Our culture- and genome-based findings may accelerate the ongoing studies of the behavior and pathogenicity of Legionella spp., which have been monitored for many years in the context of public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sho Shimada
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Nakai
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Kotaro Aoki
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sakae Kudoh
- National Institute of Polar Research, Research Organization of Information and Systems, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Polar Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Imura
- National Institute of Polar Research, Research Organization of Information and Systems, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Polar Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | - Kentaro Watanabe
- National Institute of Polar Research, Research Organization of Information and Systems, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasunari Miyazaki
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Ishii
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Tateda
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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Linsky M, Segal G. A horizontally acquired Legionella genomic island encoding a LuxR type regulator and effector proteins displays variation in gene content and regulation. Mol Microbiol 2021; 116:766-782. [PMID: 34120381 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The intracellular pathogen Legionella pneumophila translocates >300 effector proteins into host cells, many of which are regulated at the transcriptional level. Here, we describe a novel L. pneumophila genomic island, which undergoes horizontal gene transfer within the Legionella genus. This island encodes two Icm/Dot effectors: LegK3 and a previously uncharacterized effector which we named CegK3, as well as a LuxR type regulator, which we named RegK3. Analysis of this island in different Legionella species revealed a conserved regulatory element located upstream to the effector-encoding genes in the island. Further analyses, including gene expression analysis, mutagenesis of the RegK3 regulatory element, controlled expression studies, and gel-mobility shift assays, all demonstrate that RegK3 directly activates the expression levels of legK3 and cegK3 effector-encoding genes. Additionally, the expression of all the components of the island is silenced by the Fis repressors. Comparison of expression profiles of these three genes among different Legionella species revealed variability in the activation levels mediated by RegK3, which were positively correlated with the Fis-mediated repression. Furthermore, LegK3 and CegK3 effectors moderately inhibit yeast growth, and importantly, they have a strong synergistic inhibitory effect on yeast growth, suggesting these two effectors are not only co-regulated but also might function together.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marika Linsky
- The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Gil Segal
- The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
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