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Rangel DEN. How Metarhizium robertsii's mycelial consciousness gets its conidia Zen-ready for stress. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2024; 129:1-33. [PMID: 39389703 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aambs.2024.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/12/2024]
Abstract
This memoir takes a whimsical ride through my professional adventures, spotlighting my fungal stress research on the insect-pathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii, which transformed many of my wildest dreams into reality. Imagine the magic of fungi meeting science and me, a happy researcher, arriving at Utah State University ready to dive deep into studies with the legendary insect pathologist, my advisor Donald W. Roberts, and my co-advisor Anne J. Anderson. From my very first "Aha!" moment in the lab, I plunged into a vortex of discovery, turning out research like a mycelium on a mission. Who knew 18 h/day, seven days a week, could be so exhilarating? I was fueled by an insatiable curiosity, boundless creativity, and a perhaps slightly alarming level of motivation. Years later, I managed to bring my grandest vision to life: the International Symposium on Fungal Stress-ISFUS. This groundbreaking event has attracted 162 esteemed speakers from 29 countries to Brazil, proving that fungi can be both fun and globally fascinating. ISFUS is celebrating its fifth edition in 2024, a decade after its 2014 debut.
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Rivera-Morán MA, Sampedro JG. Isolation of the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca 2+-ATPase from Rabbit Fast-Twitch Muscle. Methods Protoc 2023; 6:102. [PMID: 37888034 PMCID: PMC10608927 DOI: 10.3390/mps6050102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The sarcoendoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) is a membrane protein that is destabilized during purification in the absence of calcium ions. The disaccharide trehalose is a protein stabilizer that accumulates in the yeast cytoplasm when under stress. In the present work, SERCA was purified by including trehalose in the purification protocol. The purified SERCA showed high protein purity (~95%) and ATPase activity. ATP hydrolysis was dependent on the presence of Ca2+ and the enzyme kinetics showed a hyperbolic dependence on ATP (Km = 12.16 ± 2.25 μM ATP). FITC labeling showed the integrity of the ATP-binding site and the identity of the isolated enzyme as a P-type ATPase. Circular dichroism (CD) spectral changes at a wavelength of 225 nm were observed upon titration with ATP, indicating α-helical rearrangements in the nucleotide-binding domain (N-domain), which correlated with ATP affinity (Km). The presence of Ca2+ did not affect FITC labeling or the ATP-mediated structural changes at the N-domain. The use of trehalose in the SERCA purification protocol stabilized the enzyme. The isolated SERCA appears to be suitable for structural and ligand binding studies, e.g., for testing newly designed or natural inhibitors. The use of trehalose is recommended for the isolation of unstable enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - José G. Sampedro
- Instituto de Física, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Avenida Chapultepec 1570, Privadas del Pedregal, San Luis Potosí 78295, Mexico
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3
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Larcombe DE, Bohovych IM, Pradhan A, Ma Q, Hickey E, Leaves I, Cameron G, Avelar GM, de Assis LJ, Childers DS, Bain JM, Lagree K, Mitchell AP, Netea MG, Erwig LP, Gow NAR, Brown AJP. Glucose-enhanced oxidative stress resistance-A protective anticipatory response that enhances the fitness of Candida albicans during systemic infection. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011505. [PMID: 37428810 PMCID: PMC10358912 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Most microbes have developed responses that protect them against stresses relevant to their niches. Some that inhabit reasonably predictable environments have evolved anticipatory responses that protect against impending stresses that are likely to be encountered in their niches-termed "adaptive prediction". Unlike yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces lactis and Yarrowia lipolytica and other pathogenic Candida species we examined, the major fungal pathogen of humans, Candida albicans, activates an oxidative stress response following exposure to physiological glucose levels before an oxidative stress is even encountered. Why? Using competition assays with isogenic barcoded strains, we show that "glucose-enhanced oxidative stress resistance" phenotype enhances the fitness of C. albicans during neutrophil attack and during systemic infection in mice. This anticipatory response is dependent on glucose signalling rather than glucose metabolism. Our analysis of C. albicans signalling mutants reveals that the phenotype is not dependent on the sugar receptor repressor pathway, but is modulated by the glucose repression pathway and down-regulated by the cyclic AMP-protein kinase A pathway. Changes in catalase or glutathione levels do not correlate with the phenotype, but resistance to hydrogen peroxide is dependent on glucose-enhanced trehalose accumulation. The data suggest that the evolution of this anticipatory response has involved the recruitment of conserved signalling pathways and downstream cellular responses, and that this phenotype protects C. albicans from innate immune killing, thereby promoting the fitness of C. albicans in host niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E. Larcombe
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, School of Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Iryna M. Bohovych
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Arnab Pradhan
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, School of Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Qinxi Ma
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, School of Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Emer Hickey
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, School of Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Leaves
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, School of Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Gary Cameron
- Rowett Institute, School of Medicine Medical Sciences & Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Gabriela M. Avelar
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Leandro J. de Assis
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, School of Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Delma S. Childers
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Judith M. Bain
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine Lagree
- Department of Microbiology, Biosciences Building, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Aaron P. Mitchell
- Department of Microbiology, Biosciences Building, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Mihai G. Netea
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Department for Immunology & Metabolism, Life and Medical Sciences Institute, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Lars P. Erwig
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Johnson-Johnson Innovation, EMEA Innovation Centre, One Chapel Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Neil A. R. Gow
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, School of Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair J. P. Brown
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, School of Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, Exeter, United Kingdom
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Bell PJL, Paras FE, Mandarakas S, Arcenal P, Robinson-Cast S, Grobler AS, Attfield PV. An Electro-Microbial Process to Uncouple Food Production from Photosynthesis for Application in Space Exploration. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:life12071002. [PMID: 35888090 PMCID: PMC9317029 DOI: 10.3390/life12071002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Here we propose the concept of an electro–microbial route to uncouple food production from photosynthesis, thereby enabling production of nutritious food in space without the need to grow plant-based crops. In the proposed process, carbon dioxide is fixed into ethanol using either chemical catalysis or microbial carbon fixation, and the ethanol created is used as a carbon source for yeast to synthesize food for human or animal consumption. The process depends upon technologies that can utilize electrical energy to fix carbon into ethanol and uses an optimized strain of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to produce high-quality, food-grade, single-cell protein using ethanol as the sole carbon source in a minimal medium. Crops performing photosynthesis require months to mature and are challenging to grow under the conditions found in space, whereas the electro–microbial process could generate significant quantities of food on demand with potentially high yields and productivities. In this paper we explore the potential to provide yeast-based protein and other nutrients relevant to human dietary needs using only ethanol, urea, phosphate, and inorganic salts as inputs. It should be noted that as well as having potential to provide nutrition in space, this novel approach to food production has many valuable terrestrial applications too. For example, by enabling food production in climatically challenged environments, the electro–microbial process could potentially turn deserts into food bowls. Similarly, surplus electricity generated from large-scale renewable power sources could be used to supplement the human food chain.
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Wu C, Jeong MY, Kim JY, Lee G, Kim JS, Cheong YE, Kang H, Cho CH, Kim J, Park MK, Shin YK, Kim KH, Seol GH, Koo SH, Ko G, Lee SJ. Activation of ectopic olfactory receptor 544 induces GLP-1 secretion and regulates gut inflammation. Gut Microbes 2022; 13:1987782. [PMID: 34674602 PMCID: PMC8632334 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2021.1987782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Olfactory receptors are ectopically expressed in extra-nasal tissues. The gut is constantly exposed to high levels of odorants where ectopic olfactory receptors may play critical roles. Activation of ectopic olfactory receptor 544 (Olfr544) by azelaic acid (AzA), an Olfr544 ligand, reduces adiposity in mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) by regulating fuel preference to fats. Herein, we investigated the novel function of Olfr544 in the gut. In GLUTag cells, AzA induces the cAMP-PKA-CREB signaling axis and increases the secretion of GLP-1, an enteroendocrine hormone with anti-obesity effects. In mice fed a HFD and orally administered AzA, GLP-1 plasma levels were elevated in mice. The induction of GLP-1 secretion was negated in cells with Olfr544 gene knockdown and in Olfr544-deficient mice. Gut microbiome analysis revealed that AzA increased the levels of Bacteroides acidifaciens and microbiota associated with antioxidant pathways. In fecal metabolomics analysis, the levels of succinate and trehalose, metabolites correlated with a lean phenotype, were elevated by AzA. The function of Olfr544 in gut inflammation, a key feature in obesity, was further investigated. In RNA sequencing analysis, AzA suppressed LPS-induced activation of inflammatory pathways and reduced TNF-α and IL-6 expression, thereby improving intestinal permeability. The effects of AzA on the gut metabolome, microbiome, and colon inflammation were abrogated in Olfr544-KO mice. These results collectively demonstrated that activation of Olfr544 by AzA in the gut exerts multiple effects by regulating GLP-1 secretion, gut microbiome and metabolites, and colonic inflammation in anti-obesogenic phenotypes and, thus, may be applied for obesity therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Wu
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Young Jeong
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Yeon Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Giljae Lee
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Center for Human and Environmental Microbiome, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Sun Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu Eun Cheong
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyena Kang
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Center for Human and Environmental Microbiome, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chung Hwan Cho
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Center for Human and Environmental Microbiome, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jimin Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Kyung Park
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - You Kyoung Shin
- Department of Basic Nursing Science, School of Nursing, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung Heon Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Geun Hee Seol
- Department of Basic Nursing Science, School of Nursing, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Hoi Koo
- Division of Biological Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - GwangPyo Ko
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Center for Human and Environmental Microbiome, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Joon Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,Department of Food Bioscience and Technology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea,CONTACT Sung-Joon Lee Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology for BK21 Plus, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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6
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Ribert P, Dupont S, Roudaut G, Beney L. Effect of devitrification on the survival and resistance of dried Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:6409-6418. [PMID: 34423411 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11451-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Yeasts are anhydrobiotes that accumulate large amounts of trehalose, which is involved in the vitrification of the cytoplasm during drastic desiccation. The effect of devitrification, which can be induced by the transient exposure of desiccated yeasts to increased humidity or elevated temperature, on the survival of yeast has been studied. A glass transition temperature (Tg)/water activity (aw) diagram of yeast was constructed based on differential scanning calorimetry analysis. The survival rate of yeasts that were equilibrated at different relative humidities (RHs) and temperature values over their Tg range was measured. The results revealed a long period of cell preservation at an intermediate RH (55%), with 100% survival observed after 3 months, a loss of 1.24 log colony-forming units/g recorded after 1 year at 25 °C and full preservation of viability at 75 °C for 60 min and at 100 °C and 12% RH for up to 10 min. These findings led us to conclude that dried yeast can resist low or intermediate RH values and elevated temperatures in the devitrified state. Considering the thermal and humidity fluctuations occurring in the yeast environments, we hypothesized that the supercooled state, which occurs immediately above the Tg after rehydration or heating, is a protective state that is involved in the persistence of yeasts at intermediate humidity levels. KEY POINTS: • Yeast survival for months in a supercooled state is observed at room temperature. • Dried yeasts survive a 10-min exposure to 100 °C in the supercooled state. • The supercooled state is suitable for yeast preservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Ribert
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, AgroSup Dijon, PAM UMR A 02.102, F-21000, Dijon, France.,Phileo by Lesaffre, Marcq en Baroeul, France
| | - Sébastien Dupont
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, AgroSup Dijon, PAM UMR A 02.102, F-21000, Dijon, France
| | - Gaëlle Roudaut
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, AgroSup Dijon, PAM UMR A 02.102, F-21000, Dijon, France
| | - Laurent Beney
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, AgroSup Dijon, PAM UMR A 02.102, F-21000, Dijon, France.
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7
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Assoni G, Frapporti G, Colombo E, Gornati D, Perez-Carrion MD, Polito L, Seneci P, Piccoli G, Arosio D. Trehalose-based neuroprotective autophagy inducers. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2021; 40:127929. [PMID: 33705903 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2021.127929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A small set of trehalose-centered putative autophagy inducers was rationally designed and synthesized, with the aim to identify more potent and bioavailable autophagy inducers than free trehalose, and to acquire information about their molecular mechanism of action. Several robust, high yield routes to key trehalose intermediates and small molecule prodrugs (2-5), putative probes (6-10) and inorganic nanovectors (12a - thiol-PEG-triazole-trehalose constructs 11) were successfully executed, and compounds were tested for their autophagy-inducing properties. While small molecules 2-11 showed no pro-autophagic behavior at sub-millimolar concentrations, trehalose-bearing PEG-AuNPs 12a caused measurable autophagy induction at an estimated 40 μM trehalose concentration without any significant toxicity at the same concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Assoni
- Department of Cellular, Computational And Integrative Biology, (CIBIO), Via Sommarive 9, I-38123 Povo, TN, Italy
| | - Giulia Frapporti
- Department of Cellular, Computational And Integrative Biology, (CIBIO), Via Sommarive 9, I-38123 Povo, TN, Italy
| | - Eleonora Colombo
- Chemistry Department, Università Statale di Milano, Via Golgi 19, I-20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Gornati
- Chemistry Department, Università Statale di Milano, Via Golgi 19, I-20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Dolores Perez-Carrion
- Unidad Asociada Neurodeath, Departamento de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - Laura Polito
- Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche (SCITEC) "Giulio Natta", Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via C. Golgi 19, I-20133 Milan, Italy and Via G. Fantoli 16/15, I-20138 Milan, Italy
| | - Pierfausto Seneci
- Chemistry Department, Università Statale di Milano, Via Golgi 19, I-20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Giovanni Piccoli
- Department of Cellular, Computational And Integrative Biology, (CIBIO), Via Sommarive 9, I-38123 Povo, TN, Italy.
| | - Daniela Arosio
- Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche (SCITEC) "Giulio Natta", Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via C. Golgi 19, I-20133 Milan, Italy and Via G. Fantoli 16/15, I-20138 Milan, Italy.
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Industrially Applicable De Novo Lager Yeast Hybrids with a Unique Genomic Architecture: Creation and Characterization. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:AEM.02434-20. [PMID: 33188002 PMCID: PMC7848916 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02434-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
All lager beer is produced using two related lager yeast types: group I and group II, which are highly similar, resulting in a lack of strain diversity for lager beer production. To date, approaches for generating new lager yeasts have generated strains possessing undesirable brewing characteristics which render them commercially inviable. Lager beer is produced by Saccharomyces pastorianus, which is a natural allopolyploid hybrid between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces eubayanus. Lager strains are classified into two major groups based largely on genomic composition: group I and group II. Group I strains are allotriploid, whereas group II strains are allotetraploid. A lack of phenotypic diversity in commercial lager strains has led to substantial interest in the reconstitution of de novo allotetraploid lager strains by hybridization of S. cerevisiae and S. eubayanus strains. Such strategies rely on the hybridization of wild S. eubayanus isolates, which carry unacceptable traits for commercial lager beer such as phenolic off flavors and incomplete utilization of carbohydrates. Using an alternative breeding strategy, we have created de novo lager hybrids containing the domesticated S. eubayanus subgenome from an industrial S. pastorianus strain by hybridizing diploid meiotic segregants of this strain to a variety of S. cerevisiae ale strains. Five de novo hybrids were isolated which had fermentation characteristics similar to those of prototypical commercial lager strains but with unique phenotypic variation due to the contributions of the S. cerevisiae parents. Genomic analysis of these de novo lager hybrids identified novel allotetraploid genomes carrying three copies of the S. cerevisiae genome and one copy of the S. eubayanus genome. Most importantly, these hybrids do not possess the negative traits which result from breeding wild S. eubayanus. The de novo lager strains produced using industrial S. pastorianus in this study are immediately suitable for industrial lager beer production. IMPORTANCE All lager beer is produced using two related lager yeast types: group I and group II, which are highly similar, resulting in a lack of strain diversity for lager beer production. To date, approaches for generating new lager yeasts have generated strains possessing undesirable brewing characteristics which render them commercially inviable. We have used an alternative approach that circumvents this issue and created new lager strains that are directly suitable for lager beer production. These novel lager strains also possess a unique genomic architecture, which may lead to a better understanding of industrial yeast hybrids. We propose that strains created using our approach be classified as a third group of lager strains (group III). We anticipate that these novel lager strains will be of great industrial relevance and that this technique will be applicable to the creation of additional novel lager strains that will help broaden the diversity in commercial lager beer strains.
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Colombo E, Biocotino M, Frapporti G, Randazzo P, Christodoulou MS, Piccoli G, Polito L, Seneci P, Passarella D. Nanolipid-Trehalose Conjugates and Nano-Assemblies as Putative Autophagy Inducers. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:E422. [PMID: 31434235 PMCID: PMC6723367 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11080422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The disaccharide trehalose is an autophagy inducer, but its pharmacological application is severely limited by its poor pharmacokinetics properties. Thus, trehalose was coupled via suitable spacers with squalene (in 1:2 and 1:1 stoichiometry) and with betulinic acid (1:2 stoichiometry), in order to yield the corresponding nanolipid-trehalose conjugates 1-Sq-mono, 2-Sq-bis and 3-Be-mono. The conjugates were assembled to produce the corresponding nano-assemblies (NAs) Sq-NA1, Sq-NA2 and Be-NA3. The synthetic and assembly protocols are described in detail. The resulting NAs were characterized in terms of loading and structure, and tested in vitro for their capability to induce autophagy. Our results are presented and thoroughly commented upon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Colombo
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Golgi 19, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Michele Biocotino
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Golgi 19, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Giulia Frapporti
- CIBIO, Università di Trento, Via Sommarive 9, 38123 Povo (TN), Italy
| | - Pietro Randazzo
- Promidis Srl, San Raffaele Scientific Research Park, Torre San Michele 1, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Michael S Christodoulou
- DISFARM, Sezione di Chimica Generale e Organica "A. Marchesini", Universitdegli Studi di Milano, via Venezian 21, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Giovanni Piccoli
- CIBIO, Università di Trento, Via Sommarive 9, 38123 Povo (TN), Italy
| | | | - Pierfausto Seneci
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Golgi 19, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Daniele Passarella
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Golgi 19, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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Zhai Q, Xiao Y, Narbad A, Chen W. Comparative metabolomic analysis reveals global cadmium stress response of Lactobacillus plantarum strains. Metallomics 2019; 10:1065-1077. [PMID: 29998247 DOI: 10.1039/c8mt00095f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Our previous work demonstrated the protective effects of Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) strains against cadmium (Cd) toxicity in vivo, and also indicated that the Cd tolerance of the strains played an important role in this protection. The goal of this study was to investigate the Cd resistance mechanism of L. plantarum by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) based metabolomic analysis, with a focus on the global Cd stress response. L. plantarum CCFM8610 (strongly resistant to Cd) and L. plantarum CCFM191 (sensitive to Cd) were selected as target strains, and their metabolomic profiles with and without Cd exposure were compared. The underlying mechanisms of the intra-species distinction between CCFM8610 and CCFM191 in terms of Cd tolerance can be attributed to the following aspects: (a) CCFM8610 possesses a higher intracellular content of osmolytes; (b) CCFM8610 can induce more effective biosynthesis of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) to sequestrate Cd;
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Affiliation(s)
- Qixiao Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, People's Republic of China.
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11
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Endogenous arabitol and mannitol improve shelf life of encapsulated Metarhizium brunneum. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 34:108. [PMID: 29971736 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-018-2492-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Successful commercialization of microbial biocontrol agents, such as Metarhizium spp., is often constrained by poor drying survival and shelf life. Here, we hypothesized that culture age would influence endogenous arabitol, erythritol, mannitol and trehalose contents in M. brunneum mycelium and that elevated levels of these compounds would improve drying survival and shelf life of encapsulated mycelium coupled with enhanced fungal virulence against T. molitor larvae. We found that culture age significantly influenced endogenous arabitol and mannitol contents in mycelium with highest concentrations of 0.6 ± 0.2 and 2.1 ± 0.2 µg/mg after 72 h, respectively. Drying survival of encapsulated mycelium was independent of culture age and polyol content with 41.1 ± 4.4 to 55.0 ± 6.2%. Best shelf life was determined for biomass harvested after 72 h at all investigated storage temperatures with maximum values of 59.5 ± 3.3% at 5 °C followed by 54.5 ± 1.6% at 18 °C and 19.4 ± 1.3% at 25 °C after 6 months. Finally, high fungal virulence against T. molitor larvae of 83.3 ± 7.6 to 98.0 ± 1.8% was maintained during storage of encapsulated mycelium for 12 months with larval mortalities being independent of culture age and polyol content. In conclusion, our findings indicate beneficial effects of endogenous polyols in improving shelf life of encapsulated mycelium and this may spur the successful development of microbial biocontrol agents in the future.
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12
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Mechanism of neuroprotection by trehalose: controversy surrounding autophagy induction. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:712. [PMID: 29907758 PMCID: PMC6003909 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-018-0749-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Trehalose is a non-reducing disaccharide with two glucose molecules linked through an α, α-1,1-glucosidic bond. Trehalose has received attention for the past few decades for its role in neuroprotection especially in animal models of various neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson and Huntington diseases. The mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effects of trehalose remains elusive. The prevailing hypothesis is that trehalose protects neurons by inducing autophagy, thereby clearing protein aggregates. Some of the animal studies showed activation of autophagy and reduced protein aggregates after trehalose administration in neurodegenerative disease models, seemingly supporting the autophagy induction hypothesis. However, results from cell studies have been less certain; although many studies claim that trehalose induces autophagy and reduces protein aggregates, the studies have their weaknesses, failing to provide sufficient evidence for the autophagy induction theory. Furthermore, a recent study with a thorough examination of autophagy flux showed that trehalose interfered with the flux from autophagosome to autolysosome, raising controversy on the direct effects of trehalose on autophagy. This review summarizes the fundamental properties of trehalose and the studies on its effects on neurodegenerative diseases. We also discuss the controversy related to the autophagy induction theory and seek to explain how trehalose works in neuroprotection.
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Majara M, O'Connor-Cox ESC, Axcell BC. Trehalose—A Stress Protectant and Stress Indicator Compound for Yeast Exposed to Adverse Conditions. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-54-0221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Majara
- The South African Breweries Beer Division, P.O. Box 782178, Sandton 2146, South Africa;
| | - E. S. C. O'Connor-Cox
- The South African Breweries Beer Division, P.O. Box 782178, Sandton 2146, South Africa;
| | - B. C. Axcell
- The South African Breweries Beer Division, P.O. Box 782178, Sandton 2146, South Africa;
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Majara M, O'Connor-Cox ESC, Axcell BC. Trehalose—An Osmoprotectant and Stress Indicator Compound in High and Very High Gravity Brewing. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-54-0149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Majara
- Brewing Research and Development Department, South African Breweries Ltd., P. O. Box 782178, Sandton, 2146, Republic of South Africa;
| | - E. S. C. O'Connor-Cox
- Brewing Research and Development Department, South African Breweries Ltd., P. O. Box 782178, Sandton, 2146, Republic of South Africa;
| | - B. C. Axcell
- Brewing Research and Development Department, South African Breweries Ltd., P. O. Box 782178, Sandton, 2146, Republic of South Africa;
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15
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Jenkins DM, Powell CD, Smart KA. Dried Yeast: Impact of Dehydration and Rehydration on Brewing Yeast DNA Integrity. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-2010-0629-01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David M. Jenkins
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, UK
| | | | - Katherine A. Smart
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, UK
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16
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Truncation of CYR1 promoter in industrial ethanol yeasts for improved ethanol yield in high temperature condition. Process Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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17
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Shen HY, Moonjai N, Verstrepen KJ, Delvaux FR. Impact of Attachment Immobilization on Yeast Physiology and Fermentation Performance. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-61-0079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H.-Y. Shen
- Centre for Malting and Brewing Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 22, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - N. Moonjai
- Centre for Malting and Brewing Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 22, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - K. J. Verstrepen
- Centre for Malting and Brewing Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 22, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - F. R. Delvaux
- Centre for Malting and Brewing Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 22, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
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18
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Divate NR, Chen GH, Wang PM, Ou BR, Chung YC. Engineering Saccharomyces cerevisiae for improvement in ethanol tolerance by accumulation of trehalose. Bioengineered 2016; 7:445-458. [PMID: 27484300 DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2016.1207019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A genetic recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae starter with high ethanol tolerance capacities was constructed. In this study, the gene of trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (encoded by tps1), which catalyzes the first step in trehalose synthesis, was cloned and overexpressed in S. cerevisiae. Moreover, the gene of neutral trehalase (encoded by nth1, trehalose degrading enzyme) was deleted by using a disruption cassette, which contained long flanking homology regions of nth1 gene (the upstream 0.26 kb and downstream 0.4 kb). The engineered strain increased its tolerance against ethanol and glucose stress. The growth of the wild strain was inhibited when the medium contained 6 % or more ethanol, whereas growth of the engineered strain was affected when the medium contained 10 % or more ethanol. There was no significant difference in the ethanol yield between the wild strain and the engineered strain when the fermentation broth contained 10 % glucose (p > 0.05). The engineered strain showed greater ethanol yield than the wild type strain when the medium contained more than 15 % glucose (p < 0.05). Higher intracellular trehalose accumulation by overexpression of tps1 and deletion of nth1 might provide the ability for yeast to protect against environmental stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nileema R Divate
- a Department of Food and Nutrition , Providence University , Taichung , Republic of China (Taiwan)
| | - Gen-Hung Chen
- b Department of Cosmetic Science , Providence University , Taichung , Republic of China (Taiwan)
| | - Pei-Ming Wang
- a Department of Food and Nutrition , Providence University , Taichung , Republic of China (Taiwan)
| | - Bor-Rung Ou
- c Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology , Tunghai University , Taichung , Republic of China (Taiwan)
| | - Yun-Chin Chung
- a Department of Food and Nutrition , Providence University , Taichung , Republic of China (Taiwan)
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19
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Yi C, Wang F, Dong S, Li H. Changes of trehalose content and expression of relative genes during the bioethanol fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Can J Microbiol 2016; 62:827-835. [PMID: 27510429 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2015-0832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, trehalose is considered as a protectant to improve the ethanol tolerance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this study, to clarify the changes and roles of trehalose during the bioethanol fermentation, trehalose content and expression of related genes at lag, exponential, and stationary phases (i.e., 2, 8, and 16 h of batch fermentation process) were determined. Although yeast cells at exponential and stationary phase had higher trehalose content than cells at lag phase (P < 0.01), there was no significant difference in trehalose content between exponential and stationary phases (P > 0.05). Moreover, expression of the trehalose degradation-related genes NTH1 and NTH2 decreased at exponential phase in comparison with that at lag phase; compared with cells at lag phase, cells at stationary phase had higher expression of TPS1, ATH1, NTH1, and NTH2 but lower expression of TPS2. During the lag-exponential phase transition, downregulation of NTH1 and NTH2 promoted accumulation of trehalose, and to some extent, trehalose might confer ethanol tolerance to S. cerevisiae before stationary phase. During the exponential-stationary phase transition, upregulation of TPS1 contributed to accumulation of trehalose, and Tps1 protein might be indispensable in yeast cells to withstand ethanol stress at the stationary phase. Moreover, trehalose would be degraded to supply carbon source at stationary phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenfeng Yi
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, P.R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Fenglian Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, P.R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Shijun Dong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, P.R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Hao Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, P.R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
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20
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Ayati SV, Hamdami N, Le-Bail A. Frozen Sangak dough and bread properties: Impact of pre-fermentation and freezing rate. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2016.1180535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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21
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Elucidating butanol tolerance mediated by a response regulator Sll0039 in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 using a metabolomic approach. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:1845-57. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6374-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Revised: 12/27/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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22
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Richelle A, Bogaerts P. Macroscopic Modelling of Intracellular Reserve Carbohydrates Production during Baker's Yeast Cultures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifacol.2015.05.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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23
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Xu W, Wang J, Li Q. Microarray studies on lager brewer's yeasts reveal cell status in the process of autolysis. FEMS Yeast Res 2014; 14:714-28. [DOI: 10.1111/1567-1364.12156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Revised: 03/22/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Weina Xu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education; School of Biotechnology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu China
| | - Jinjing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education; School of Biotechnology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu China
| | - Qi Li
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education; School of Biotechnology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu China
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24
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Richelle A, Fickers P, Bogaerts P. Macroscopic modelling of baker's yeast production in fed-batch cultures and its link with trehalose production. Comput Chem Eng 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.compchemeng.2013.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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25
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Vaudano E, Noti O, Costantini A, Garcia-Moruno E. Effect of additives on the rehydration ofSaccharomyces cerevisiaewine strains in active dry form: influence on viability and performance in the early fermentation phase. JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/jib.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Vaudano
- Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura (Centro di Ricerca per l'Enologia); Via Pietro Micca 35 14100 Asti Italy
| | - Olta Noti
- Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura (Centro di Ricerca per l'Enologia); Via Pietro Micca 35 14100 Asti Italy
| | - Antonella Costantini
- Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura (Centro di Ricerca per l'Enologia); Via Pietro Micca 35 14100 Asti Italy
| | - Emilia Garcia-Moruno
- Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura (Centro di Ricerca per l'Enologia); Via Pietro Micca 35 14100 Asti Italy
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Abstract
For centuries yeast species have been popular hosts for classical biotechnology processes, such as baking, brewing, and wine making, and more recently for recombinant proteins production, thanks to the advantages of unicellular organisms (i.e., ease of genetic manipulation and rapid growth) together with the ability to perform eukaryotic posttranslational modifications. Moreover, yeast cells have been used for few decades as a tool for identifying the genes and pathways involved in basic cellular processes such as the cell cycle, aging, and stress response. In the budding yeast S. cerevisiae the Ras/cAMP/PKA pathway is directly involved in the regulation of metabolism, cell growth, stress resistance, and proliferation in response to the availability of nutrients and in the adaptation to glucose, controlling cytosolic cAMP levels and consequently the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) activity. Moreover, Ras signalling has been identified in several pathogenic yeasts as a key controller for virulence, due to its involvement in yeast morphogenesis. Nowadays, yeasts are still useful for Ras-like proteins investigation, both as model organisms and as a test tube to study variants of heterologous Ras-like proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Tisi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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27
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Migliardo F, Caccamo MT, Magazù S. Thermal Analysis on Bioprotectant Disaccharides by Elastic Incoherent Neutron Scattering. FOOD BIOPHYS 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11483-013-9322-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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28
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Wang J, Chen L, Tian X, Gao L, Niu X, Shi M, Zhang W. Global metabolomic and network analysis of Escherichia coli responses to exogenous biofuels. J Proteome Res 2013; 12:5302-12. [PMID: 24016299 DOI: 10.1021/pr400640u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Although synthetic biology progress has made it possible to produce various biofuels in more user-friendly hosts, such as Escherichia coli, the large-scale biofuel production in these non-native systems is still challenging, mostly due to the very low tolerance of these non-native hosts to the biofuel toxicity. To address the issues, in this study we determined the metabolic responses of E. coli induced by three major biofuel products, ethanol, butanol, and isobutanol, using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) approach. A metabolomic data set of 65 metabolites identified in all samples was then subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) to compare their effects and a weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) to identify the metabolic modules specifically responsive to each of the biofuel stresses, respectively. The PCA analysis showed that cellular responses caused by the biofuel stress were in general similar to aging cells at stationary phase, inconsistent with early studies showing a high degree of dissimilarity between metabolite responses during growth cessation as induced through stationary phases or through various environmental stress applications. The WGCNA analysis allowed identification of 2, 4, and 2 metabolic modules specifically associated with ethanol, butanol, and isobutanol treatments, respectively. The biofuel-associated modules included amino acids and osmoprotectants, such as isoleucine, valine, glycine, glutamate, and trehalose, suggesting amino acid metabolism and osmoregulation are among the key protection mechanisms against biofuel stresses in E. coli. Interestingly, no module was found associated with all three biofuel products, suggesting differential effects of each biofuel on E. coli. The findings enhanced our understanding of E. coli responses to exogenous biofuels and also demonstrated the effectiveness of the metabolomic and network analysis in identifying key targets for biofuel tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangxin Wang
- Laboratory of Synthetic Microbiology, School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University , Tianjin 300072, P. R. China
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Dynamics of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae transcriptome during bread dough fermentation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:7325-33. [PMID: 24056467 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02649-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The behavior of yeast cells during industrial processes such as the production of beer, wine, and bioethanol has been extensively studied. In contrast, our knowledge about yeast physiology during solid-state processes, such as bread dough, cheese, or cocoa fermentation, remains limited. We investigated changes in the transcriptomes of three genetically distinct Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains during bread dough fermentation. Our results show that regardless of the genetic background, all three strains exhibit similar changes in expression patterns. At the onset of fermentation, expression of glucose-regulated genes changes dramatically, and the osmotic stress response is activated. The middle fermentation phase is characterized by the induction of genes involved in amino acid metabolism. Finally, at the latest time point, cells suffer from nutrient depletion and activate pathways associated with starvation and stress responses. Further analysis shows that genes regulated by the high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway, the major pathway involved in the response to osmotic stress and glycerol homeostasis, are among the most differentially expressed genes at the onset of fermentation. More importantly, deletion of HOG1 and other genes of this pathway significantly reduces the fermentation capacity. Together, our results demonstrate that cells embedded in a solid matrix such as bread dough suffer severe osmotic stress and that a proper induction of the HOG pathway is critical for optimal fermentation.
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Ekberg J, Rautio J, Mattinen L, Vidgren V, Londesborough J, Gibson BR. Adaptive evolution of the lager brewing yeastSaccharomyces pastorianusfor improved growth under hyperosmotic conditions and its influence on fermentation performance. FEMS Yeast Res 2013; 13:335-49. [DOI: 10.1111/1567-1364.12038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Virve Vidgren
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland; Espoo; Finland
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Balakumar S, Arasaratnam V. Osmo-, Thermo- and Ethanol- Tolerances of Saccharomyces cerevisiae S1. Braz J Microbiol 2012; 43:157-66. [PMID: 24031814 PMCID: PMC3768980 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-838220120001000017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2010] [Revised: 04/27/2011] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Saccharomyces cerevisiae S1, which is a locally isolated and improved strain showed viability at 40, 45 and 50°C and produced ethanol at 40, 43 and 45°C. When the cells were given heat shock at 45°C for 30min and grown at 40°C, 100% viability was observed for 60h, and addition of 200gL−1 ethanol has led to complete cell death at 30h. Heat shock given at 45°C (for 30min) has improved the tolerance to temperature induced ethanol shock leading to 37% viability at 30h. When the cells were subjected to ethanol (200gL−1 for 30 min) and osmotic shock (sorbitol 300gL−1), trehalose contents in the cells were increased. The heat shocked cells showed better viability in presence of added ethanol. Soy flour supplementation has improved the viability of S. cerevisiae S1 to 80% in presence of 100gL−1 added ethanol and to 60% in presence of 300gL−1sorbitol. In presence of sorbitol (200gL−1) and ethanol (50gL−1) at 40°C, 46% viability was retained by S. cerevisiae S1 at 48h and it was improved to 80% by soy flour supplementation.
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Chlup PH, Bernard D, Stewart GG. Disc Stack Centrifuge Operating Parameters and Their Impact on Yeast Physiology. JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/j.2050-0416.2008.tb00305.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Simultaneous accumulation of proline and trehalose in industrial baker's yeast enhances fermentation ability in frozen dough. J Biosci Bioeng 2012; 113:592-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2011.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 12/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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34
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Loveday SM, Huang VT, Reid DS, Winger RJ. Water Dynamics in Fresh and Frozen Yeasted Dough. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2012; 52:390-409. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.500265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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35
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Piotrowski JS, Nagarajan S, Kroll E, Stanbery A, Chiotti KE, Kruckeberg AL, Dunn B, Sherlock G, Rosenzweig F. Different selective pressures lead to different genomic outcomes as newly-formed hybrid yeasts evolve. BMC Evol Biol 2012; 12:46. [PMID: 22471618 PMCID: PMC3372441 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-12-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interspecific hybridization occurs in every eukaryotic kingdom. While hybrid progeny are frequently at a selective disadvantage, in some instances their increased genome size and complexity may result in greater stress resistance than their ancestors, which can be adaptively advantageous at the edges of their ancestors' ranges. While this phenomenon has been repeatedly documented in the field, the response of hybrid populations to long-term selection has not often been explored in the lab. To fill this knowledge gap we crossed the two most distantly related members of the Saccharomyces sensu stricto group, S. cerevisiae and S. uvarum, and established a mixed population of homoploid and aneuploid hybrids to study how different types of selection impact hybrid genome structure. RESULTS As temperature was raised incrementally from 31°C to 46.5°C over 500 generations of continuous culture, selection favored loss of the S. uvarum genome, although the kinetics of genome loss differed among independent replicates. Temperature-selected isolates exhibited greater inherent and induced thermal tolerance than parental species and founding hybrids, and also exhibited ethanol resistance. In contrast, as exogenous ethanol was increased from 0% to 14% over 500 generations of continuous culture, selection favored euploid S. cerevisiae x S. uvarum hybrids. Ethanol-selected isolates were more ethanol tolerant than S. uvarum and one of the founding hybrids, but did not exhibit resistance to temperature stress. Relative to parental and founding hybrids, temperature-selected strains showed heritable differences in cell wall structure in the forms of increased resistance to zymolyase digestion and Micafungin, which targets cell wall biosynthesis. CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to show experimentally that the genomic fate of newly-formed interspecific hybrids depends on the type of selection they encounter during the course of evolution, underscoring the importance of the ecological theatre in determining the outcome of the evolutionary play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff S Piotrowski
- Chemical Genomics Research Group, RIKEN Advance Science Institute, Wako, Wako, Japan
- Division of Biological Sciences, The University of Montana, Missoula MT 59812, USA
| | - Saisubramanian Nagarajan
- School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA University, Tirumalaisamudram Thanjavur- 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
- Division of Biological Sciences, The University of Montana, Missoula MT 59812, USA
| | - Evgueny Kroll
- Division of Biological Sciences, The University of Montana, Missoula MT 59812, USA
| | - Alison Stanbery
- Division of Biological Sciences, The University of Montana, Missoula MT 59812, USA
| | - Kami E Chiotti
- Division of Biological Sciences, The University of Montana, Missoula MT 59812, USA
| | | | - Barbara Dunn
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5120, USA
| | - Gavin Sherlock
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5120, USA
| | - Frank Rosenzweig
- Division of Biological Sciences, The University of Montana, Missoula MT 59812, USA
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36
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Ohtake S, Wang YJ. Trehalose: Current Use and Future Applications. J Pharm Sci 2011; 100:2020-53. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.22458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Revised: 12/05/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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37
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Guo ZP, Zhang L, Ding ZY, Shi GY. Minimization of glycerol synthesis in industrial ethanol yeast without influencing its fermentation performance. Metab Eng 2011; 13:49-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2010.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2010] [Revised: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Stress induced cross-protection against environmental challenges on prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbes. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 27:1281-96. [PMID: 25187127 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-010-0584-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbes thrive successfully in stressful environments such as high osmolarity, acidic or alkali, solar heat and u.v. radiation, nutrient starvation, oxidative stress, and several others. To live under these continuous stress conditions, these microbes must have mechanisms to protect their proteins, membranes, and nucleic acids, as well as other mechanisms that repair nucleic acids. The stress responses in bacteria are controlled by master regulators, which include alternative sigma factors, such as RpoS and RpoH. The sigma factor RpoS integrates multiple signals, such as the general stress response regulators and the sigma factor RpoH regulates the heat shock proteins. These response pathways extensively overlap and are induced to various extents by the same environmental stresses. In eukaryotes, two major pathways regulate the stress responses: stress proteins, termed heat shock proteins (HSP), which appear to be required only for growth during moderate stress, and stress response elements (STRE), which are induced by different stress conditions and these elements result in the acquisition of a tolerant state towards any stress condition. In this review, the mechanisms of stress resistance between prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbes will be described and compared.
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Vaudano E, Costantini A, Noti O, Garcia-Moruno E. An RT-qPCR approach to study the expression of genes responsible for sugar assimilation during rehydration of active dry yeast. Food Microbiol 2010; 27:802-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2010.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2010] [Accepted: 04/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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40
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A low-cost procedure for production of fresh autochthonous wine yeast. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 38:459-69. [PMID: 20683636 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-010-0790-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2010] [Accepted: 07/21/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
A low-cost procedure was designed for easy and rapid response-on-demand production of fresh wine yeast for local wine-making. The pilot plant produced fresh yeast culture concentrate with good microbial quality and excellent oenological properties from four selected wine yeasts. The best production yields were obtained using 2% sugar beet molasses and a working culture volume of less than 60% of the fermenter capacity. The yeast yield using 2% sugar grape juice was low and had poor cell viability after freeze storage, although the resulting yeast would be directly available for use in the winery. The performance of these yeasts in commercial wineries was excellent; they dominated must fermentation and improved its kinetics, as well as improving the physicochemical parameters and the organoleptic quality of red and white wines.
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Magazù S, Migliardo F. Spectroscopic study of the physical properties making trehalose a stabilizing and shelf life extending compound in food industry. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND SAFETY OF CROPS & FOODS 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1757-837x.2010.00060.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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42
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Lee SK, Kang SM, Lee IS, Seo DK, Kwon IK, Pan JN, Kim HJ, Ga CH, Pak JI. Manufacture of Spent Layer Chicken Meat Products by Natural Freeze-Drying during Winter. Korean J Food Sci Anim Resour 2010. [DOI: 10.5851/kosfa.2010.30.2.277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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43
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Yi J, Kerr WL. Combined effects of freezing rate, storage temperature and time on bread dough and baking properties. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2009.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Garre E, Matallana E. The three trehalases Nth1p, Nth2p and Ath1p participate in the mobilization of intracellular trehalose required for recovery from saline stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2009; 155:3092-3099. [PMID: 19520725 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.024992-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Trehalose accumulation is a common response to several stresses in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This metabolite protects proteins and membrane lipids from structural damage and helps cells to maintain integrity. Based on genetic studies, degradation of trehalose has been proposed as a required mechanism for growth recovery after stress, and the neutral trehalase Nth1p as the unique degradative activity involved. Here we constructed a collection of mutants for several trehalose metabolism and transport genes and analysed their growth and trehalose mobilization profiles during experiments of saline stress recovery. The behaviour of the triple Deltanth1Deltanth2Deltaath1 and quadruple Deltanth1Deltanth2Deltaath1Deltaagt1 mutant strains in these experiments demonstrates the participation of the three known yeast trehalases Nth1p, Nth2p and Ath1p in the mobilization of intracellular trehalose during growth recovery after saline stress, rules out the participation of the Agt1p H(+)-disaccharide symporter, and allows us to propose the existence of additional new mechanisms for trehalose mobilization after saline stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Garre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universitat de València, and Departamento de Biotecnología, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Emilia Matallana
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universitat de València, and Departamento de Biotecnología, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
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Pacheco A, Pereira C, Almeida MJ, Sousa MJ. Small heat-shock protein Hsp12 contributes to yeast tolerance to freezing stress. Microbiology (Reading) 2009; 155:2021-2028. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.025981-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The HSP12 gene encodes one of the two major small heat-shock proteins of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and is induced under different conditions, such as low and high temperatures, osmotic or oxidative stress and high sugar or ethanol concentrations. However, few studies could demonstrate any correlation between HSP12 deletion or overexpression and a phenotype of sensitivity/resistance, making it difficult to attribute a role for Hsp12p under several of these stress conditions. We investigated the possible role of Hsp12p in yeast freezing tolerance. Contrary to what would be expected, the hsp12 null mutant when subjected to prolonged storage at −20 °C showed an increased resistance to freezing when compared with the isogenic wild-type strain. Because the mutant strain displayed a higher intracellular trehalose concentration than the wild-type, which could mask the effect of manipulating HSP12, we overexpressed the HSP12 gene in a trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (TPS1) null mutant. The tps1Δ strain overexpressing HSP12 showed an increase in resistance to freezing storage, indicating that Hsp12p plays a role in freezing tolerance in a way that seems to be interchangeable with trehalose. In addition, we show that overexpression of HSP12 in this tps1Δ strain also increased resistance to heat shock and that absence of HSP12 compromises the ability of yeast cells to accumulate high levels of trehalose in response to a mild heat stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Pacheco
- CBMA (Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology), Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus of Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - C. Pereira
- CBMA (Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology), Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus of Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - M. J. Almeida
- CBMA (Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology), Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus of Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - M. J. Sousa
- CBMA (Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology), Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus of Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
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Stress-tolerance of baker's-yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) cells: stress-protective molecules and genes involved in stress tolerance. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2009; 53:155-64. [DOI: 10.1042/ba20090029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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47
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Nakamura T, Takagi H, Shima J. Effects of ice-seeding temperature and intracellular trehalose contents on survival of frozen Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells. Cryobiology 2009; 58:170-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2008.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2008] [Revised: 11/25/2008] [Accepted: 11/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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48
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Mahmud SA, Nagahisa K, Hirasawa T, Yoshikawa K, Ashitani K, Shimizu H. Effect of trehalose accumulation on response to saline stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Yeast 2009; 26:17-30. [PMID: 19180643 DOI: 10.1002/yea.1646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
To examine the effect of trehalose accumulation on response to saline stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we constructed deletion strains of all combinations of the trehalase genes ATH1, NTH1 and NTH2 and examined their growth behaviour and intracellular trehalose accumulation under non-stress and saline-stress conditions. Saline stress was induced in yeast cells by NaCl addition at the exponential growth phase. All deletion strains showed similar specific growth rates and trehalose accumulation to their parent strain under non-stress conditions. However, under the saline stress condition, one single deletion strain, nth1Delta, two double deletion strains, nth1Delta ath1Delta and nth1Delta nth2Delta, and the triple deletion strain nth1Deltanth2Delta ath1Delta, all of which carry the nth1Delta deletion, showed increased trehalose accumulation as compared to the parent and other deletion strains. In particular, our statistical analysis revealed that the triple deletion strain showed a higher growth rate under the saline stress condition than the parent strain. Moreover, some deletion strains showed further trehalose accumulation under non-stress conditions by overexpression of the TPS1 or TPS2 genes encoding the enzymes related to trehalose biosynthesis at the mid-exponential phase. Such increased trehalose accumulation prior to NaCl addition could improve the growth of these strains under saline stress. Our results indicate that high trehalose accumulation prior to NaCl addition, rather than after NaCl addition, is necessary to achieve high growth activity under stress conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siraje Arif Mahmud
- Department of Bioinformatic Engineering, Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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Cheong C, Wackerbauer K, Beckmann M, Jang KH, Kang SA. Effect of cultivation conditions on trehalose content and viability of brewing yeast following preservation via filter paper or lyophilization methods. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-008-0066-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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50
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Proline as a stress protectant in yeast: physiological functions, metabolic regulations, and biotechnological applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2008; 81:211-23. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-008-1698-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 08/29/2008] [Accepted: 09/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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