Tn5 Insertion Mutants of Pseudomonas fluorescens Defective in Adhesion to Soil and Seeds

Arcobacter butzleri Biofilms: Insights into the Genes Beneath Their Formation

Arcobacter butzleri, the most prevalent species of the genus, has the demonstrated ability to adhere to various surfaces through biofilm production. The biofilm formation capability has been related to the expression of certain genes, which have not been characterized in A. butzleri. In order to increase the knowledge of this foodborne pathogen, the aim of this study was to assess the role of six biofilm-associated genes in campylobacteria (flaA, flaB, fliS, luxS, pta and spoT) in the biofilm formation ability of A. butzleri. Knockout mutants were constructed from different foodborne isolates, and static biofilm assays were conducted on polystyrene (PS), reinforced glass and stainless steel. Additionally, motility and Congo red binding assays were performed. In general, mutants in flaAB, fliS and luxS showed a decrease in the biofilm production irrespective of the surface; mutants in spoT showed an increase on stainless steel, and mutants in pta and spoT showed a decrease on reinforced glass but an increase on PS. Our work sheds light on the biofilm-related pathogenesis of A. butzleri, although future studies are necessary to achieve a satisfactory objective.

The diguanylate cyclase AdrA regulates flagellar biosynthesis in Pseudomonas fluorescens F113 through SadB

Flagellum mediated motility is an essential trait for rhizosphere colonization by pseudomonads. Flagella synthesis is a complex and energetically expensive process that is tightly regulated. In Pseudomonas fluorescens, the regulatory cascade starts with the master regulatory protein FleQ that is in turn regulated by environmental signals through the Gac/Rsm and SadB pathways, which converge in the sigma factor AlgU. AlgU is required for the expression of amrZ, encoding a FleQ repressor. AmrZ itself has been shown to modulate c-di-GMP levels through the control of many genes encoding enzymes implicated in c-di-GMP turnover. This cyclic nucleotide regulates flagellar function and besides, the master regulator of the flagellar synthesis signaling pathway, FleQ, has been shown to bind c-di-GMP. Here we show that AdrA, a diguanylate cyclase regulated by AmrZ participates in this signaling pathway. Epistasis analysis has shown that AdrA acts upstream of SadB, linking SadB with environmental signaling. We also show that SadB binds c-di-GMP with higher affinity than FleQ and propose that c-di-GMP produced by AdrA modulates flagella synthesis through SadB.

Discovery of the Cyclic Lipopeptide Gacamide A by Genome Mining and Repair of the Defective GacA Regulator in Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1

Genome mining of the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1 showed that the strain possesses a silent NRPS-based biosynthetic gene cluster encoding a new lipopeptide; its activation required the repair of the global regulator system. In this paper, we describe the genomics-driven discovery and characterization of the associated secondary metabolite gacamide A, a lipodepsipeptide that forms a new family of Pseudomonas lipopeptides. The compound has a moderate, narrow-spectrum antibiotic activity and facilitates bacterial surface motility.

Phagocytosis and Epithelial Cell Invasion by Crohn's Disease-Associated Adherent-Invasive Escherichia coli Are Inhibited by the Anti-inflammatory Drug 6-Mercaptopurine

Adherent-invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC) strains are overrepresented in the dysbiotic microbiota of Crohn’s disease (CD) patients, and contribute to the onset of the chronic inflammation typical of the disease. However, the effects of anti-inflammatory drugs used for CD treatment on AIEC virulence have not yet been investigated. In this report, we show that exposure of AIEC LF82 strain to amino-6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) riboside, one of the most widely used anti-inflammatory drugs in CD, impairs its ability to adhere to, and consequently to invade, human epithelial cells. Notably, phagocytosis of LF82 treated with 6-MP by human macrophages is also reduced, suggesting that 6-MP affects AIEC cell surface determinants involved both in interaction with epithelial cells and in uptake by macrophages. Since a main target of 6-MP in bacterial cells is the inhibition of the important signal molecule c-di-GMP, we also tested whether perturbations in cAMP, another major signaling pathway in E. coli, might have similar effects on interactions with human cells. To this aim, we grew LF82 in the presence of glucose, which leads to inhibition of cAMP synthesis. Growth in glucose-supplemented medium resulted in a reduction in AIEC adhesion to epithelial cells and uptake by macrophages. Consistent with these results, both 6-MP and glucose can affect expression of cell adhesion-related genes, such as the csg genes, encoding thin aggregative fimbriae (curli). In addition, glucose strongly inhibits expression of the fim operon, encoding type 1 pili, a known AIEC determinant for adhesion to human cells. To further investigate whether 6-MP can indeed inhibit c-di-GMP signaling in AIEC, we performed biofilm and motility assays and determination of extracellular polysaccharides. 6-MP clearly affected biofilm formation and cellulose production, but also, unexpectedly, reduced cell motility, itself an important virulence factor for AIEC. Our results provide strong evidence that 6-MP can affect AIEC-host cell interaction by acting on the bacterial cell, thus strengthening the hypothesis that mercaptopurines might promote CD remission also by affecting gut microbiota composition and/or physiology, and suggesting that novel drugs targeting bacterial virulence and signaling might be effective in preventing chronic inflammation in CD.

Ecological patterns of seed microbiome diversity, transmission, and assembly

Seeds are involved in the transmission of microorganisms from one plant generation to another and consequently act as the initial inoculum for the plant microbiota. The purpose of this mini-review is to provide an overview of current knowledge on the diversity, structure and role of the seed microbiota. The relative importance of the mode of transmission (vertical vs horizontal) of the microbial entities composing the seed microbiota as well as the potential connections existing between seed and other plant habitats such as the anthosphere and the spermosphere is discussed. Finally the governing processes (niche vs neutral) involved in the assembly and the dynamics of the seed microbiota are examined.

FleQ coordinates flagellum-dependent and -independent motilities in Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000

Motility plays an essential role in bacterial fitness and colonization in the plant environment, since it favors nutrient acquisition and avoidance of toxic substances, successful competition with other microorganisms, the ability to locate the preferred hosts, access to optimal sites within them, and dispersal in the environment during the course of transmission. In this work, we have observed that the mutation of the flagellar master regulatory gene, fleQ, alters bacterial surface motility and biosurfactant production, uncovering a new type of motility for Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 on semisolid surfaces. We present evidence that P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000 moves over semisolid surfaces by using at least two different types of motility, namely, swarming, which depends on the presence of flagella and syringafactin, a biosurfactant produced by this strain, and a flagellum-independent surface spreading or sliding, which also requires syringafactin. We also show that FleQ activates flagellum synthesis and negatively regulates syringafactin production in P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Finally, it was surprising to observe that mutants lacking flagella or syringafactin were as virulent as the wild type, and only the simultaneous loss of both flagella and syringafactin impairs the ability of P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000 to colonize tomato host plants and cause disease.

Identification, structure, and function of a novel type VI secretion peptidoglycan glycoside hydrolase effector-immunity pair

Bacteria employ type VI secretion systems (T6SSs) to facilitate interactions with prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Despite the widespread identification of T6SSs among Gram-negative bacteria, the number of experimentally validated substrate effector proteins mediating these interactions remains small. Here, employing an informatics approach, we define novel families of T6S peptidoglycan glycoside hydrolase effectors. Consistent with the known intercellular self-intoxication exhibited by the T6S pathway, we observe that each effector gene is located adjacent to a hypothetical open reading frame encoding a putative periplasmically localized immunity determinant. To validate our sequence-based approach, we functionally investigate a representative family member from the soil-dwelling bacterium Pseudomonas protegens. We demonstrate that this protein is secreted in a T6SS-dependent manner and that it confers a fitness advantage in growth competition assays with Pseudomonas putida. In addition, we determined the 1.4 Å x-ray crystal structure of this effector in complex with its cognate immunity protein. The structure reveals the effector shares highest overall structural similarity to a glycoside hydrolase family associated with peptidoglycan N-acetylglucosaminidase activity, suggesting that T6S peptidoglycan glycoside hydrolase effector families may comprise significant enzymatic diversity. Our structural analyses also demonstrate that self-intoxication is prevented by the immunity protein through direct occlusion of the effector active site. This work significantly expands our current understanding of T6S effector diversity.

Regulation of polyphosphate kinase production by antisense RNA in Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1

Pseudomonas spp. adapt rapidly to environmental fluctuations. Loss or overproduction of polyphosphate reduces the fitness of Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1, indicating the importance of the fine-tuning of polyphosphate production. An antisense RNA was investigated and shown to regulate the polyphosphate kinase gene (ppk) by a posttranscriptional mechanism reducing ppk transcript abundance.

Novel genes involved in Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1 motility and biofilm formation

AdnA in Pseudomonas fluorescens, an ortholog of FleQ in P. aeruginosa, regulates both motility and flagellum-mediated attachment to various surfaces. A whole-genome microarray determined the AdnA transcriptome by comparing the gene expression pattern of wild-type Pf0-1 to that of Pf0-2x (adnA deletion mutant) in broth culture. In the absence of AdnA, expression of 92 genes was decreased, while 11 genes showed increased expression. Analysis of 16 of these genes fused to lacZ confirmed the microarray results. Several genes were further evaluated for their role in motility and biofilm formation. Two genes, Pfl01_1508 and Pfl01_1517, affected motility and had different effects on biofilm formation in Pf0-1. These two genes are predicted to specify proteins similar to the glycosyl transferases FgtA1 and FgtA2, which have been shown to be involved in virulence and motility in P. syringae. Three other genes, Pfl01_1516, Pfl01_1572, and Pfl01_1573, not previously associated with motility and biofilm formation in Pseudomonas had similar effects on biofilm formation in Pf0-1. Deletion of each of these genes led to different motility defects. Our data revealed an additional level of complexity in the control of flagellum function beyond the core genes known to be required and may yield insights into processes important for environmental persistence of P. fluorescens Pf0-1.

Altered expression level of Escherichia coli proteins in response to treatment with the antifouling agent zosteric acid sodium salt

Zosteric acid sodium salt is a powerful antifouling agent. However, the mode of its antifouling action has not yet been fully elucidated. Whole cell proteome of Escherichia coli was analysed to study the different protein patterns expressed by the surface-exposed planktonic cells without and with sublethal concentrations of the zosteric acid sodium salt. Proteomic analysis revealed that at least 27 proteins showed a significant (19 upregulated and 8 downregulated, P < 0.001) altered expression level in response to the antifoulant. The proteomic signatures of zosteric acid sodium salt-treated cells are characterized by stress-associated (e.g. AhpC, OsmC, SodB, GroES, IscU, DnaK), motility-related (FliC), quorum-sensing-associated (LuxS) and metabolism/biosynthesis-related (e.g. PptA, AroA, FabD, FabB, GapA) proteins. Consistent with the overexpression of LuxS enzyme, the antifouling agent increased autoinducer-2 (AI-2) concentration by twofold. Moreover, treated cells experienced a statistically significant but modest increase of reactive oxygen species (+ 23%), tryptophanase (1.2-fold) and indole (1.2-fold) synthesis. Overall, our data suggest that zosteric acid sodium salt acts as environmental cue leading to global stress on E. coli cells, which favours the expression of various protective proteins, the AI-2 production and the synthesis of flagella, to escape from adverse conditions.

Transmission of plant-pathogenic bacteria by nonhost seeds without induction of an associated defense reaction at emergence

An understanding of the mechanisms involved in the different steps of bacterial disease epidemiology is essential to develop new control strategies. Seeds are the passive carriers of a diversified microbial cohort likely to affect seedling physiology. Among seed-borne plant-pathogenic bacteria, seed carriage in compatible situations is well evidenced. The aims of our work are to determine the efficiency of pathogen transmission to seeds of a nonhost plant and to evaluate bacterial and plant behaviors at emergence. Bacterial transmission from flowers to seeds and from seeds to seedlings was measured for Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris in incompatible interactions with bean. Transmissions from seeds to seedlings were compared for X. campestris pv. campestris, for Xanthomonas citri pv. phaseoli var. fuscans in compatible interactions with bean, and for Escherichia coli, a human pathogen, in null interactions with bean. The induction of defense responses was monitored by using reverse transcription and quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) of genes representing the main signaling pathways and assaying defense-related enzymatic activities. Flower inoculations resulted in a high level of bean seed contamination by X. campestris pv. campestris, which transmitted efficiently to seedlings. Whatever the type of interaction tested, dynamics of bacterial population sizes were similar on seedlings, and no defense responses were induced evidencing bacterial colonization of seedlings without any associated defense response induction. Bacteria associated with the spermosphere multiply in this rich environment, suggesting that the colonization of seedlings relies mostly on commensalism. The transmission of plant-pathogenic bacteria to and by nonhost seeds suggests a probable role of seeds of nonhost plants as an inoculum source.

Biofilm formation and the food industry, a focus on the bacterial outer surface

The ability of many bacteria to adhere to surfaces and to form biofilms has major implications in a variety of industries including the food industry, where biofilms create a persistent source of contamination. The formation of a biofilm is determined not only by the nature of the attachment surface, but also by the characteristics of the bacterial cell and by environmental factors. This review focuses on the features of the bacterial cell surface such as flagella, surface appendages and polysaccharides that play a role in this process, in particular for bacteria linked to food-processing environments. In addition, some aspects of the attachment surface, biofilm control and eradication will be highlighted.

Adhesion and fitness in the bean phyllosphere and transmission to seed of Xanthomonas fuscans subsp. fuscans

Deciphering the mechanisms enabling plant-pathogenic bacteria to disperse, colonize, and survive on their hosts provides the necessary basis to set up new control methods. We evaluated the role of bacterial attachment and biofilm formation in host colonization processes for Xanthomonas fuscans subsp. fuscans on its host. This bacterium is responsible for the common bacterial blight of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), a seedborne disease. The five adhesin genes (pilA, fhab, xadA1, xadA2, and yapH) identified in X. fuscans subsp. fuscans CFBP4834-R strain were mutated. All mutants were altered in their abilities to adhere to polypropylene or seed. PilA was involved in adhesion and transmission to seed, and mutation of pilA led to lower pathogenicity on bean. YapH was required for adhesion to seed, leaves, and abiotic surfaces but not for in planta transmission to seed or aggressiveness on leaves. Transmission to seed through floral structures did not require any of the known adhesins. Conversely, all mutants tested, except in yapH, were altered in their vascular transmission to seed. In conclusion, we showed that adhesins are implicated in the various processes leading to host phyllosphere colonization and transmission to seed by plant-pathogenic bacteria.

Nitrogen starvation affects bacterial adhesion to soil

One of the main factors limiting the bioremediation of subsoil environments based on bioaugmentation is the transport of selected microorganisms to the contaminated zones. The characterization of the physiological responses of the inoculated microorganisms to starvation, especially the evaluation of characteristics that affect the adhesion of the cells to soil particles, is fundamental to anticipate the success or failure of bioaugmentation. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of nitrogen starvation on cell surface hydrophobicity and cell adhesion to soil particles by bacterial strains previously characterized as able to use benzene, toluene or xilenes as carbon and energy sources. The strains LBBMA 18-T (non-identified), Arthrobacter aurescens LBBMA 98, Arthrobacter oxydans LBBMA 201, and Klebsiella sp. LBBMA 204-1 were used in the experiments. Cultivation of the cells in nitrogen-deficient medium caused a significant reduction of the adhesion to soil particles by all the four strains. Nitrogen starvation also reduced significantly the strength of cell adhesion to the soil particles, except for Klebsiella sp. LBBMA 204-1. Two of the four strains showed significant reduction in cell surface hydrophobicity. It is inferred that the efficiency of bacterial transport through soils might be potentially increased by nitrogen starvation.

Role of bacterial biofilms in urinary tract infections

Bacterial urinary tract infections represent the most common type of nosocomial infection. In many cases, the ability of bacteria to both establish and maintain these infections is directly related to biofilm formation on indwelling devices or within the urinary tract itself. This chapter will focus on the role of biofilm formation in urinary tract infections with an emphasis on Gram-negative bacteria. The clinical implications of biofilm formation will be presented along with potential strategies for prevention. In addition, the role of specific pathogen-encoded functions in biofilm development will be discussed.

In vivo expression technology (IVET) selection of genes of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae A34 expressed in the rhizosphere

IVET was used to identify genes that are specifically expressed in the rhizosphere of the pea-nodulating bacterium Rhizobium leguminosarum A34. A library of R. leguminosarum A34 cloned in the integration vector pIE1, with inserts upstream of a promoter-less purN:gfp:gusA, was conjugated into purN host RU2249 and recombined into the genome. After removal of colonies that expressed the reporter genes of the vector under laboratory conditions, the library was inoculated into a nonsterile pea rhizosphere. The key result is that 29 rhizosphere-induced loci were identified. Sequence analysis of these clones showed that a wide variety of R. leguminosarum A34 genes are expressed specifically in the rhizosphere including those encoding proteins involved in environmental sensing, control of gene expression, metabolic reactions and membrane transport. These genes are likely to be important for survival and colonization of the pea rhizosphere.

Increased fitness of Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1 leucine auxotrophs in soil

The annotation process of a newly sequenced bacterial genome is largely based on algorithms derived from databases of previously defined RNA and protein-encoding gene structures. This process generally excludes the possibility that the two strands of a given stretch of DNA can each harbor a gene in an overlapping manner. While the presence of such structures in eukaryotic genomes is considered to be relatively common, their counterparts in prokaryotic genomes are just beginning to be recognized. Application of an in vivo expression technology has previously identified 22 discrete genetic loci in Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1 that were specifically activated in the soil environment, of which 10 were present in an antisense orientation relative to previously annotated genes. This observation led to the hypothesis that the physiological role of overlapping genetic structures may be relevant to growth conditions outside artificial laboratory media. Here, we examined the role of one of the overlapping gene pairs, iiv19 and leuA2, in soil. Although iiv19 was previously demonstrated to be preferentially activated in the soil environment, its absence did not alter the ability of P. fluorescens to colonize or survive in soil. Surprisingly, the absence of the leuA2 gene conferred a fitness advantage in the soil environment when leucine was supplied exogenously. This effect was determined to be independent of the iiv19 gene, and further analyses revealed that amino acid antagonism was the underlying mechanism behind the observed fitness advantage of the bacterium in soil. Our findings provide a potential mechanism for the frequent occurrence of auxotrophic mutants of Pseudomonas spp. in the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients.

Biofilm formation-gene expression relay system in Escherichia coli: modulation of sigmaS-dependent gene expression by the CsgD regulatory protein via sigmaS protein stabilization

Bacteria can switch from a single-cell (planktonic) mode to a multicellular community (biofilm) mode via production of cell-cell aggregation and surface adhesion factors. In this report, we present evidence that the CsgD protein, a transcription regulator involved in biofilm formation in Escherichia coli, modulates the expression of the rpoS (sigma(S)) regulon. Protein pattern analysis of E. coli cells in stationary phase shows that CsgD affects the expression of several proteins encoded by sigma(S)-dependent genes. CsgD regulation of sigma(S)-dependent genes takes place at gene transcription level, does not bypass the need for rpoS, and is abolished in an rpoS-null mutant. Consistent with these results, we find that CsgD expression leads to an increase in sigma(S) intracellular concentration. Increase in sigma(S) cellular amount is mediated by CsgD-dependent transcription activation of iraP, encoding a factor involved in sigma(S) protein stabilization. Our results strongly suggest that the CsgD regulatory protein plays a major role as a relay between adhesion factors production and sigma(S)-dependent gene expression via sigma(S) protein stabilization. Direct coordination between biofilm formation and expression of the rpoS regulon could positively impact important biological processes, such as host colonization or response to environmental stresses.

The Genomic Sequence of Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf-5: Insights Into Biological Control

ABSTRACT The complete sequence of the 7.07 Mb genome of the biological control agent Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf-5 is now available, providing a new opportunity to advance knowledge of biological control through genomics. P. fluorescens Pf-5 is a rhizosphere bacterium that suppresses seedling emergence diseases and produces a spectrum of antibiotics toxic to plant-pathogenic fungi and oomycetes. In addition to six known secondary metabolites produced by Pf-5, three novel secondary metabolite biosynthesis gene clusters identified in the genome could also contribute to biological control. The genomic sequence provides numerous clues as to mechanisms used by the bacterium to survive in the spermosphere and rhizosphere. These features include broad catabolic and transport capabilities for utilizing seed and root exudates, an expanded collection of efflux systems for defense against environmental stress and microbial competition, and the presence of 45 outer membrane receptors that should allow for the uptake of iron from a wide array of siderophores produced by soil microorganisms. As expected for a bacterium with a large genome that lives in a rapidly changing environment, Pf-5 has an extensive collection of regulatory genes, only some of which have been characterized for their roles in regulation of secondary metabolite production or biological control. Consistent with its commensal lifestyle, Pf-5 appears to lack a number of virulence and pathogenicity factors found in plant pathogens.

Characterization of the SOS response of Pseudomonas fluorescens strain DC206 using whole-genome transcript analysis

DNA microarray technology was used to survey changes in gene expression in Pseudomonas fluorescens after mitomycin C treatment. As expected, genes associated with the SOS response were upregulated, such as those encoding the recombination protein RecA, DNA repair protein RecN, excinuclease ABC subunit A UvrA, and the LexA repressor protein. Interestingly, expression of 33 clustered bacteriophage-like genes was upregulated, suggesting that mitomycin C (MMC) may induce a prophage resident in the P. fluorescens genome. However, no phage particles were detected in P. fluorescens strain DC206 that had been treated with MMC using transmission electron microscopy. The same preparation failed to produce phage plaques on lawns of any of 10 different Pseudomonas strains tested, indicating that the 33 bacteriophage-like gene cluster represents a defective prophage.

Gene expression regulation by the Curli activator CsgD protein: modulation of cellulose biosynthesis and control of negative determinants for microbial adhesion

Curli fibers, encoded by the csgBAC genes, promote biofilm formation in Escherichia coli and other enterobacteria. Curli production is dependent on the CsgD transcription activator, which also promotes cellulose biosynthesis. In this study, we investigated the effects of CsgD expression from a weak constitutive promoter in the biofilm formation-deficient PHL565 strain of E. coli. We found that despite its function as a transcription activator, the CsgD protein is localized in the cytoplasmic membrane. Constitutive CsgD expression promotes biofilm formation by PHL565 and activates transcription from the csgBAC promoter; however, csgBAC expression remains dependent on temperature and the growth medium. Constitutive expression of the CsgD protein results in altered transcription patterns for at least 24 novel genes, in addition to the previously identified CsgD-dependent genes. The cspA and fecR genes, encoding regulatory proteins responding to cold shock and to iron, respectively, and yoaD, encoding a putative negative regulator of cellulose biosynthesis, were found to be some of the novel CsgD-regulated genes. Consistent with the predicted functional role, increased expression of the yoaD gene negatively affects cell aggregation, while yoaD inactivation results in stimulation of cell aggregation and leads to increased cellulose production. Inactivation of fecR results in significant increases in both cell aggregation and biofilm formation, while the effects of cspA are not as strong in the conditions tested. Our results indicate that CsgD can modulate cellulose biosynthesis through activation of the yoaD gene. In addition, the positive effect of CsgD on biofilm formation might be enhanced by repression of the fecR gene.

Importance of organosulfur utilization for survival of Pseudomonas putida in soil and rhizosphere

The sulfur present in both agricultural and uncultivated soils is largely in the form of sulfonates and sulfate esters and not as free, bioavailable inorganic sulfate. Desulfurization of the former compounds in vitro has previously been studied in Pseudomonas putida, a common rhizosphere inhabitant. Survival of P. putida strains was now investigated in three sulfur-deficient Danish soils which were found to contain 60 to 70% of their sulfur in sulfonate or sulfate ester form, as determined by X-ray near-edge spectroscopy. The soil fitness of P. putida S-313 was compared with that of isogenic strains with mutations in the sftR and asfA genes (required for in vitro desulfurization of sulfate esters and arylsulfonates, respectively) and in the ssu locus (required in vitro for the desulfurization of both sulfonates and sulfate esters). asfA or sftR mutants showed significantly reduced survival compared to the parent strain in bulk soil that had been enriched with carbon and nitrogen to mimic rhizosphere conditions, but this reduced survival was not observed in the absence of these additives. In a tomato rhizosphere grown in compost, survival of sftR and ssu mutants was reduced relative to the parent strain. The results demonstrate that the ability to desulfurize sulfonates and sulfate esters is critical for survival of bacteria in the rhizosphere but less so in bulk soils outside the influence of plant roots, where carbon is the limiting nutrient for growth.

Comparative adherence to human A549 cells, plant fibronectin-like protein, and polystyrene surfaces of fourPseudomonas fluorescensstrains from different ecological origin

The main objective of this study was to compare the adherence properties of four Pseudomonas fluorescens isolates from different ecological niches (human tissue, rhizosphere, drinking water, and cow milk). The substrates used to test P. fluorescens adherence were as follows: cultured human respiratory epithelial cells A549, immobilized plant fibronectin-like protein, and polystyrene. For all the experiments, bacteria were grown at 27 °C. The adherence assay to human cells was performed at 37 °C, whereas adherence to fibronectin and polystyrene was done at 27 °C. The four strains tested adhered to A549 cells but showed different adherence patterns. At 3 h, the milk isolate showed an aggregative adherence phenotype, whereas the three other isolates showed a diffuse adherence pattern. With a longer incubation time of 24 h, the aggregative pattern of the milk isolate disappeared, the adherence of the clinical strain increased, the adherence of the water isolate decreased, and morphological changes in A549 cells were observed with the clinical, water, and soil isolates. The four strains tested formed biofilms on polystyrene dishes. The clinical and milk isolates were the more efficient colonizers of polystyrene surfaces and also the more adherent to immobilized plant fibronectin-like protein. There was no relation between bacterial surface hydrophobicity and P. fluorescens adherence to the substrates tested. The main conclusions of these results are that P. fluorescens is an adherent bacterium, that no clear correlation exists between adherence and ecological habitat, and that P. fluorescens can adhere well to substrates not present in its natural environment.Key words: Pseudomonas fluorescens, adherence, biofilm, ecological niche, plant fibronectin-like protein, A549, polystyrene.

Analysis of Pseudomonas putida KT2440 gene expression in the maize rhizosphere: in vivo [corrected] expression technology capture and identification of root-activated promoters

Pseudomonas putida KT2440, a paradigm organism in biodegradation and a good competitive colonizer of the maize rhizosphere, was the subject of studies undertaken to establish the genetic determinants important for its rhizospheric lifestyle. By using in vivo expression technology (IVET) to positively select single cell survival, we identified 28 rap genes (root-activated promoters) preferentially expressed in the maize rhizosphere. The IVET system had two components: a mutant affected in aspartate-beta-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (asd), which was unable to survive in the rhizosphere, and plasmid pOR1, which carries a promoter-less asd gene. pOR1-borne transcriptional fusions of the rap promoters to the essential gene asd, which were integrated into the chromosome at the original position of the corresponding rap gene, were active and allowed growth of the asd strain in the rhizosphere. The fact that five of the rap genes identified in the course of this work had been formerly characterized as being related to root colonization reinforced the IVET approach. Up to nine rap genes encoded proteins either of unknown function or that had been assigned an unspecific role based on conservation of the protein family domains. Rhizosphere-induced fusions included genes with probable functions in the cell envelope, chemotaxis and motility, transport, secretion, DNA metabolism and defense mechanism, regulation, energy metabolism, stress, detoxification, and protein synthesis.

A three-component regulatory system regulates biofilm maturation and type III secretion in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Biofilms are structured communities found associated with a wide range of surfaces. Here we report the identification of a three-component regulatory system required for biofilm maturation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain PA14. A transposon mutation that altered biofilm formation in a 96-well dish assay originally defined this locus, which is comprised of genes for a putative sensor histidine kinase and two response regulators and has been designated sadARS. Nonpolar mutations in any of the sadARS genes result in biofilms with an altered mature structure but do not confer defects in growth or early biofilm formation, swimming, or twitching motility. After 2 days of growth under flowing conditions, biofilms formed by the mutants are indistinguishable from those formed by the wild-type (WT) strain. However, by 5 days, mutant biofilms appear to be more homogeneous than the WT in that they fail to form large and distinct macrocolonies and show a drastic reduction in water channels. We propose that the sadARS three-component system is required for later events in biofilm formation on an abiotic surface. Semiquantitative reverse transcription-PCR analysis showed that there is no detectable change in expression of the sadARS genes when cells are grown in a planktonic culture versus a biofilm, indicating that this locus is not itself induced during or in response to biofilm formation. DNA microarray studies were used to identify downstream targets of the SadARS system. Among the genes regulated by the SadARS system are those required for type III secretion. Mutations in type III secretion genes result in strains with enhanced biofilm formation. We propose a possible mechanism for the role that the SadARS system plays in biofilm formation.

Cell density-dependent gene contributes to efficient seed colonization by Pseudomonas putida KT2440

We have characterized the expression pattern of a gene, ddcA, involved in initial colonization of corn seeds by Pseudomonas putida KT2440. The ddcA gene codes for a putative membrane polypeptide belonging to a family of conserved proteins of unknown function. Members of this family are widespread among prokaryotes and include the products of a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium gene expressed during invasion of macrophages and psiE, an Escherichia coli phosphate starvation-inducible gene. Although its specific role is undetermined, the presence of ddcA in multicopy restored the seed adhesion capacity of a KT2440 ddcA mutant. Expression of ddcA is growth phase regulated, being maximal at the beginning of stationary phase. It is independent of RpoS, nutrient depletion, or phosphate starvation, and it is not the result of changes in the medium pH during growth. Expression of ddcA is directly dependent on cell density, being also stimulated by the addition of conditioned medium and of seed exudates. This is the first evidence suggesting the existence of a quorum-sensing system in P. putida KT2440. The potential implication of such a signaling process in seed adhesion and colonization by the bacterium is discussed.

Use of in vivo expression technology to identify genes important in growth and survival of Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1 in soil: discovery of expressed sequences with novel genetic organization

Studies were undertaken to determine the genetic needs for the survival of Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1, a gram-negative soil bacterium potentially important for biocontrol and bioremediation, in soil. In vivo expression technology (IVET) identified 22 genes with elevated expression in soil relative to laboratory media. Soil-induced sequences included genes with probable functions of nutrient acquisition and use, and of gene regulation. Ten sequences, lacking similarity to known genes, overlapped divergent known genes, revealing a novel genetic organization at those soil-induced loci. Mutations in three soil-induced genes led to impaired early growth in soil but had no impact on growth in laboratory media. Thus, IVET studies have identified sequences important for soil growth and have revealed a gene organization that was undetected by traditional laboratory approaches.

Plant-associated Pseudomonas populations: molecular biology, DNA dynamics, and gene transfer

Bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas are usual colonizers of plant leaves, roots, and seeds, establishing at relatively high cell densities on plant surfaces, where they aggregate and form microcolonies similar to those observed during biofilm development on abiotic surfaces. These plant-associated biofilms undergo chromosomal rearrangements and are hot spots for conjugative plasmid transfer, favored by the close proximity between cells and the constant supply of nutrients coming from the plant in the form of exudates or leachates. The molecular determinants known to be involved in bacterial colonization of the different plant surfaces, and the mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer in plant-associated Pseudomonas populations are summarized in this review.

Attachment of Listeria monocytogenes to radish tissue is dependent upon temperature and flagellar motility

Outbreaks of listeriosis and febrile gastroenteritis have been linked to produce contamination by Listeria monocytogenes. In order to begin to understand the physiology of the organism in a produce habitat, the ability of L. monocytogenes to attach to freshly cut radish tissue was examined. All strains tested had the capacity to attach sufficiently well such that they could not be removed during washing of the radish slices. A screen was developed to identify Tn917-LTV3 mutants that were defective in attachment to radish tissue, and three were characterized. Two of the three mutations were in genes with unknown functions. Both of the unknown genes mapped to a region predicted to contain genes necessary for flagellar export; however, only one of the two insertions caused a motility defect. The third insertion was found to be in an operon encoding a phosphoenolpyruvate-sugar phosphotransferase system. All three mutants were defective in attachment when tested at 30 degrees C; the motility mutant had the most severe phenotype. However, not all of the mutants were defective when tested at other temperatures. These results indicate that L. monocytogenes may use different attachment factors at different temperatures and that temperature should be considered an important variable in studies of the molecular mechanisms of Listeria fitness in complex environments.

Genetic analysis of the AdnA regulon in Pseudomonas fluorescens: nonessential role of flagella in adhesion to sand and biofilm formation

AdnA is a transcription factor in Pseudomonas fluorescens that affects flagellar synthesis, biofilm formation, and sand adhesion. To identify the AdnA regulon, we used a promoterless Tn5-lacZ element to study the phenotypes of insertion mutants in the presence and absence of AdnA. Of 12,000 insertions, we identified seven different putative open reading frames (ORFs) activated by AdnA (named aba for activated by AdnA). aba120 and aba177 showed homology to flgC and flgI, components of the basal body of the flagella in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Two other insertions, aba18 and aba51, disrupted genes affecting chemotaxis. The mutant loci aba160 (possibly affecting lipopolysaccharide synthesis) and aba175 (unknown function) led to loss of flagella. The mutant bearing aba203 became motile when complemented with adnA, but the mutated gene showed no similarity to known genes. Curiously, aba18, aba51, aba160, and aba203 mutants formed biofilms even in the absence of AdnA, suppressing the phenotype of the adnA deletion mutant. The combined findings suggest that flagella are nonessential for sand attachment or biofilm formation. Sequence and promoter analyses indicate that AdnA affects at least 23 ORFs either directly or by polar effects. These results support the concept that AdnA regulates cell processes other than those directly related to flagellar synthesis and define a broader cadre of genes in P. fluorescens than that described so far for its homolog, FleQ, in P. aeruginosa.

Horizontal and vertical movement of Pseudomonas fluorescens toward exudate of Macrophomina phaseolina in soil: influence of motility and soil properties

The role of motility and cell surface hydrophobicity in transport and dispersal of Pseudomonas fluorescens strains LAM1-hydrophilic, LAM2-hydrophobic and LAM(NM) (non-motile mutant of LAM2) under different soil conditions was studied. Maximum adhesion was recorded for LAM2 in clay loam (70%), followed by sandy loam (68%) and sandy soil (40%). Vertical migration of P fluorescens isolates in soils was recorded at 5 and 25 cm flow of wafer or M. phaseolina exudate. In all the treatments, LAM1 exhibited maximum migration followed, by LAM2 and LAM(NM). The rate of migration of such isolates was lowered in water irrigated soils compared to those irrigated with M. phaseolina exudate. In sandy soil, cells of LAM1 migrated up to 13 cm in comparison to LAM2 (11 cm) and LAN(NM) (9 cm) at 5 cm flow of fungal exudate. Population of LAM1, LAM2 and LAM(NM) was 5.7, 5.68 and 5.61 log cfu g(-1) soil at 1 cm depth, but it decreased to 2.56, 2.21 and 1.99 log cfu during migration up to 11 cm in sandy soil at 5 cm flow of fungal exudate. Greater motility was observed in sandy soil irrigated with water or fungal exudate, followed by sandy loam and clay loam. In general, filtration coefficient (lambda) of P. fluorescens was higher in soils irrigated with 5 cm of water or exudate than with 25 cm of irrigation. The horizontal movement of P. fluorescens strains in sandy soil adjusted at different psi m showed marked reduction with decrease in psi m. The non-motile LAN(NM) did not show chemotactic response and migrated up to a maximum of 3 mm in saturated soils (0 kPa). After 96 h, LAM1 and LAM2 migrated upto 35 and 29 mm respectively in sandy soil. Motile isolates had significantly greater colonization of M. phaseolina sclerotia over the non-motile mutant.

The global regulatory hns gene negatively affects adhesion to solid surfaces by anaerobically grown Escherichia coli by modulating expression of flagellar genes and lipopolysaccharide production

The initial binding of bacterial cells to a solid surface is a critical and essential step in biofilm formation. In this report we show that stationary-phase cultures of Escherichia coli W3100 (a K-12 strain) can efficiently attach to sand columns when they are grown in Luria broth medium at 28 degrees C in fully aerobic conditions. In contrast, growth in oxygen-limited conditions results in a sharp decrease in adhesion to hydrophilic substrates. We show that the production of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and of flagella, as well as the transcription of the fliC gene, encoding the major flagellar subunit, increases under oxygen-limited conditions. Inactivation of the global regulatory hns gene counteracts increased production of LPS and flagella in response to anoxia and allows E. coli W3100 to attach to sand columns even when it is grown under oxygen-limited conditions. We propose that increased production of the FliC protein and of LPS in response to oxygen limitation results in the loss of the ability of E. coli W3100 to adhere to hydrophilic surfaces. Indeed, overexpression of the fliC gene results in a decreased adhesion to sand even when W3100 is grown in fully aerobic conditions. Our observations strongly suggest that anoxia is a negative environmental signal for adhesion in E. coli.

Characterization of phenotypic changes in Pseudomonas putida in response to surface-associated growth

The formation of complex bacterial communities known as biofilms begins with the interaction of planktonic cells with a surface. A switch between planktonic and sessile growth is believed to result in a phenotypic change in bacteria. In this study, a global analysis of physiological changes of the plant saprophyte Pseudomonas putida following 6 h of attachment to a silicone surface was carried out by analysis of protein profiles and by mRNA expression patterns. Two-dimensional (2-D) gel electrophoresis revealed 15 proteins that were up-regulated following bacterial adhesion and 30 proteins that were down-regulated. N-terminal sequence analyses of 11 of the down-regulated proteins identified a protein with homology to the ABC transporter, PotF; an outer membrane lipoprotein, NlpD; and five proteins that were homologous to proteins involved in amino acid metabolism. cDNA subtractive hybridization revealed 40 genes that were differentially expressed following initial attachment of P. putida. Twenty-eight of these genes had known homologs. As with the 2-D gel analysis, NlpD and genes involved in amino acid metabolism were identified by subtractive hybridization and found to be down-regulated following surface-associated growth. The gene for PotB was up-regulated, suggesting differential expression of ABC transporters following attachment to this surface. Other genes that showed differential regulation were structural components of flagella and type IV pili, as well as genes involved in polysaccharide biosynthesis. Immunoblot analysis of PilA and FliC confirmed the presence of flagella in planktonic cultures but not in 12- or 24-h biofilms. In contrast, PilA was observed in 12-h biofilms but not in planktonic culture. Recent evidence suggests that quorum sensing by bacterial homoserine lactones (HSLs) may play a regulatory role in biofilm development. To determine if similar protein profiles occurred during quorum sensing and during early biofilm formation, HSLs extracted from P. putida and pure C(12)-HSL were added to 6-h planktonic cultures of P. putida, and cell extracts were analyzed by 2-D gel profiles. Differential expression of 16 proteins was observed following addition of HSLs. One protein, PotF, was found to be down-regulated by both surface-associated growth and by HSL addition. The other 15 proteins did not correspond to proteins differentially expressed by surface-associated growth. The results presented here demonstrate that P. putida undergoes a global change in gene expression following initial attachment to a surface. Quorum sensing may play a role in the initial attachment process, but other sensory processes must also be involved in these phenotypic changes.

Pseudomonas fluorescens as a potential pathogen: adherence to nerve cells

In order to determine the infectious potential of the psychrotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens, a species closely related to the opportunistic pathogen P. aeruginosa, we investigated the binding activity of this bacterium on primary cultures of rat neonate cortical neurons and glial cells, adrenal paraneurons and NG108-15 neuroblastoma cells. Incubated at concentrations of 10(6) and 10(8) CFU/mL, P. fluorescens MF37 exhibited a high binding activity on neurons in the same range as that of P. aeruginosa PAO1. A significant, but lower, adherence of P. fluorescens was also detected on glial cells and adrenal paraneurons. In contrast, when P. fluorescens MF37 or P. aeruginosa PAO1 were incubated with neuroblastoma cells, no binding was observed. In neurons, the association of P. fluorescens with the plasma membrane occurred both on neurites and cell body. Leakage of the cytoplasmic content was frequently noted. Studies performed using the fluorescent probe Hoechst 33258 revealed that in 10% of neurons, P. fluorescens induced the appearance of densely stained clusters of DNA that was typical of an early step of apoptosis. In glial cells exposed to P. fluorescens, marked changes in the morphology of the nucleus, including fragmentation into lobular structures and aggregation of DNA, were also reminiscent of the existence of a possible apoptotic mechanism. Taken together, these results reveal that P. fluorescens can bind to nerve cells and affect their physiology and, in agreement with recent clinical observations, suggest that P. fluorescens could behave as a pathogen.

The role of motility in the in vitro attachment of Pseudomonas putida PaW8 to wheat roots

The attachment of motile and non-motile strains of Pseudomonas putida PaW8 to sterile wheat roots was assessed in both non-competitive and intra-specific competitive assays. The motile strain showed significantly greater attachment to wheat roots than non-motile strains in phosphate buffer. Overall, the motile strain attached better than the non-motile strain at 10(6), 10(7) and 10(8) cfu ml(-1) in competitive assays and at 10(6) and 10(7) cfu ml(-1) in non-competitive assays. When attachment was studied in Luria broth no significant difference between motile and non-motile strains was detected. P. putida PaW8 cells marked with the luxAB genes were used to compare direct detection of attached cells by luminometry with indirect detection by dilution plate counts following extraction from root material. Although direct detection permitted a rapid assessment (60 s) of attachment to surfaces, dilution plate counts provided a more sensitive method for quantification of bacteria. The detection limits were approximately 10 cfu root(-1) using dilution plate counts compared with 1000 cfu root(-1) using luminometry. All results highlighted the importance of motility for the attachment of P. putida to plant roots in simple model systems. To take this work further, studies to assess the role of motility using complex non-sterile systems are needed.

The adnA transcriptional factor affects persistence and spread of Pseudomonas fluorescens under natural field conditions

A soil plot was inoculated with a mixture of Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-2, the wild type, and Pf0-5a, a Tn5 insertion mutant in adnA, at 7.84 log CFU/g of soil. Over a period of 231 days, culturable populations of both strains were measured at selected times below and away from the point of inoculation. Pf0-5a did not spread as fast and attained significantly lower populations than Pf0-2. At sample depths below the inoculation site, the adnA mutant showed a significant decrease in CFU/g of soil as compared to Pf0-2. Pf0-2 was first detected at the 1.5-cm annular site at 3 days after inoculation, whereas Pf0-5a required 7 days to travel the same distance. At this distance, the wild-type strain could be detected at a 21.5- to 25-cm depth, whereas Pf0-5a could be detected only as deep as 15.5 to 18 cm. At 4.5 cm from the site of inoculation and in soil fractions corresponding to 13 to 18 cm, Pf0-2 was the only strain detected. These results suggest that the transcription factor AdnA provides a fitness advantage in P. fluorescens, allowing it to spread and survive in soil under field conditions.

The Pseudomonas fluorescens transcription activator AdnA is required for adhesion and motility

The locations of two mutations that prevent adhesion of Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf0-1 to sand columns and seeds (adn, adhesion) were identified. Both lie in a single gene showing homology to the NtrC/NifA family of transcription activators. The predicted 55 kDa protein encoded by adnA is most closely related to activators involved in expression of flagellar proteins, consistent with the lack of flagella in adnA strains. Constitutive adnA expression restored motility and adhesion to an adnA strain, demonstrating that the observed phenotypes are due to lack of AdnA and not a consequence of other mutations or polar effects of mutations in adnA on other genes.

Developmental pathway for biofilm formation in curli-producing Escherichia coli strains: role of flagella, curli and colanic acid

This work was performed to establish a model describing bacterial surface structures involved in biofilm development, in curli-overproducing Escherichia coli K-12 strains, at 30 degrees C, and in minimal growth medium. Using a genetic approach, in association with observations of sessile communities by light and electron microscopic techniques, the role of protein surface structures, such as flagella and curli, and saccharidic surface components, such as the E. coli exopolysaccharide, colanic acid, was determined. We show that, in the context of adherent ompR234 strains, (i) flagellar motility is not required for initial adhesion and biofilm development; (ii) both primary adhesion to inert surfaces and development of multilayered cell clusters require curli synthesis; (iii) curli display direct interactions with the substratum and form interbacterial bundles, allowing a cohesive and stable association of cells; and (iv) colanic acid does not appear critical for bacterial adhesion and further biofilm development but contributes to the biofilm architecture and allows for the formation of voluminous biofilms.

Genetic analysis of functions involved in adhesion of Pseudomonas putida to seeds

Many agricultural uses of bacteria require the establishment of efficient bacterial populations in the rhizosphere, for which colonization of plant seeds often constitutes a critical first step. Pseudomonas putida KT2440 is a strain that colonizes the rhizosphere of a number of agronomically important plants at high population densities. To identify the functions involved in initial seed colonization by P. putida KT2440, we subjected this strain to transposon mutagenesis and screened for mutants defective in attachment to corn seeds. Eight different mutants were isolated and characterized. While all of them showed reduced attachment to seeds, only two had strong defects in their adhesion to abiotic surfaces (glass and different plastics). Sequences of the loci affected in all eight mutants were obtained. None of the isolated genes had previously been described in P. putida, although four of them showed clear similarities with genes of known functions in other organisms. They corresponded to putative surface and membrane proteins, including a calcium-binding protein, a hemolysin, a peptide transporter, and a potential multidrug efflux pump. One other showed limited similarities with surface proteins, while the remaining three presented no obvious similarities with known genes, indicating that this study has disclosed novel functions.

Influence of growth and environmental conditions on cell surface hydrophobicity ofPseudomonas fluorescensin non-specific adhesion

The relative cell surface hydrophobicity (CSH) of 18 soil isolates of Pseudomonas fluorescens, determined by phase exclusion, hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC), electrostatic interaction chromatography (ESIC), and contact angle, revealed large degrees of variability. Variation in the adhesion efficiency to Macrophomina phaseolina of the hyphae/sclerotia of these isolates was also examined. Two such isolates with maximum (32.8%; isolate 12-94) and minimum (12%; isolate 30-94) CSH were selected for further study. Early- to mid-log exponential cells of these isolates were more hydrophobic than those in stationary phase, and the CSH of these isolates was also influenced by fluctuations in temperatures and pH. Isolate 12-94 exhibited high CSH (32.3%) at 30°C, compared to lower values (28-24%) in the higher temperature range (35-40°C). Increasing concentrations of either Zn2+, Fe3+, K+, and Mg2+in the growth medium were associated with the increased CSH. Trypsin, pepsin, and proteinase K (75 to 150 μg·mL-1) reduced the CSH of isolate 12-94 cells. CSH was reduced, following exposure to DTT, SDS, Triton X-100, or Tween 80. Prolonged exposure of cells to starvation (60 days) also caused a significant decline in CSH. Several protein bands (18, 21, 23, 26 kDa) of the outer cell membrane were absent in 60-day starved cells compared to unstarved cells. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that CSH of P. fluorescens isolates may contribute to non-specific attachment/adhesion onto M. phaseolina hyphae/sclerotia, and the efficiency of adhesion is regulated by growth and other environmental conditions. Key words: adhesion, hydrophobicity, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Macrophomina phaseolina

Cell envelope mutants of Pseudomonas putida: physiological characterization and analysis of their ability to survive in soil

To generate mutants with altered lipopolysaccharides (LPS) of the wild-type Pseudomonas putida KT2442, we used the mini-Tn5luxAB-Km transposon. A mutant was found among luminescent colonies and selected as a negative clone in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with monoclonal antibody (mAb) 7.3B, which recognizes the O-antigen of P. putida LPS. The DNA region of the LPS mutant interrupted by the minitransposon insertion was cloned and sequenced. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence with protein sequence databases showed similarity to the O-antigen polymerase (Wzy) of Salmonella enterica (muenchen). The wild-type gene was rescued by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), cloned into a broad-host-range plasmid and used to carry out complementation assays. The cloned gene was able to restore the wild-type phenotype of the P. putida wzy mutant. We constructed an isogenic mutant of the luminescent wzy mutant to which an oprL mutation was transferred by homologous recombination with an oprL::xylE cassette. The wzy mutants of P. putida were more sensitive to SDS, deoxycholate and EDTA than the corresponding parental strains. We analysed the ability of wzy, oprL and wzy oprL mutants of P. putida to colonize soil. In comparison with the wild-type strain, the ability of single mutants to colonize soil decreased; this characteristic was more evident for the double mutant, especially at high temperatures.

Genetics of O-antigen biosynthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pathogenic bacteria produce an elaborate assortment of extracellular and cell-associated bacterial products that enable colonization and establishment of infection within a host. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules are cell surface factors that are typically known for their protective role against serum-mediated lysis and their endotoxic properties. The most heterogeneous portion of LPS is the O antigen or O polysaccharide, and it is this region which confers serum resistance to the organism. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is capable of concomitantly synthesizing two types of LPS referred to as A band and B band. The A-band LPS contains a conserved O polysaccharide region composed of D-rhamnose (homopolymer), while the B-band O-antigen (heteropolymer) structure varies among the 20 O serotypes of P. aeruginosa. The genes coding for the enzymes that direct the synthesis of these two O antigens are organized into two separate clusters situated at different chromosomal locations. In this review, we summarize the organization of these two gene clusters to discuss how A-band and B-band O antigens are synthesized and assembled by dedicated enzymes. Examples of unique proteins required for both A-band and B-band O-antigen synthesis and for the synthesis of both LPS and alginate are discussed. The recent identification of additional genes within the P. aeruginosa genome that are homologous to those in the A-band and B-band gene clusters are intriguing since some are able to influence O-antigen synthesis. These studies demonstrate that P. aeruginosa represents a unique model system, allowing studies of heteropolymeric and homopolymeric O-antigen synthesis, as well as permitting an examination of the interrelationship of the synthesis of LPS molecules and other virulence determinants.

Alterations in adhesion, transport, and membrane characteristics in an adhesion-deficient pseudomonad

A stable adhesion-deficient mutant of Burkholderia cepacia G4, a soil pseudomonad, was selected in a sand column assay. This mutant (ENV435) was compared to the wild-type strain by examining the adhesion of the organisms to silica sand and their transport through two aquifer sediments that differed in their sand, silt, and clay contents. We compared the longitudinal transport of the wild type and the adhesion mutant to the transport of a conservative chloride tracer in 25-cm-long glass columns. The transport of the wild-type strain was severely retarded compared to the transport of the conservative tracer in a variety of aquifer sediments, while the adhesion mutant and the conservative tracer traveled at similar rates. An intact sediment core study produced similar results; ENV435 was transported at a faster rate and in much greater numbers than G4. The results of hydrophobic interaction chromatography revealed that G4 was significantly more hydrophobic than ENV435, and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed significant differences in the lipopolysaccharide O-antigens of the adhesion mutant and the wild type. Differences in this cell surface polymer may explain the decreased adhesion of strain ENV435.

Genetic analysis of Escherichia coli biofilm formation: roles of flagella, motility, chemotaxis and type I pili

We have used Escherichia coli as a model system to investigate the initiation of biofilm formation. Here, we demonstrate that E. coli forms biofilms on multiple abiotic surfaces in a nutrient-dependent fashion. In addition, we have isolated insertion mutations that render this organism defective in biofilm formation. One-half of these mutations was found to perturb normal flagellar function. Using defined fli, flh, mot and che alleles, we show that motility, but not chemotaxis, is critical for normal biofilm formation. Microscopic analyses of these mutants suggest that motility is important for both initial interaction with the surface and for movement along the surface. In addition, we present evidence that type I pili (harbouring the mannose-specific adhesin, FimH) are required for initial surface attachment and that mannose inhibits normal attachment. In light of the observations presented here, a working model is discussed that describes the roles of both motility and type I pili in biofilm development.

Initiation of biofilm formation in Pseudomonas fluorescens WCS365 proceeds via multiple, convergent signalling pathways: a genetic analysis

Populations of surface-attached microorganisms comprising either single or multiple species are commonly referred to as biofilms. Using a simple assay for the initiation of biofilm formation (e.g. attachment to an abiotic surface) by Pseudomonas fluorescens strain WCS365, we have shown that: (i) P. fluorescens can form biofilms on an abiotic surface when grown on a range of nutrients; (ii) protein synthesis is required for the early events of biofilm formation; (iii) one (or more) extracytoplasmic protein plays a role in interactions with an abiotic surface; (iv) the osmolarity of the medium affects the ability of the cell to form biofilms. We have isolated transposon mutants defective for the initiation of biofilm formation, which we term surface attachment defective (sad). Molecular analysis of the sad mutants revealed that the ClpP protein (a component of the cytoplasmic Clp protease) participates in biofilm formation in this organism. Our genetic analyses suggest that biofilm formation can proceed via multiple, convergent signalling pathways, which are regulated by various environmental signals. Finally, of the 24 sad mutants analysed in this study, only three had defects in genes of known function. This result suggests that our screen is uncovering novel aspects of bacterial physiology.