1
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Che G, Yang W, Wang C, Li M, Li X, Fu Y, Pan Q. Light-driven uranyl-organic frameworks used as signal-enhanced photoelectrochemical sensors for monitoring anthrax. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1265:341327. [PMID: 37230572 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.341327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The semiconductor-like characteristics and light absorption ability of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) make it have the potential for photoelectrochemical sensing. Compared with composite and modified materials, the specific recognition of harmful substances directly using MOFs with suitable structures can undoubtedly simplify the fabrication of sensors. Herein, two photosensitive uranyl-organic frameworks (UOFs) named HNU-70 and HNU-71 were synthesized and explored as the novel "turn-on" photoelectrochemical sensors, which can be directly applied to monitor the biomarker of anthrax (dipicolinic acid). Both sensors have good selectivity and stability towards dipicolinic acid with the low detection limits of 1.062 and 1.035 nM, respectively, which are far lower than the human infection concentration. Moreover, they exhibit good applicability in the real physiological environment of human serum, demonstrating a good application prospect. Spectroscopic and electrochemical studies show that the mechanism of photocurrent enhancement results from the interaction between dipicolinic acid and UOFs, which facilitates the photogenerated electron transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang Che
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Weiting Yang
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China.
| | - Cong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Meiling Li
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Xinyi Li
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Yamin Fu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
| | - Qinhe Pan
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, 571199, China.
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2
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Pacheco M, Dikec J, Winckler P, Coelho C, Perrier-Cornet JM. Spectroscopic and microscopic characterization of dipicolinic acid and its salt photoproducts - A UVc effect study on DPA in solution and in bacterial spores. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2022; 280:121502. [PMID: 35752036 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2022.121502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial spores can cause significant problems such as food poisoning (like neurotoxin or emetic toxin) or serious illnesses (like anthrax or botulism). This dormant form of bacteria, made of several layers of barriers which provide extreme resistance to many abiotic stresses (radiation, temperature, pressure, etc.), are difficult to investigate in situ. To better understand the biological and chemical mechanisms involved and specific to spores resistance, the acquisition of environmental parameters is necessary. For that purpose, our research has been focused on the detection and analysis of a unique spore component, dipicolinic acid (DPA), used as the main in situ metabolite for sporulating bacteria detection. In its native form, DPA is only weakly fluorescent but after Ultraviolet irradiation at the wavelength of 254 nm (UVc), DPA photoproducts (DPAp) exhibit a remarkable fluorescence signal. These photoproducts are rarely identified and part of this study gives new insights offered by mass spectrometry (MS) in the determination of DPA photoproducts. Thanks to DPA assay techniques and fluorescence spectrometry, we highlighted the instability of photoproducts and introduced new assumptions on the effects of UVc on DPA. Studies in spectroscopy and microscopy allowed us to better understand these native probes in bacterial spores and will allow the implementation of a new method for studying the physico-chemical parameters of spore resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Pacheco
- UMR Procédés Alimentaires et Microbiologiques, L'Institut Agro Dijon, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 1, Esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Jonathan Dikec
- UMR Procédés Alimentaires et Microbiologiques, L'Institut Agro Dijon, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 1, Esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Pascale Winckler
- UMR Procédés Alimentaires et Microbiologiques, L'Institut Agro Dijon, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 1, Esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon, France; Dimacell Imaging Facility, L'Institut Agro Dijon, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 1 Esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Christian Coelho
- Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, VetAgro Sup campus agronomique de Lempdes, UMR F, 15000 Aurillac, France
| | - Jean-Marie Perrier-Cornet
- UMR Procédés Alimentaires et Microbiologiques, L'Institut Agro Dijon, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 1, Esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon, France; Dimacell Imaging Facility, L'Institut Agro Dijon, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 1 Esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon, France.
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3
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Biermann R, Niemeyer L, Rösner L, Ude C, Lindner P, Bice I, Beutel S. Facilitated endospore detection for
Bacillus
spp. through automated algorithm‐based image processing. Eng Life Sci 2021; 22:299-307. [PMID: 35382541 PMCID: PMC8961035 DOI: 10.1002/elsc.202100137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus spp. endospores are important dormant cell forms and are distributed widely in environmental samples. While these endospores can have important industrial value (e.g. use in animal feed as probiotics), they can also be pathogenic for humans and animals, emphasizing the need for effective endospore detection. Standard spore detection by colony forming units (CFU) is time‐consuming, elaborate and prone to error. Manual spore detection by spore count in cell counting chambers via phase‐contrast microscopy is less time‐consuming. However, it requires a trained person to conduct. Thus, the development of a facilitated spore detection tool is necessary. This work presents two alternative quantification methods: first, a colorimetric assay for detecting the biomarker dipicolinic acid (DPA) adapted to modern needs and applied for Bacillus spp. and second, a model‐based automated spore detection algorithm for spore count in phase‐contrast microscopic pictures. This automated spore count tool advances manual spore detection in cell counting chambers, and does not require human overview after sample preparation. In conclusion, this developed model detected various Bacillus spp. endospores with a correctness of 85–89%, and allows an automation and time‐saving of Bacillus endospore detection. In the laboratory routine, endospore detection and counting was achieved within 5–10 min, compared to up to 48 h with conventional methods. The DPA‐assay on the other hand enabled very accurate spore detection by simple colorimetric measurement and can thus be applied as a reference method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riekje Biermann
- Institute of Technical Chemistry Leibniz University Hannover Hannover Germany
| | - Laura Niemeyer
- Institute of Technical Chemistry Leibniz University Hannover Hannover Germany
| | - Laura Rösner
- Institute of Technical Chemistry Leibniz University Hannover Hannover Germany
| | - Christian Ude
- Institute of Technical Chemistry Leibniz University Hannover Hannover Germany
| | - Patrick Lindner
- Institute of Technical Chemistry Leibniz University Hannover Hannover Germany
| | - Ismet Bice
- Institute of Technical Chemistry Biochem Zusatzstoffe Handels‐ und Produktionsgesellschaft mbH Lohne Germany
| | - Sascha Beutel
- Institute of Technical Chemistry Leibniz University Hannover Hannover Germany
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4
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Bennet D, Harris AF, Lacombe J, Brooks C, Bionda N, Strickland AD, Eisenhut T, Zenhausern F. Evaluation of supercritical CO 2 sterilization efficacy for sanitizing personal protective equipment from the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 780:146519. [PMID: 33774282 PMCID: PMC7969838 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to evaluate the supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) sterilization-based NovaClean process for decontamination and reprocessing of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as surgical masks, cloth masks, and N95 respirators. Preliminarily, Bacillus atrophaeus were inoculated into different environments (dry, hydrated, and saliva) to imitate coughing and sneezing and serve as a "worst-case" regarding challenged PPE. The inactivation of the microbes by scCO2 sterilization with NovaKill or H2O2 sterilant was investigated as a function of exposure times ranging from 5 to 90 min with a goal of elucidating possible mechanisms. Also, human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 and HCoV-NL63 were inoculated on the respirator material, and viral activity was determined post-treatment. Moreover, we investigated the reprocessing ability of scCO2-based decontamination using wettability testing and surface mapping. Different inactivation mechanisms have been identified in scCO2 sanitization, such as membrane damage, germination defect, and dipicolinic acid leaks. Moreover, the viral sanitization results showed a complete inactivation of both coronavirus HCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV-2. We did not observe changes in PPE morphology, topographical structure, or material integrity, and in accordance with the WHO recommendation, maintained wettability post-processing. These experiments establish a foundational understanding of critical elements for the decontamination and reuse of PPE in any setting and provide a direction for future research in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devasier Bennet
- Center for Applied NanoBioscience and Medicine, The University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 475 N Fifth Street, AZ 85004, Phoenix, USA.
| | - Ashlee F Harris
- Center for Applied NanoBioscience and Medicine, The University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 475 N Fifth Street, AZ 85004, Phoenix, USA
| | - Jerome Lacombe
- Center for Applied NanoBioscience and Medicine, The University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 475 N Fifth Street, AZ 85004, Phoenix, USA; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, The University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 475 N 5th St., Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
| | - Carla Brooks
- Center for Applied NanoBioscience and Medicine, The University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 475 N Fifth Street, AZ 85004, Phoenix, USA
| | | | | | | | - Frederic Zenhausern
- Center for Applied NanoBioscience and Medicine, The University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 475 N Fifth Street, AZ 85004, Phoenix, USA; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, The University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 475 N 5th St., Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, 1 rue Michel Servet, 1211, Geneva 4, Switzerland.
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5
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Mawatari KI, Atsumi M, Nakamura F, Yasuda M, Fukuuchi T, Yamaoka N, Kaneko K, Nakagomi K, Oku N. Determination of Dipicolinic Acid in "Natto" by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled With Postcolumn Photoirradiation With Zinc Acetate. Int J Tryptophan Res 2019; 12:1178646919852120. [PMID: 31258330 PMCID: PMC6585242 DOI: 10.1177/1178646919852120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A system was developed for determining dipicolinic acid in “natto” using liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection. The compound was separated by reversed-phase chromatography using a mobile phase of 0.1 mol/L disodium hydrogen phosphate, 0.05 mol/L citric acid buffer (adjusted to pH 3.0) containing 3.0 mmol/L zinc acetate and 35 mmol/L perchloric acid. The compound in the column effluent was irradiated with ultraviolet light to produce fluorescence. This fluorescence was monitored at an excitation at 336 nm and an emission at 448 nm. The calibration curve for dipicolinic acid was observed to be linear in a range of 0.2 to 112 ng. The dipicolinic acid content of natto was 7.24 ± 0.54 mg/100 g (wet weight, mean ± standard deviation [SD], n = 6).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken-Ichi Mawatari
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Motomasa Atsumi
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Fumiya Nakamura
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makoto Yasuda
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoko Fukuuchi
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noriko Yamaoka
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kiyoko Kaneko
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuya Nakagomi
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoto Oku
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
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6
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Jensen KR, Voorhees KJ. Analytical applications of electron monochromator-mass spectrometry. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2015; 34:24-42. [PMID: 24272909 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Revised: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
An electron monochromator (EM) produces an electron beam with a narrow energy distribution that can be utilized with mass spectrometry (MS). The history and development of the EM from an initial research design to a commercial model are reviewed along with MS research applications. An EM incorporated with a mass spectrometer showed significant improvement in sensitivity over traditional methods for negative-ion generation and selectivity for compounds with electrophilic character. Sensitivity of EM-MS has been shown to be 25 fg for hexachlorobenzene in positive-ion mode and 10 fg for nitrobenzene in negative-ion mode. Reports regarding the analysis of chlorinated compounds, explosives, pesticides, phthalates, polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs), antioxidants, and bacterial biomarkers are discussed. Additionally, theoretical methods to predict electron-capture properties are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirk R Jensen
- Colorado School of Mines, Department of Chemistry and Geochemistry, 1012 14th Street #204, Golden, Colorado, 80401
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7
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Han Y, Zhou S, Wang L, Guan X. Nanopore back titration analysis of dipicolinic acid. Electrophoresis 2014; 36:467-70. [PMID: 25074707 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201400255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report a novel label-free nanopore back titration method for the detection of dipicolinic acid, a marker molecule for bacterial spores. By competitive binding of the target analyte and a large ligand probe to metal ions, dipicolinic acid could be sensitively and selectively detected. This nanopore back titration approach should find useful applications in the detection of other species of medical, biological, or environmental importance if their direct detection is difficult to achieve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujing Han
- Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA
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8
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Effect of sporulation medium on wet-heat resistance and structure of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris DSM 3922-type strain spores and modeling of the inactivation kinetics in apple juice. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 189:82-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Revised: 06/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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9
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Quantification of endospore-forming firmicutes by quantitative PCR with the functional gene spo0A. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:5302-12. [PMID: 23811505 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01376-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial endospores are highly specialized cellular forms that allow endospore-forming Firmicutes (EFF) to tolerate harsh environmental conditions. EFF are considered ubiquitous in natural environments, in particular, those subjected to stress conditions. In addition to natural habitats, EFF are often the cause of contamination problems in anthropogenic environments, such as industrial production plants or hospitals. It is therefore desirable to assess their prevalence in environmental and industrial fields. To this end, a high-sensitivity detection method is still needed. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate an approach based on quantitative PCR (qPCR). For this, the suitability of functional genes specific for and common to all EFF were evaluated. Seven genes were considered, but only spo0A was retained to identify conserved regions for qPCR primer design. An approach based on multivariate analysis was developed for primer design. Two primer sets were obtained and evaluated with 16 pure cultures, including representatives of the genera Bacillus, Paenibacillus, Brevibacillus, Geobacillus, Alicyclobacillus, Sulfobacillus, Clostridium, and Desulfotomaculum, as well as with environmental samples. The primer sets developed gave a reliable quantification when tested on laboratory strains, with the exception of Sulfobacillus and Desulfotomaculum. A test using sediment samples with a diverse EFF community also gave a reliable quantification compared to 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing. A detection limit of about 10(4) cells (or spores) per gram of initial material was calculated, indicating this method has a promising potential for the detection of EFF over a wide range of applications.
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10
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Reineke K, Schlumbach K, Baier D, Mathys A, Knorr D. The release of dipicolinic acid — The rate-limiting step of Bacillus endospore inactivation during the high pressure thermal sterilization process. Int J Food Microbiol 2013; 162:55-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Revised: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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12
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Li D, Truong TV, Bills TM, Holt BC, VanDerwerken DN, Williams JR, Acharya A, Robison RA, Tolley HD, Lee ML. GC/MS Method for Positive Detection of Bacillus anthracis Endospores. Anal Chem 2012; 84:1637-44. [DOI: 10.1021/ac202606x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Brigham Young University,
Provo, Utah 84602, United States
| | - Tai V. Truong
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Brigham Young University,
Provo, Utah 84602, United States
| | - Teri M. Bills
- Department of Microbiology and
Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, United States
| | - Brian C. Holt
- Department of Statistics, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, United
States
| | | | - John R. Williams
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Brigham Young University,
Provo, Utah 84602, United States
| | - Abhilasha Acharya
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Brigham Young University,
Provo, Utah 84602, United States
| | - Richard A. Robison
- Department of Microbiology and
Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, United States
| | - H. Dennis Tolley
- Department of Statistics, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, United
States
| | - Milton L. Lee
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Brigham Young University,
Provo, Utah 84602, United States
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13
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Nackos AN, Truong TV, Pulsipher TC, Kimball JA, Tolley HD, Robison RA, Bartholomew CH, Lee ML. One-step conversion of to its using salts for GC-MSdetection of bacterial endospores. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2011; 3:245-258. [PMID: 32938021 DOI: 10.1039/c0ay00270d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Methyl sulfate (MeSO4-) salts were explored as thermochemolysis-methylation (TCM) reagents for gas chromatographic (GC) analysis of dipicolinic acid (DPA) as its dimethyl ester (Me2DPA) from bacterial endospores. The reaction was carried out under non-pyrolytic conditions by inserting a small coiled wire filament coated with the sample and reagents directly inside a GC injection port at 290 °C. Above 10 : 1 methyl donor/DPA ratios, alkali metal salts of MeSO4- effected 80-90% conversion of DPA to Me2DPA, which was 10-20 times more active than the same amount of tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMA-OH) at this temperature. A quaternary salt mixture consisting of 1 : 3 : 1 : 3 TMA+/Na+/OH-/MeSO4- methylated spore DPA with an average conversion of 86% (mean conversion by TMA-OH under the same conditions was 4%). Therefore, the sensitivity for detection of bacterial endospores was increased over 20-fold compared to that observed with the more commonly employed TMA-OH methylating reagent. The limit of detection by this method was 9 × 104 total spores. Mechanisms describing the observed behavior are proposed and discussed. This is the first use of MeSO4- as a TCM reagent for GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron N Nackos
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
| | - Tai V Truong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
| | | | - Jon A Kimball
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
| | - H Dennis Tolley
- Department of Statistics, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Richard A Robison
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Calvin H Bartholomew
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
| | - Milton L Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
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14
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Correa E, Goodacre R. A genetic algorithm-Bayesian network approach for the analysis of metabolomics and spectroscopic data: application to the rapid identification of Bacillus spores and classification of Bacillus species. BMC Bioinformatics 2011; 12:33. [PMID: 21269434 PMCID: PMC3228543 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2105-12-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The rapid identification of Bacillus spores and bacterial identification are paramount because of their implications in food poisoning, pathogenesis and their use as potential biowarfare agents. Many automated analytical techniques such as Curie-point pyrolysis mass spectrometry (Py-MS) have been used to identify bacterial spores giving use to large amounts of analytical data. This high number of features makes interpretation of the data extremely difficult We analysed Py-MS data from 36 different strains of aerobic endospore-forming bacteria encompassing seven different species. These bacteria were grown axenically on nutrient agar and vegetative biomass and spores were analyzed by Curie-point Py-MS. Results We develop a novel genetic algorithm-Bayesian network algorithm that accurately identifies sand selects a small subset of key relevant mass spectra (biomarkers) to be further analysed. Once identified, this subset of relevant biomarkers was then used to identify Bacillus spores successfully and to identify Bacillus species via a Bayesian network model specifically built for this reduced set of features. Conclusions This final compact Bayesian network classification model is parsimonious, computationally fast to run and its graphical visualization allows easy interpretation of the probabilistic relationships among selected biomarkers. In addition, we compare the features selected by the genetic algorithm-Bayesian network approach with the features selected by partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). The classification accuracy results show that the set of features selected by the GA-BN is far superior to PLS-DA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elon Correa
- School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M17ND, UK
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15
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Basile F, Zhang S, Shin YS, Drolet B. Atmospheric pressure-thermal desorption (AP-TD)/electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry for the rapid analysis of Bacillus spores. Analyst 2010; 135:797-803. [DOI: 10.1039/c0an00071j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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16
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Truong TV, Nackos AN, Murray JA, Kimball JA, Hawkes JE, Harvey DJ, Tolley HD, Robison RA, Bartholomew CH, Lee ML. Sample introduction in gas chromatography using a coiled wire filament. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:6852-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2009] [Revised: 08/01/2009] [Accepted: 08/10/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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17
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18
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Fichtel J, Köster J, Rullkötter J, Sass H. Spore dipicolinic acid contents used for estimating the number of endospores in sediments. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2007; 61:522-32. [PMID: 17623026 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2007.00354.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Endospores are heat-resistant bacterial resting stages that can remain viable for long periods of time and may thus accumulate in sediments as a function of sediment age. The number of spores in sediments has only rarely been quantified, because of methodological problems, and consequently little is known about the quantitative contribution of endospores to the total number of prokaryotic cells. We here report on a protocol to determine the number of endospores in sediments and cultures. The method is based on the fluorimetric determination of dipicolinic acid (DPA), a spore core-specific compound, after reaction with terbium chloride. The concentration of DPA in natural samples is converted into endospore numbers using endospore-forming pure cultures as standards. Quenching of the fluorescence by sediment constituents and background fluorescence due to humic substances hampered direct determination of DPA in sediments. To overcome those interferences, DPA was extracted using ethyl acetate prior to fluorimetric measurements of DPA concentrations. The first results indicated that endospore numbers obtained with this method are orders of magnitude higher than numbers obtained by cultivation after pasteurization. In one of the explored sediment cores, endospores accounted for 3% of all stainable prokaryotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Fichtel
- Institut für Chemie und Biologie des Meeres (ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky-Strasse 9-11, Oldenburg, Germany
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19
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Liu YS, Walter TM, Chang WJ, Lim KS, Yang L, Lee SW, Aronson A, Bashir R. Electrical detection of germination of viable model Bacillus anthracis spores in microfluidic biochips. LAB ON A CHIP 2007; 7:603-10. [PMID: 17476379 DOI: 10.1039/b702408h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a new impedance-based method to detect viable spores by electrically detecting their germination in real time within microfluidic biochips. We used Bacillus anthracis Sterne spores as the model organism. During germination, the spores release polar and ionic chemicals, such as dipicolinic acid (DPA), calcium ions, phosphate ions, and amino acids, which correspondingly increase the electrical conductivity of the medium in which the spores are suspended. We first present macro-scale measurements demonstrating that the germination of spores can be electrically detected at a concentration of 10(9) spores ml(-1) in sample volumes of 5 ml, by monitoring changes in the solution conductivity. Germination was induced by introducing an optimized germinant solution consisting of 10 mM L-alanine and 2 mM inosine. We then translated these results to a micro-fluidic biochip, which was a three-layer device: one layer of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with valves, a second layer of PDMS with micro-fluidic channels and chambers, and the third layer with metal electrodes deposited on a pyrex substrate. Dielectrophoresis (DEP) was used to trap and concentrate the spores at the electrodes with greater than 90% efficiency, at a solution flow rate of 0.2 microl min(-1) with concentration factors between 107-109 spores ml(-1), from sample volumes of 1-5 microl. The spores were captured by DEP in deionized water within 1 min (total volume used ranged from 0.02 microl to 0.2 microl), and then germinant solution was introduced to the flow stream. The detection sensitivity was demonstrated to be as low as about a hundred spores in 0.1 nl, which is equivalent to a macroscale detection limit of approximately 10(9) spores ml(-1). We believe that this is the first demonstration of this application in microfluidic and BioMEMS devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Shao Liu
- Birck Nanotechnology Center, Brindley Bioscience Center, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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20
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21
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Zhang J, Dalal N, Gleason C, Matthews MA, Waller LN, Fox KF, Fox A, Drews MJ, LaBerge M, An YH. On the mechanisms of deactivation of Bacillus atrophaeus spores using supercritical carbon dioxide. J Supercrit Fluids 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2006.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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22
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Byrd J, Bruno JG, Richter MM. Electrochemiluminescence of dipicolinic acid (DPA) and (bpy)2Ru(DPA)+ (bpy = 2,2′-bipyridine). LUMINESCENCE 2006; 21:72-6. [PMID: 16211541 DOI: 10.1002/bio.886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The spectroscopic and electrochemiluminescence (ECL) properties of dipicolinic acid (DPA), (bpy)(2)Ru(2+) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine) and the species formed when DPA and (bpy)(2)Ru(2+) [abbreviated to (bpy)(2)Ru(DPA)(+)] are allowed to react are reported. The UV-Vis absorption maxima for (bpy)(2)Ru(2+) and (bpy)(2)Ru(DPA)(+) are 493 and 475 nm, respectively, indicating the in situ formation of a complex between DPA and (bpy)(2)Ru(2+). DPA, (bpy)(2)Ru(2+) and (bpy)(2)Ru(DPA)(+) display ECL upon oxidation in the presence of the oxidative-reductive co-reactant tri-n-propylamine (TPrA). The ECL of (bpy)(2)Ru(DPA)(+) is at least two-fold higher than either of the parent species. An ECL spectrum of (bpy)(2)Ru(DPA)(+) displays a peak maximum 40 nm red-shifted from the photoluminescence peak maximum, suggesting that the excited state formed electrochemically is different from that formed spectroscopically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Byrd
- Department of Chemistry, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65897, USA
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23
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Foster NS, Thompson SE, Valentine NB, Amonette JE, Johnson TJ. Identification of sporulated and vegetative bacteria using statistical analysis of fourier transform mid-infrared transmission data. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2004; 58:203-211. [PMID: 15000715 DOI: 10.1366/000370204322842940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A combined mid-infrared spectroscopic/statistical modeling approach for the discrimination and identification, at the strain level, of both sporulated and vegetative bacterial samples is presented. Transmission mode spectra of bacteria dried on ZnSe windows were collected using a Fourier transform mid-infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer. Five Bacillus bacterial strains (B. atrophaeus 49337, B. globigii Dugway, B. thuringiensis spp. kurstaki 35866, B. subtilis 49760, and B. subtilis 6051) were used to construct a reference spectral library and to parameterize a four-step statistical model for the systematic identification of bacteria. The statistical methods used in this initial feasibility study included principal component analysis (PCA), classification and regression trees (CART), and Mahalanobis distance calculations. Internal cross-validation studies successfully classified 100% of the samples into their correct physiological state (sporulated or vegetative) and identified 67% of the samples correctly as to their bacterial strain. Analysis of thirteen blind samples, which included reference and other bacteria, nonbiological materials, and mixtures of both nonbiological and bacterial samples, yielded comparable accuracy. The primary advantage of this approach is the accurate identification of unknown bacteria, including spores, in a matter of minutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy S Foster
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, P.O. Box 999, Richland, Washington 99352, USA.
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24
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He J, Luo X, Chen S, Cao L, Sun M, Yu Z. Determination of spore concentration in Bacillus thuringiensis through the analysis of dipicolinate by capillary zone electrophoresis. J Chromatogr A 2003; 994:207-12. [PMID: 12779231 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(03)00422-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A new capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) method for the analysis of dipicolinic acid, a specific component found in spores but not in vegetative cells, was used to determine spore concentration in Bacillus thuringiensis according to the relationship between the spore concentration and the content of dipicolinate. The quantitative relationship was established by using purified spores. Electrolyte conditions that affected the separation efficiency of dipicolinate and the reproducibility were investigated. With 10 mM phosphate, 10 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and 0.25 mM tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide at pH 6.2 as the carrier electrolyte, dipicolinate can be determined within 8 min at an applied voltage of -25 kV (anode at detector) and a capillary temperature of 25 degrees C. The method has a high separation efficiency with which the number of theoretical plates is above 300,000 plates m(-1). The relative standard deviations for migration time and peak area are less than 0.5% and 2.0%, respectively. The detection limit for dipicolinate was 10 ng ml(-1), which corresponds to 7.2 x 10(5) spores ml(-1). The method was used to determine spores in fermentation broths, and the results obtained agreed well with the values obtained by plate counting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin He
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
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25
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Tripathi A, Maswadeh WM, Snyder AP. Optimization of quartz tube pyrolysis atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry for the generation of bacterial biomarkers. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2001; 15:1672-1680. [PMID: 11555865 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Experimental procedures were investigated to improve the efflux of biomolecule pyrolyzates from quartz tube pyrolysis under atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry conditions. Heating regimes, airflows, and ion focusing parameters were optimized to increase the informative mass spectral signals generated from the pyrolysis of Gram-positive bacterial spores and vegetative cells. Dipicolinic acid (DPA) is found in 5-15% by weight in Gram-positive Bacillus spores, and the parameter optimization procedures provided an intense mass spectral signature of the m/z 168 protonated DPA molecule with a minimization of pyrolytic and ionization fragments. Moreover, mass spectral information from the optimization protocols yielded peaks and mass patterns characteristic of DNA and RNA nitrogen bases, protein diketopiperazines, and amino sugars.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Tripathi
- Geo-Centers, Inc., Gunpowder Branch, P.O. Box 68, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-0068, USA
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26
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Differentiation and classification of user-specified bacterial groups by in situ thermal hydrolysis and methylation of whole bacterial cells with tert -butyl bromide chemical ionization ion trap mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(00)00952-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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27
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Beverly MB, Voorhees KJ, Hadfield TL, Cody RB. Electron monochromator mass spectrometry for the analysis of whole bacteria and bacterial spores. Anal Chem 2000; 72:2428-32. [PMID: 10857617 DOI: 10.1021/ac991318g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Spores from a variety of Bacillus species were analyzed with direct probe mass spectrometry using an electron monochromator to select electrons of distinct energies for ionization. Electron energies were chosen to match the electron capture energies of taxonomically important compounds such as dipicolinic acid and fatty acids. Previous negative ion interferences were not observed when the monochromator was used, and the signal-to-noise ratio of targeted compounds was significantly enhanced using this approach. To demonstrate the selectivity of the technique, the monochromator was swept over a range of electron energies while monitoring the masses of compounds with known electron capture energies. Scanning the monochromator while the mass spectrometer was operated in single-ion mode enabled dipicolinic acid to be detected in 10(5) spores. The results presented here demonstrate the utility of the electron monochromator for selectively ionizing compounds directly in bacteria and bacterial spores.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Beverly
- Chemistry and Geochemistry Department, Colorado School of Mines, Golden 80401, USA
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28
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Beverly MB, Voorhees KJ, Hadfield TL. Direct mass spectrometric analysis of Bacillus spores. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 1999; 13:2320-2326. [PMID: 10567929 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0231(19991215)13:23<2320::aid-rcm791>3.0.co;2-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Spores from the Bacillus species, B. cereus, B. anthracis, B. thuringensis, B. lichenformis, B. globigi, and B. subtilis, were examined by direct probe mass spectrometry using electron ionization (EI) and positive and negative chemical ionization (CI). Molecular ions from free fatty acids and nucleic acids were observed in the 70eV spectra as were fragments from glycerides. Spectra obtained with isobutane positive chemical ionization (CI(+)) were dominated by ions associated with pyranose compounds such as N-acetylglucosamine (NAG). Unlike the positive ion spectra, the negative ion spectra of the spores were very simple and contained few peaks. The M(-.) ion from dipicolinic acid (DPA) was the base peak in the negative ion spectra of all spore species except those from B. lichenformis. The negative ion of DPA produced such a strong signal that 10(8) colony forming units (CFUs) of B. cereus spores could be detected directly in 0.5 g of ground rice. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the spectra revealed that only CI(+) spectra contained differences that could be used to identify the spectra by species. Differentiation of the CI(+) spectra by PCA was attributed to variances in the peaks associated with the bacterial polymer poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and NAG. Similar differences in PHB and NAG peaks were detected in the CI(+) spectra of a suite of vegetative Bacillus stains grown with various media.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Beverly
- Chemistry and Geochemistry Department, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA
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29
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Amoako KK, Goto Y, Misawa N, Xu DL, Shinjo T. The erythrocyte receptor for Fusobacterium necrophorum hemolysin: phosphatidylcholine as a possible candidate. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1998; 168:65-70. [PMID: 9812364 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13256.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
An attempt was made to determine the receptor for the hemolysin of Fusobacterium necrophorum using horse erythrocyte or its membranes as target. The spectrum of erythrocyte sensitivity has indicated that horse, dog and mouse erythrocytes are highly sensitive whereas cattle, sheep, goat and chicken red blood cells are insensitive to this hemolysin. A high correlation between sensitivity and phosphatidylcholine content of the erythrocyte membranes was noted. Binding of hemolysin to horse erythrocyte membranes was reduced significantly by prior treatment of membranes with phospholipase A2 but not with phospholipase C. Pretreatment of erythrocyte membranes with pronase, proteinase K, trypsin or neuraminidase did not alter binding of hemolysin to the membranes, suggesting that protein or sialyl residues are not involved as receptors. Gas liquid chromatography analysis showed that the fatty acid profile from hydrolysis of bovine liver phosphatidylcholine by hemolysin and phospholipase A2 were similar. In conclusion, this report presents evidence that phosphatidylcholine may be acting as a possible receptor for the hemolysin of F. necrophorum.
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Affiliation(s)
- K K Amoako
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Miyazaki University, Japan
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30
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31
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Warth AD. Liquid Chromatographic Determination of Dipicolinic Acid from Bacterial Spores. Appl Environ Microbiol 1979; 38:1029-33. [PMID: 16345469 PMCID: PMC291239 DOI: 10.1128/aem.38.6.1029-1033.1979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dipicolinic acid was determined by reverse-phase liquid chromatography. Elution was with 0.2 M potassium phosphate, pH 1.8, containing 1.5%
tert
-amyl alcohol or higher concentrations of lower alcohols or acetonitrile. The normal analytical range was 50 to 1,000 μM, which is equivalent to 0.1 to 1 mg of spores per ml with a relative standard error of 2 to 4% and a detection limit of <100 pmol. Dipicolinic acid was fully extracted from spores by heating at pH 1.8 for 10 min at 100°C. Sporulating cultures may be analyzed in less than 20 min without separation of cells from media. Liquid chromatography was also used to detect dipicolinic acid in more complex substrates, e.g., guinea pig feces containing
Metabacterium polyspora
spores and canned food. Dipicolinic acid could be detected in unspoiled canned salmon containing <10
6
added
Bacillus cereus
spores per g.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Warth
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Division of Food Research, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia
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32
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Scott IR, Ellar DJ. Study of calcium dipicolinate release during bacterial spore germination by using a new, sensitive assay for dipicolinate. J Bacteriol 1978; 135:133-7. [PMID: 97264 PMCID: PMC224788 DOI: 10.1128/jb.135.1.133-137.1978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The release of calcium and dipicolinic acid from spores of Bacillus megaterium KM during L-alanine-induced triggering of germination has been studied using a new, simple, and rapid assay for dipicolinic acid capable of detecting a concentration of 0.5 micron. The release of both calcium and dipicolinate started within seconds of exposure of the spores to L-alanine, thus preceding other measurable changes associated with germination. From the earliest times, the two substances were released in equimolar quantities, although later in germination calcium predominated.
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33
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Holland JW, Gagnet SM, Lewis SA, Stauffer LR. Clinical evaluation of a simple, rapid procedure for the presumptive identification of anaerobic bacteria. J Clin Microbiol 1977; 5:416-26. [PMID: 323283 PMCID: PMC274617 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.5.4.416-426.1977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A simple, rapid procedure for the presumptive identification of anaerobic bacteria has been evaluated. Two hundred and thirty-five clinical isolates were identified using gas-liquid chromatography and 3-ml volumes of a few selected test media. These test media were stored aerobically and incubated in GasPak anaerobic jars. The average incubation time was 39 h. This procedure, when compared to the results of our standard identification procedure, correctly identified 98% of the isolates to the genus level, 83% to the species level, and 83% of Bacteroides fragilis and Bacteroides melaninogenicus to the subspecies level. Fifty-three of the isolates were also identified by using 0.5-ml volumes of test media stored, inoculated, and incubated in an anaerobic glove box. The 3-ml-and the 0.5-ml-volume procedures correctly identified comparable percentages of the 53 isolates.
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MacGee J, Roda SM, Elias SV, Lington A, Tabor MW, Hammond PB. Determination of delta-aminolevulinic acid in blood plasma and urine by gas-liquid chromatography. BIOCHEMICAL MEDICINE 1977; 17:31-44. [PMID: 843341 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2944(77)90007-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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