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Fruhauf S, Pühringer D, Thamhesl M, Fajtl P, Kunz-Vekiru E, Höbartner-Gussl A, Schatzmayr G, Adam G, Damborsky J, Djinovic-Carugo K, Prokop Z, Moll WD. Bacterial Lactonases ZenA with Noncanonical Structural Features Hydrolyze the Mycotoxin Zearalenone. ACS Catal 2024; 14:3392-3410. [PMID: 38449531 PMCID: PMC10913051 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.4c00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogenic polyketide produced by Fusarium graminearum and other phytopathogenic members of the genus Fusarium. Contamination of cereals with ZEN is frequent, and hydrolytic detoxification with fungal lactonases has been explored. Here, we report the isolation of a bacterial strain, Rhodococcus erythropolis PFA D8-1, with ZEN hydrolyzing activity, cloning of the gene encoding α/β hydrolase ZenA encoded on the linear megaplasmid pSFRL1, and biochemical characterization of nine homologues. Furthermore, we report site-directed mutagenesis as well as structural analysis of the dimeric ZenARe of R. erythropolis and the more thermostable, tetrameric ZenAScfl of Streptomyces coelicoflavus with and without bound ligands. The X-ray crystal structures not only revealed canonical features of α/β hydrolases with a cap domain including a Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad but also unusual features including an uncommon oxyanion hole motif and a peripheral, short antiparallel β-sheet involved in tetramer interactions. Presteady-state kinetic analyses for ZenARe and ZenAScfl identified balanced rate-limiting steps of the reaction cycle, which can change depending on temperature. Some new bacterial ZEN lactonases have lower KM and higher kcat than the known fungal ZEN lactonases and may lend themselves to enzyme technology development for the degradation of ZEN in feed or food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Fruhauf
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Dominic Pühringer
- Department
for Structural and Computational Biology, Max Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Campus Vienna Biocenter 5, Vienna 1030, Austria
| | - Michaela Thamhesl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Patricia Fajtl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Elisavet Kunz-Vekiru
- Institute
of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology
IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources
and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Andreas Höbartner-Gussl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Gerd Schatzmayr
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Institute
of Microbial Genetics, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Straße
24, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt
Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty
of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Bld. A13, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
- International
Clinical Research Center, St. Anne’s
University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, Brno 656
91, Czech Republic
| | - Kristina Djinovic-Carugo
- Department
for Structural and Computational Biology, Max Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Campus Vienna Biocenter 5, Vienna 1030, Austria
- Department
of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
- European
Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Grenoble, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt
Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty
of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Bld. A13, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
- International
Clinical Research Center, St. Anne’s
University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, Brno 656
91, Czech Republic
| | - Wulf-Dieter Moll
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
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2
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Nakayasu M, Takamatsu K, Kanai K, Masuda S, Yamazaki S, Aoki Y, Shibata A, Suda W, Shirasu K, Yazaki K, Sugiyama A. Tomato root-associated Sphingobium harbors genes for catabolizing toxic steroidal glycoalkaloids. mBio 2023; 14:e0059923. [PMID: 37772873 PMCID: PMC10653915 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00599-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Saponins are a group of plant specialized metabolites with various bioactive properties, both for human health and soil microorganisms. Our previous works demonstrated that Sphingobium is enriched in both soils treated with a steroid-type saponin, such as tomatine, and in the tomato rhizosphere. Despite the importance of saponins in plant-microbe interactions in the rhizosphere, the genes involved in the catabolism of saponins and their aglycones (sapogenins) remain largely unknown. Here we identified several enzymes that catalyzed the degradation of steroid-type saponins in a Sphingobium isolate from tomato roots, RC1. A comparative genomic analysis of Sphingobium revealed the limited distribution of genes for saponin degradation in our saponin-degrading isolates and several other isolates, suggesting the possible involvement of the saponin degradation pathway in the root colonization of Sphingobium spp. The genes that participate in the catabolism of sapogenins could be applied to the development of new industrially valuable sapogenin molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Nakayasu
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kyoko Takamatsu
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Keiko Kanai
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Sachiko Masuda
- Plant Immunity Research Group, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shinichi Yamazaki
- Tohoku Medical Megabank Organization, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yuichi Aoki
- Tohoku Medical Megabank Organization, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Graduate School of Information Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Arisa Shibata
- Plant Immunity Research Group, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Wataru Suda
- Laboratory for Microbiome Sciences, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Ken Shirasu
- Plant Immunity Research Group, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kazufumi Yazaki
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Akifumi Sugiyama
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
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3
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Liu X, Zhang J, Yuan C, Du G, Han S, Shi J, Sun J, Zhang B. Improving the production of 9α-hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione from phytosterols by 3-ketosteroid-Δ 1-dehydrogenase deletions and multiple genetic modifications in Mycobacterium fortuitum. Microb Cell Fact 2023; 22:53. [PMID: 36922830 PMCID: PMC10018825 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-023-02052-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 9α-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione (9-OHAD) is a significant intermediate for the synthesis of glucocorticoid drugs. However, in the process of phytosterol biotransformation to manufacture 9-OHAD, product degradation, and by-products restrict 9-OHAD output. In this study, to construct a stable and high-yield 9-OHAD producer, we investigated a combined strategy of blocking Δ1‑dehydrogenation and regulating metabolic flux. RESULTS Five 3-Ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenases (KstD) were identified in Mycobacterium fortuitum ATCC 35855. KstD2 showed the highest catalytic activity on 3-ketosteroids, followed by KstD3, KstD1, KstD4, and KstD5, respectively. In particular, KstD2 had a much higher catalytic activity for C9 hydroxylated steroids than for C9 non-hydroxylated steroids, whereas KstD3 showed the opposite characteristics. The deletion of kstDs indicated that KstD2 and KstD3 were the main causes of 9-OHAD degradation. Compared with the wild type M. fortuitum ATCC 35855, MFΔkstD, the five kstDs deficient strain, realized stable accumulation of 9-OHAD, and its yield increased by 42.57%. The knockout of opccr or the overexpression of hsd4A alone could not reduce the metabolic flux of the C22 pathway, while the overexpression of hsd4A based on the knockout of opccr in MFΔkstD could remarkably reduce the contents of 9,21 ‑dihydroxy‑20‑methyl‑pregna‑4‑en‑3‑one (9-OHHP) by-products. The inactivation of FadE28-29 leads to a large accumulation of incomplete side-chain degradation products. Therefore, hsd4A and fadE28-29 were co-expressed in MFΔkstDΔopccr successfully eliminating the two by-products. Compared with MFΔkstD, the purity of 9-OHAD improved from 80.24 to 90.14%. Ultimately, 9‑OHAD production reached 12.21 g/L (83.74% molar yield) and the productivity of 9-OHAD was 0.0927 g/L/h from 20 g/L phytosterol. CONCLUSIONS KstD2 and KstD3 are the main dehydrogenases that lead to 9-OHAD degradation. Hsd4A and Opccr are key enzymes regulating the metabolic flux of the C19- and C22-pathways. Overexpression of fadE28-29 can reduce the accumulation of incomplete degradation products of the side chains. According to the above findings, the MF-FA5020 transformant was successfully constructed to rapidly and stably accumulate 9-OHAD from phytosterols. These results contribute to the understanding of the diversity and complexity of steroid catabolism regulation in actinobacteria and provide a theoretical basis for further optimizing industrial microbial catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangcen Liu
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jingxian Zhang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chenyang Yuan
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Guilin Du
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Suwan Han
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jiping Shi
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Junsong Sun
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China. .,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.
| | - Baoguo Zhang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.
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4
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Loop pathways are responsible for tuning the accumulation of C19- and C22-sterol intermediates in the mycobacterial phytosterol degradation pathway. Microb Cell Fact 2023; 22:19. [PMID: 36710325 PMCID: PMC9885637 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-022-02008-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
4-Androstene-3,17-dione (4-AD) and 22-hydroxy-23,24-bisnorchol-4-ene-3-one (BA) are the most important and representative C19- and C22-steroidal materials. The optimalization of sterol production with mycobacterial phytosterol conversion has been investigated for decades. One of the major challenges is that current industrial mycobacterial strains accumulate unignorable impurities analogous to desired sterol intermediates, significantly hampering product extractions and refinements. Previously, we identified Mycobacterium neoaurum HGMS2 as an efficient 4-AD-producing strain (Wang et al. in Microb Cell Fact. 19:187, 2020). Recently, we have genetically modified the HGMS2 strain to remove its major impurities including ADD and 9OH-AD (Li et al. in Microb Cell Fact. 20:158, 2021). Unexpectedly, the modified mutants started to significantly accumulate BA compared with the HGMS2 strain. In this work, while we attempted to block BA occurrence during 4-AD accumulation in HGMS2 mutants, we identified a few loop pathways that regulated metabolic flux switching between 4-AD and BA accumulations and found that both the 4-AD and BA pathways shared a 9,10-secosteroidial route. One of the key enzymes in the loop pathways was Hsd4A1, which played an important role in determining 4-AD accumulation. The inactivation of the hsd4A1 gene significantly blocked the 4-AD metabolic pathway so that the phytosterol degradation pathway flowed to the BA metabolic pathway, suggesting that the BA metabolic pathway is a complementary pathway to the 4-AD pathway. Thus, knocking out the hsd4A1 gene essentially made the HGMS2 mutant (HGMS2Δhsd4A1) start to efficiently accumulate BA. After further knocking out the endogenous kstd and ksh genes, an HGMS2Δhsd4A1 mutant, HGMS2Δhsd4A1/Δkstd1, enhanced the phytosterol conversion rate to BA in 1.2-fold compared with the HGMS2Δhsd4A1 mutant in pilot-scale fermentation. The final BA yield increased to 38.3 g/L starting with 80 g/L of phytosterols. Furthermore, we knocked in exogenous active kstd or ksh genes to HGMS2Δhsd4A1/Δ kstd1 to construct DBA- and 9OH-BA-producing strains. The resultant DBA- and 9OH-BA-producing strains, HGMS2Δhsd4A1/kstd2 and HGMS2Δkstd1/Δhsd4A1/kshA1B1, efficiently converted phytosterols to DBA- and 9OH-BA with the rates of 42.5% and 40.3%, respectively, and their final yields reached 34.2 and 37.3 g/L, respectively, starting with 80 g/L phytosterols. Overall, our study not only provides efficient strains for the industrial production of BA, DBA and 9OH-BA but also provides insights into the metabolic engineering of the HGMS2 strain to produce other important steroidal compounds.
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Key Words
- 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD)
- 22-hydroxy-23,24-bisnorchol-4-ene-3-one (BA)
- 3-hydroxy-9,10-secoandrost-1,3,5(10)-triene-9,17-dione (HSA)
- 3-ketosteroid-1,2-dehydrogenase (KstD)
- 3-ketosteroid-9α-hydroxylase (Ksh)
- 4-androstene-3,17-dione (4-AD)
- 9α-hydroxyl-4-androstene-3,17-dione (9OH-AD)
- Bioconversion
- Biotransformation
- Cholesterol oxidases (Cho)
- Monooxygenase (Mon)
- Phytosterols and Mycobacterium sp.
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5
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Baek JH, Kim KH, Lee Y, Jeong SE, Jin HM, Jia B, Jeon CO. Elucidating the biodegradation pathway and catabolic genes of benzophenone-3 in Rhodococcus sp. S2-17. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 299:118890. [PMID: 35085657 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.118890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A new bacterium, Rhodococcus sp. S2-17, which could completely degrade an emerging organic pollutant, benzophenone-3 (BP-3), was isolated from contaminated sediment through an enrichment procedure, and its BP-3 catabolic pathway and genes were identified through metabolic intermediate and transcriptomic analyses and biochemical and genetic studies. Metabolic intermediate analysis suggested that strain S2-17 may degrade BP-3 using a catabolic pathway progressing via the intermediates BP-1, 2,4,5-trihydroxy-benzophenone, 3-hydroxy-4-benzoyl-2,4-hexadienedioic acid, 4-benzoyl-3-oxoadipic acid, 3-oxoadipic acid, and benzoic acid. A putative BP-3 catabolic gene cluster including cytochrome P450, flavin-dependent oxidoreductase, hydroxyquinol 1,2-dioxygenase, maleylacetate reductase, and α/β hydrolase genes was identified through genomic and transcriptomic analyses. Genes encoding the cytochrome P450 complex that demethylates BP-3 to BP-1 were functionally verified through protein expression, and the functions of the other genes were also verified through knockout mutant construction and intermediate analysis. This study suggested that strain S2-17 might have acquired the ability to catabolize BP-3 by recruiting the cytochrome P450 complex and α/β hydrolase, which hydrolyzes 4-benzoyl-3-oxoadipic acid to benzoic acid and 3-oxoadipic acid, genes, providing insights into the recruitment of genes of for the catabolism of emerging organic pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju Hye Baek
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Hyun Kim
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunhee Lee
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Eun Jeong
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea; Nakdonggang National Institute of Biological Resources, Sangju-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, 37242, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Mi Jin
- Nakdonggang National Institute of Biological Resources, Sangju-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, 37242, Republic of Korea
| | - Baolei Jia
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Che Ok Jeon
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea.
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Wang Y, Zhang R, Feng J, Wu Q, Zhu D, Ma Y. A New 3-Ketosteroid-Δ1–Dehydrogenase with High Activity and Broad Substrate Scope for Efficient Transformation of Hydrocortisone at High Substrate Concentration. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10030508. [PMID: 35336084 PMCID: PMC8950399 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10030508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenases (KstDs [EC 1.3.99.4]) catalyze the Δ1-dehydrogenation of steroids and are a class of important enzymes for steroid biotransformations. In this study, nine putative kstD genes from different origins were selected and overexpressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). These recombinant enzymes catalyzed the Δ1-desaturation of a variety of steroidal compounds. Among them, the KstD from Propionibacterium sp. (PrKstD) displayed the highest specific activity and broad substrate spectrum. The detailed catalytic characterization of PrKstD showed that it can convert a wide range of 3-ketosteroid compounds with diverse substituents, ranging from substituents at the C9, C10, C11 and C17 position through substrates without C4-C5 double bond, to previously inactive C6-substituted ones such as 11β,17-dihydroxy-6α-methyl-pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. Reaction conditions were optimized for the biotransformation of hydrocortisone in terms of pH, temperature, co-solvent and electron acceptor. By using 50 g/L wet resting E. coli cells harboring PrKstD enzyme, the conversion of hydrocortisone was about 92.5% within 6 h at the substrate concentration of 80 g/L, much higher than the previously reported results, demonstrating the application potential of this new KstD.
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7
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Mao S, Sun J, Wang L, Gao X, Liu X, Lu F, Qin HM. Mining and characterization of 3-ketosteroid-∆1-dehydrogenases from Arthrobacter simplex genome and applications for steroid dehydrogenation. Biochem Eng J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2022.108383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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8
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Yuan CY, Ma ZG, Zhang JX, Liu XC, Du GL, Sun JS, Shi JP, Zhang BG. Production of 9,21-dihydroxy-20-methyl-pregna-4-en-3-one from phytosterols in Mycobacterium neoaurum by modifying multiple genes and improving the intracellular environment. Microb Cell Fact 2021; 20:229. [PMID: 34949197 PMCID: PMC8705162 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01717-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Steroid drugs are essential for disease prevention and clinical treatment. However, due to intricated steroid structure, traditional chemical methods are rarely implemented into the whole synthetic process for generating steroid intermediates. Novel steroid drug precursors and their ideal bacterial strains for industrial production have yet to be developed. Among these, 9,21-dihydroxy-20-methyl-pregna-4-en-3-one (9-OH-4-HP) is a novel steroid drug precursor, suitable for the synthesis of corticosteroids. In this study, a combined strategy of blocking Δ1-dehydrogenation and the C19 pathway as well as improving the intracellular environment was investigated to construct an effective 9-OH-4-HP-producing strain. Results The Δ1-dehydrogenation-deficient strain of wild-type Mycobacterium neoaurum DSM 44074 produces 9-OH-4-HP with a molar yield of 4.8%. Hsd4A, encoding a β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, and fadA5, encoding an acyl-CoA thiolase, were separately knocked out to block the C19 pathway in the Δ1-dehydrogenation-deficient strain. The two engineered strains were able to accumulate 0.59 g L−1 and 0.47 g L−1 9-OH-4-HP from 1 g L−1 phytosterols, respectively. Furthermore, hsd4A and fadA5 were knocked out simultaneously in the Δ1-dehydrogenation-deficient strain. The 9-OH-4-HP production from the Hsd4A and FadA5 deficient strain was 11.9% higher than that of the Hsd4A deficient strain and 40.4% higher than that of the strain with FadA5 deficiency strain, respectively. The purity of 9-OH-4-HP obtained from the Hsd4A and FadA5 deficient strain has reached 94.9%. Subsequently, the catalase katE from Mycobacterium neoaurum and an NADH oxidase, nox, from Bacillus subtilis were overexpressed to improve the intracellular environment, leading to a higher 9-OH-4-HP production. Ultimately, 9-OH-4-HP production reached 3.58 g L−1 from 5 g L−1 phytosterols, and the purity of 9-OH-4-HP improved to 97%. The final 9-OH-4-HP production strain showed the best molar yield of 85.5%, compared with the previous reported strain with 30% molar yield of 9-OH-4-HP. Conclusion KstD, Hsd4A, and FadA5 are key enzymes for phytosterol side-chain degradation in the C19 pathway. Double deletion of hsd4A and fadA5 contributes to the blockage of the C19 pathway. Improving the intracellular environment of Mycobacterium neoaurum during phytosterol bioconversion could accelerate the conversion process and enhance the productivity of target sterol derivatives. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-021-01717-w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Yang Yuan
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Zhi-Guo Ma
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Jing-Xian Zhang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xiang-Cen Liu
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Gui-Lin Du
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jun-Song Sun
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China. .,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Ji-Ping Shi
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Bao-Guo Zhang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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9
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Yamamoto T, Hasegawa Y, Lau PCK, Iwaki H. Identification and characterization of a chc gene cluster responsible for the aromatization pathway of cyclohexanecarboxylate degradation in Sinomonas cyclohexanicum ATCC 51369. J Biosci Bioeng 2021; 132:621-629. [PMID: 34583900 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2021.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cyclohexanecarboxylate (CHCA) is formed by oxidative microbial degradation of n-alkylcycloparaffins and anaerobic degradation of benzoate, and also known to be a synthetic intermediate or the starter unit of biosynthesis of cellular constituents and secondary metabolites. Although two degradation pathways have been proposed, genetic information has been limited to the β-oxidation-like pathway. In this study, we identified a gene cluster, designated chcC1XTC2B1B2RAaAbAc, that is responsible for the CHCA aromatization pathway in Sinomonas (formerly Corynebacterium) cyclohexanicum strain ATCC 51369. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis indicated that the chc gene cluster is inducible by CHCA and that it consists of two transcriptional units, chcC1XTC2B1B2R and chcAaAbAc. Overexpression of the various genes in Escherichia coli, and purification of the recombinant proteins led to the functional characterization of ChcAaAbAc as subunits of a cytochrome P450 system responsible for CHCA hydroxylation; ChcB1 and ChcB2 as trans-4-hydroxyCHCA and cis-4-hydroxyCHCA dehydrogenases, respectively; ChcC1 was identified as a 4-oxoCHCA desaturase containing a covalently bound FAD; and ChcC2 was identified as a 4-oxocyclohexenecarboxylate desaturase. The binding constant of ChcAa for CHCA was found to be 0.37 mM. Kinetic parameters established for ChcB1 indicated that it has a high catalytic efficiency towards 4-oxoCHCA compared to trans- or cis-4-hydroxyCHCA. The Km and Kcat values of ChcC1 for 4-oxoCHCA were 0.39 mM and 44 s-1, respectively. Taken together with previous work on the identification of a pobA gene encoding a 4-hydroxybenzoate hydroxylase, we have now localized the remaining set of genes for the final degradation of protocatechuate before entry into the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taisei Yamamoto
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology, Kansai University, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
| | - Yoshie Hasegawa
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology, Kansai University, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
| | - Peter C K Lau
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Hiroaki Iwaki
- Department of Life Science & Biotechnology, Kansai University, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita, Osaka 564-8680, Japan.
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10
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Li X, Chen T, Peng F, Song S, Yu J, Sidoine DN, Cheng X, Huang Y, He Y, Su Z. Efficient conversion of phytosterols into 4-androstene-3,17-dione and its C1,2-dehydrogenized and 9α-hydroxylated derivatives by engineered Mycobacteria. Microb Cell Fact 2021; 20:158. [PMID: 34399754 PMCID: PMC8365914 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01653-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
4-Androstene-3,17-dione (4-AD), 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD) and 9α-hydroxyl-4-androstene-3,17-dione (9OH-AD), which are important starting compounds for the synthesis of steroidal medicines, can be biosynthetically transformed from phytosterols by Mycobacterium strains. Genomic and metabolic analyses have revealed that currently available 4-AD-producing strains maintain the ability to convert 4-AD to ADD and 9OH-AD via 3-ketosteroid-1,2-dehydrogenase (KstD) and 3-ketosteroid-9α-hydroxylase (Ksh), not only lowering the production yield of 4-AD but also hampering its purification refinement. Additionally, these 4-AD industrial strains are excellent model strains to construct ADD- and 9OH-AD-producing strains. We recently found that Mycobacterium neoaurum HGMS2, a 4-AD-producing strain, harbored fewer kstd and ksh genes through whole-genomic and enzymatic analyses, compared with other strains (Wang et al. in Microbial Cell Fact 19:187, 2020). In this study, we attempted to construct an efficient 4-AD-producing strain by knocking out the kstd and ksh genes from the M. neoaurum HGMS2 strain. Next, we used kstd- and ksh-default HGMS2 mutants as templates to construct ADD- and 9OH-AD-producing strains by knocking in active kstd and ksh genes, respectively. We found that after knocking out its endogenous kstd and ksh genes, one of these knockout mutants, HGMS2Δkstd211 + ΔkshB122, showed a 20% increase in the rate of phytosterol to 4-AD conversion, compared relative to the wild-type strain and an increase in 4-AD yield to 38.3 g/L in pilot-scale fermentation. Furthermore, we obtained the ADD- and 9OH-AD-producing strains, HGMS2kstd2 + Δkstd211+ΔkshB122 and HGMS2kshA51 + Δkstd211+ΔkshA226, by knocking in heterogenous active kstd and ksh genes to selected HGMS2 mutants, respectively. During pilot-scale fermentation, the conversion rates of the ADD- and 9OH-AD-producing mutants transforming phytosterol were 42.5 and 40.3%, respectively, and their yields reached 34.2 and 37.3 g/L, respectively. Overall, our study provides efficient strains for the production of 4-AD, ADD and 9OH-AD for the pharmaceutical industry and provides insights into the metabolic engineering of the HGMS2 strain to produce other important steroidal compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China
| | - Tian Chen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China
| | - Fei Peng
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China
| | - Shikui Song
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China
| | - Jingpeng Yu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China
| | - Douanla Njimeli Sidoine
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China
| | - Xiyao Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China
| | - Yongqi Huang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China
| | - Yijun He
- Hubei Goto Biotech Inc., No. 1 Baiguoshu Road, Shuidu Industrial Park, Danjiangkou, 442700, Hubei, China.
| | - Zhengding Su
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education), National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics and Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, China.
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11
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Wójcik P, Glanowski M, Wojtkiewicz AM, Rohman A, Szaleniec M. Universal capability of 3-ketosteroid Δ 1-dehydrogenases to catalyze Δ 1-dehydrogenation of C17-substituted steroids. Microb Cell Fact 2021; 20:119. [PMID: 34162386 PMCID: PMC8220720 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01611-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 3-Ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases (KSTDs) are the enzymes involved in microbial cholesterol degradation and modification of steroids. They catalyze dehydrogenation between C1 and C2 atoms in ring A of the polycyclic structure of 3-ketosteroids. KSTDs substrate spectrum is broad, even though most of them prefer steroids with small substituents at the C17 atom. The investigation of the KSTD's substrate specificity is hindered by the poor solubility of the hydrophobic steroids in aqueous solutions. In this paper, we used 2-hydroxpropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HBC) as a solubilizing agent in a study of the KSTDs steady-state kinetics and demonstrated that substrate bioavailability has a pivotal impact on enzyme specificity. RESULTS Molecular dynamics simulations on KSTD1 from Rhodococcus erythropolis indicated no difference in ΔGbind between the native substrate, androst-4-en-3,17-dione (AD; - 8.02 kcal/mol), and more complex steroids such as cholest-4-en-3-one (- 8.40 kcal/mol) or diosgenone (- 6.17 kcal/mol). No structural obstacle for binding of the extended substrates was also observed. Following this observation, our kinetic studies conducted in the presence of HBC confirmed KSTD1 activity towards both types of steroids. We have compared the substrate specificity of KSTD1 to the other enzyme known for its activity with cholest-4-en-3-one, KSTD from Sterolibacterium denitrificans (AcmB). The addition of solubilizing agent caused AcmB to exhibit a higher affinity to cholest-4-en-3-one (Ping-Pong bi bi KmA = 23.7 μM) than to AD (KmA = 529.2 μM), a supposedly native substrate of the enzyme. Moreover, we have isolated AcmB isoenzyme (AcmB2) and showed that conversion of AD and cholest-4-en-3-one proceeds at a similar rate. We demonstrated also that the apparent specificity constant of AcmB for cholest-4-en-3-one (kcat/KmA = 9.25∙106 M-1 s-1) is almost 20 times higher than measured for KSTD1 (kcat/KmA = 4.71∙105 M-1 s-1). CONCLUSIONS We confirmed the existence of AcmB preference for a substrate with an undegraded isooctyl chain. However, we showed that KSTD1 which was reported to be inactive with such substrates can catalyze the reaction if the solubility problem is addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja Wójcik
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30239, Krakow, Poland
| | - Michał Glanowski
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30239, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agnieszka M Wojtkiewicz
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30239, Krakow, Poland
| | - Ali Rohman
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, 60115, Indonesia
- Laboratory of Proteomics, Research Center for Bio-Molecule Engineering (BIOME), Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, 60115, Indonesia
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maciej Szaleniec
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30239, Krakow, Poland.
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12
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Rohman A, Dijkstra BW. Application of microbial 3-ketosteroid Δ 1-dehydrogenases in biotechnology. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 49:107751. [PMID: 33823268 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
3-Ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase catalyzes the 1(2)-dehydrogenation of 3-ketosteroid substrates using flavin adenine dinucleotide as a cofactor. The enzyme plays a crucial role in microbial steroid degradation, both under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, by initiating the opening of the steroid nucleus. Indeed, many microorganisms are known to possess one or more 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases. In the pharmaceutical industry, 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase activity is exploited to produce Δ1-3-ketosteroids, a class of steroids that display various biological activities. Many of them are used as active pharmaceutical ingredients in drug products, or as key precursors to produce pharmaceutically important steroids. Since 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase activity requires electron acceptors, among other considerations, Δ1-3-ketosteroid production has been industrially implemented using whole-cell fermentation with growing or metabolically active resting cells, in which the electron acceptors are available, rather than using the isolated enzyme. In this review we discuss biotechnological applications of microbial 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases, covering commonly used steroid-1(2)-dehydrogenating microorganisms, the bioprocess for preparing Δ1-3-ketosteroids, genetic engineering of 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases and related genes for constructing new, productive industrial strains, and microbial fermentation strategies for enhancing the product yield. Furthermore, we also highlight the recent development in the use of isolated 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases combined with a FAD cofactor regeneration system. Finally, in a somewhat different context, we summarize the role of 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase in cholesterol degradation by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other mycobacteria. Because the enzyme is essential for the pathogenicity of these organisms, it may be a potential target for drug development to combat mycobacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rohman
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia; Laboratory of Proteomics, Research Center for Bio-Molecule Engineering (BIOME), Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia; Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Bauke W Dijkstra
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands.
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13
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Liu HM, Yuan M, Liu AM, Ren L, Zhu GP, Sun LN. A bifunctional enzyme belonging to cytochrome P450 family involved in the O-dealkylation and N-dealkoxymethylation toward chloroacetanilide herbicides in Rhodococcus sp. B2. Microb Cell Fact 2021; 20:61. [PMID: 33663497 PMCID: PMC7934444 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01544-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The chloroacetamide herbicides pretilachlor is an emerging pollutant. Due to the large amount of use, its presence in the environment threatens human health. However, the molecular mechanism of pretilachlor degradation remains unknown. Results Now, Rhodococcus sp. B2 was isolated from rice field and shown to degrade pretilachlor. The maximum pretilachlor degradation efficiency (86.1%) was observed at a culture time of 5 d, an initial substrate concentration 50 mg/L, pH 6.98, and 30.1 °C. One novel metabolite N-hydroxyethyl-2-chloro-N-(2, 6-diethyl-phenyl)-acetamide was identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Draft genome comparison demonstrated that a 32,147-bp DNA fragment, harboring gene cluster (EthRABCDB2), was absent from the mutant strain TB2 which could not degrade pretilachlor. The Eth gene cluster, encodes an AraC/XylS family transcriptional regulator (EthRB2), a ferredoxin reductase (EthAB2), a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (EthBB2), a ferredoxin (EthCB2) and a 10-kDa protein of unknown function (EthDB2). Complementation with EthABCDB2 and EthABDB2, but not EthABCB2 in strain TB2 restored its ability to degrade chloroacetamide herbicides. Subsequently, codon optimization of EthABCDB2 was performed, after which the optimized components were separately expressed in Escherichia coli, and purified using Ni-affinity chromatography. A mixture of EthABCDB2 or EthABDB2 but not EthABCB2 catalyzed the N-dealkoxymethylation of alachlor, acetochlor, butachlor, and propisochlor and O-dealkylation of pretilachlor, revealing that EthDB2 acted as a ferredoxin in strain B2. EthABDB2 displayed maximal activity at 30 °C and pH 7.5. Conclusions This is the first report of a P450 family oxygenase catalyzing the O-dealkylation and N-dealkoxymethylation of pretilachlor and propisochlor, respectively. And the results of the present study provide a microbial resource for the remediation of chloroacetamide herbicides-contaminated sites.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Ming Liu
- The Research Center of Life Omics and Health, Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng Yuan
- The Research Center of Life Omics and Health, Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, People's Republic of China
| | - Ai-Min Liu
- The Research Center of Life Omics and Health, Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Ren
- College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524088, China
| | - Guo-Ping Zhu
- The Research Center of Life Omics and Health, Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, People's Republic of China.
| | - Li-Na Sun
- Eco-Environmental Protection Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 201403, People's Republic of China.
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14
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Doukyu N, Ishikawa M. Cholesterol oxidase from Rhodococcus erythropolis with high specificity toward β-cholestanol and pytosterols. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0241126. [PMID: 33104755 PMCID: PMC7588053 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Two genes (choRI and choRII) encoding cholesterol oxidases belonging to the vanillyl-alcohol oxidase (VAO) family were cloned on the basis of putative cholesterol oxidase gene sequences in the genome sequence data of Rhodococcus erythropolis PR4. The genes corresponding to the mature enzymes were cloned in a pET vector and expressed in Escherichia coli. The two cholesterol oxidases produced from the recombinant E. coli were purified to examine their properties. The amino acid sequence of ChoRI showed significant similarity (57%) to that of ChoRII. ChoRII was more stable than ChoRI in terms of pH and thermal stability. The substrate specificities of these enzymes differed distinctively from one another. Interestingly, the activities of ChoRII toward β-cholestanol, β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol were 2.4-, 2.1-, and 1.7-fold higher, respectively, than those of cholesterol. No cholesterol oxidases with high activity toward these sterols have been reported so far. The cholesterol oxidation products from these two enzymes also differed. ChoRI and ChoRII oxidized cholesterol to form cholest-4-en-3-one and 6β-hydroperoxycholest-4-en-3-one, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Doukyu
- Department of Life Sciences, Toyo University, Itakura-machi, Gunma, Japan
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Toyo University, Itakura-machi, Gunma, Japan
- Bio-Nano Electronic Research Center, Toyo University, Kawagoe, Saitama, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Makoto Ishikawa
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Toyo University, Itakura-machi, Gunma, Japan
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15
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Biosynthesis and Industrial Production of Androsteroids. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9091144. [PMID: 32899410 PMCID: PMC7570361 DOI: 10.3390/plants9091144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Steroids are a group of organic compounds that include sex hormones, adrenal cortical hormones, sterols, and phytosterols. In mammals, steroid biosynthesis starts from cholesterol via multiple steps to the final steroid and occurs in the gonads, adrenal glands, and placenta. This highly regulated pathway involves several cytochrome P450, as well as different dehydrogenases and reductases. Steroids in mammals have also been associated with drug production. Steroid pharmaceuticals such as testosterone and progesterone represent the second largest category of marketed medical products. There heterologous production through microbial transformation of phytosterols has gained interest in the last couple of decades. Phytosterols being the plants sterols serve as inexpensive substrates for the production of steroid derivatives. Various genes and biochemical pathways involved in phytosterol degradation have been identified in many Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium species. Apart from an early investigation in mammals, presence of steroids such as androsteroids and progesterone has also been demonstrated in plants. Their main role is linked with growth, development, and reproduction. Even though plants share some chemical features with mammals, the biosynthesis is different, with the first C22 hydroxylation as an example. This is performed by CYP11A1 in mammals and CYP90B1 in plants. Moreover, the entire plant steroid biosynthesis is not fully elucidated. Knowing this pathway could provide new processes for the industrial biotechnological production of steroid hormones in plants.
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16
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Luo JM, Cui HL, Jia HC, Li F, Cheng HJ, Shen YB, Wang M. Identification, Biological Characteristics, and Active Site Residues of 3-Ketosteroid Δ 1-Dehydrogenase Homologues from Arthrobacter simplex. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:9496-9512. [PMID: 32786835 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c03360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
3-Ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase (KsdD) is the key enzyme responsible for Δ1-dehydrogenation, which is one of the most valuable reactions for steroid catabolism. Arthrobacter simplex has been widely used in the industry due to its superior bioconversion efficiency, but KsdD information is not yet fully clear. Here, five KsdD homologues were identified in A. simplex CGMCC 14539. Bioinformatic analysis indicated their distinct properties and structures. Each KsdD was functionally confirmed by transcriptional response, overexpression, and heterologous expression. The substantial difference in substrate profiles might be related to the enzyme loop structure. Two promising enzymes (KsdD3 and KsdD5) were purified and characterized, exhibiting strong organic solvent tolerance and clear preference for 4-ene-3-oxosteroids. KsdD5 seemed to be more versatile due to good activity on substrates with or without a substituent at C11 and high optimal temperature and also possessed unique residues. It is the first time that KsdDs have been comprehensively disclosed in the A. simplex industrial strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Mei Luo
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, P. R. China
| | - Hui-Lin Cui
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Hong-Chen Jia
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Fang Li
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Hong-Jin Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Yan-Bing Shen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Min Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
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The Analysis of Estrogen-Degrading and Functional Metabolism Genes in Rhodococcus equi DSSKP-R-001. Int J Genomics 2020; 2020:9369182. [PMID: 32908857 PMCID: PMC7471831 DOI: 10.1155/2020/9369182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Estrogen contamination is recognized as one of the most serious environmental problems, causing widespread concern worldwide. Environmental estrogens are mainly derived from human and vertebrate excretion, drugs, and agricultural activities. The use of microorganisms is currently the most economical and effective method for biodegradation of environmental estrogens. Rhodococcus equi DSSKP-R-001 (R-001) has strong estrogen-degrading capabilities. Our study indicated that R-001 can use different types of estrogen as its sole carbon source for growth and metabolism, with final degradation rates above 90%. Transcriptome analysis showed that 720 (E1), 983 (E2), and 845 (EE2) genes were significantly upregulated in the estrogen-treated group compared with the control group, and 270 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were upregulated across all treatment groups. These DEGs included ABC transporters; estrogen-degrading genes, including those that perform initial oxidation and dehydrogenation reactions and those that further degrade the resulting substrates into small molecules; and metabolism genes that complete the intracellular transformation and utilization of estrogen metabolites through biological processes such as amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. In summary, the biodegradation of estrogens is coordinated by a metabolic network of estrogen-degrading enzymes, transporters, metabolic enzymes, and other coenzymes. In this study, the metabolic mechanisms by which Rhodococcus equi R-001 degrades various estrogens were analyzed for the first time. A new pollutant metabolism system is outlined, providing a starting point for the construction of engineered estrogen-degrading bacteria.
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18
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Testosterone Degradative Pathway of Novosphingobium tardaugens. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10110871. [PMID: 31683600 PMCID: PMC6895838 DOI: 10.3390/genes10110871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we have shown that Novosphingobium tardaugens NBRC 16725 (strain ARI-1), a bacterial strain that was isolated due to its capacity to mineralize the estrogenic endocrine compound 17β-estradiol, is also able to mineralize testosterone, the androgenic endocrine compound. Using in silico analysis, we predicted a new putative steroid degradation (SD) gene cluster in strain ARI-1, which resembles genes involved in testosterone degradation in Comamonas testosteroni and other testosterone degrading bacteria like Actinobacteria (like Rhodococcus and Mycobacteria genera) although with significant differences in gene organization. A whole transcriptomic analysis of N. tardaugens revealed that testosterone produces a limited induction of the genes of the SD cluster that show a high basal expression in its absence. The 3β/17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase involved in the first metabolic step of testosterone degradation was identified by using genetic and biochemical approaches. The construction of knockout mutant strains in the genes of the SD cluster together with in silico analyses suggests the existence of gene redundancy in the genome of N. tardaugens. This work will expand the knowledge about the metabolic pathways and biotransformation capabilities of a Gram-negative bacterium that could become a new model system in the bacterial steroid degradation field.
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Tang R, Shen Y, Xia M, Tu L, Luo J, Geng Y, Gao T, Zhou H, Zhao Y, Wang M. A highly efficient step-wise biotransformation strategy for direct conversion of phytosterol to boldenone. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2019; 283:242-250. [PMID: 30913432 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.03.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Collaborative microbial communities are ubiquitous in nature and exhibit appealing functions for enhanced production of natural products, which provides new possibility for biotechnology development. In this study, we bridged Mycobacterium neoaurum with Pichia pastoris to establish a step-wise biotransformation strategy for efficient biosynthesis of boldenone (BD) from phytosterol (PS). Firstly, the producing strains were rationally designed with overexpression of 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase (KsdD) and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17βHSD) in M. neoaurum and P. pastoris, respectively. Then, to shorten the total biotransformation process and provide reducing power, semi-batch fermentation strategy and glucose supplementation strategy were introduced at side-chain degradation stage and carbonyl reduction stage, respectively. Under the optimal transformation conditions, the productivity of BD was increased from 10% to 76% and the total biotransformation process was shortened by 41.7%, which is the shortest among the ever reported. Our results demonstrated an excellent biological strategy for production of many other valuable microbial products from bioresources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Tang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Yanbing Shen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, 300457 Tianjin, China
| | - Menglei Xia
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Linna Tu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Jianmei Luo
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Yuhan Geng
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Tian Gao
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Haijie Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Yunqiu Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Min Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, 300457 Tianjin, China.
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20
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Rohman A, Dijkstra BW. The role and mechanism of microbial 3-ketosteroid Δ 1-dehydrogenases in steroid breakdown. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2019; 191:105366. [PMID: 30991094 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
3-Ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases are FAD-dependent enzymes that catalyze the introduction of a double bond between the C1 and C2 atoms of the A-ring of 3-ketosteroid substrates. These enzymes are found in a large variety of microorganisms, especially in bacteria belonging to the phylum Actinobacteria. They play a critical role in the early steps of the degradation of the steroid core. 3-Ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases are of particular interest for the etiology of some infectious diseases, for the production of starting materials for the pharmaceutical industry, and for environmental bioremediation applications. Here we summarize and discuss the biochemical and enzymological properties of these enzymes, their microbial sources, and their natural diversity. The three-dimensional structure of a 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase in connection with the enzyme mechanism is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rohman
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia; The Laboratory of Proteomics, Institute of Tropical Disease, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia; The Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bauke W Dijkstra
- The Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands.
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21
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Development of a Synthetic 3-ketosteroid Δ 1-dehydrogenase for the Generation of a Novel Catabolic Pathway Enabling Cholesterol Degradation in Human Cells. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5969. [PMID: 30979909 PMCID: PMC6461610 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42046-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol is an essential component of membranes, which is acquired by cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis of lipoproteins or via de novo synthesis. In specialized cells, anabolic enzymes metabolize cholesterol, generating steroid hormones or bile acids. However, surplus cholesterol cannot be catabolized due to the lack of enzymes capable of degrading the cholestane ring. The inability to degrade cholesterol becomes evident in the development and progression of cardiovascular disease, where the accumulation of cholesterol/cholesteryl-esters in macrophages can elicit a maladaptive immune response leading to the development and progression of atherosclerosis. The discovery of cholesterol catabolic pathways in Actinomycetes led us to the hypothesis that if enzymes enabling cholesterol catabolism could be genetically engineered and introduced into human cells, the atherosclerotic process may be prevented or reversed. Comparison of bacterial enzymes that degrade cholesterol to obtain carbon and generate energy with the action of human enzymes revealed that humans lack a 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase (Δ1-KstD), which catalyzes the C-1 and C-2 desaturation of ring A. Here we describe the construction, heterologous expression, and actions of a synthetic humanized Δ1-KstD expressed in Hep3B and U-937 cells, providing proof that one of three key enzymes required for cholesterol ring opening can be functionally expressed in human cells.
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22
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Yamamura ET. Construction of Rhodococcus expression vectors and expression of the aminoalcohol dehydrogenase gene in Rhodococcus erythropolis. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2018; 82:1396-1403. [DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2018.1463154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
NADP+-dependent aminoalcohol dehydrogenase (AADH) of Rhodococcus erythropolis MAK154 produces double chiral aminoalcohols, which are used as pharmaceuticals. However, the genetic manipulation of Rhodococcus strains to increase their production of such industrially important enzymes is not well studied. Therefore, I aimed to construct Rhodococcus expression vectors, derived from the Rhodococcus–Escherichia coli shuttle vector pRET1102, to express aadh. The plasmid pRET1102 could be transformed into many actinomycete strains, including R. erythropolis. The transformation efficiency for a species closely related to R. erythropolis was higher than that for other actinomycete strains. Promoters of various strengths, hsp, 1200rep, and TRR, were obtained from Gram-positive bacteria. The activity of TRR was stronger than that of hsp and 1200rep. The aadh-expressing plasmid pRET1172 with TRR could be transformed into many actinomycete strains to increase their AADH production. The Rhodococcus expression vector, pRET11100, constructed by removing aadh from the pRET1172 plasmid may be useful for bioconversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ei-Tora Yamamura
- Technical Department, Kyowa Pharma Chemical Co., Ltd., Takaoka, Toyama, Japan
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23
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Yamamura ET. Bioconversion of pyridoxine to pyridoxamine through pyridoxal using a Rhodococcus expression system. J Biosci Bioeng 2018; 127:79-84. [PMID: 30057158 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2018] [Revised: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Pyridoxamine, which is a form of vitamin B6, is a promising candidate for a prophylactic and/or remedy for diabetic complications. Pyridoxamine is chemically synthesized by an oxidative method in manufacturing. However, pyridoxamine production by bioconversion, which is generally preferable for environmental and energetic aspects, has been little investigated. Therefore, I aimed to produce pyridoxamine from pyridoxine, which is a readily and economically available starting material, by bioconversion using a Rhodococcus expression system. I found in the bioconversion of pyridoxine to pyridoxal, approximately 450 mM pyridoxal was produced from 500 mM pyridoxine using recombinant Rhodococcus erythropolis expressing the pyridoxine 4-oxidase gene derived from Mesorhizobium loti. Next, in the bioconversion of pyridoxal to pyridoxamine using recombinant R. erythropolis expressing the pyridoxamine-pyruvate aminotransferase gene derived from M. loti, the bioconversion rate was approximately 80% under the same conditions as pyridoxal production. Finally, in the bioconversion of pyridoxine to pyridoxamine through pyridoxal using recombinant R. erythropolis coexpressing the genes for pyridoxine 4-oxidase and pyridoxamine-pyruvate aminotransferase, the bioconversion rate was approximately 75%. Based on these findings, pyridoxamine production by bioconversion using a Rhodococcus expression system may be of interest for future industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ei-Tora Yamamura
- Technical Department, Kyowa Pharma Chemical Co., Ltd., 530 Chokeiji, Takaoka, Toyama 933-8511, Japan.
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24
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Zhang R, Liu X, Wang Y, Han Y, Sun J, Shi J, Zhang B. Identification, function, and application of 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase isozymes in Mycobacterium neoaurum DSM 1381 for the production of steroidic synthons. Microb Cell Fact 2018; 17:77. [PMID: 29776364 PMCID: PMC5960168 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-018-0916-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background 3-Ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase (KstD) is a key enzyme in the metabolic pathway for chemical modifications of steroid hormones. Only a few KstDs have thus far been characterized biochemically and applied for the production of steroidal pharmaceutical intermediates. Three KstDs, KstD1, KstD2, and KstD3, were identified in Mycobacterium neoaurum DSM 1381, and they shared up to 99, 85 and 97% amino acid identity with previously reported KstDs, respectively. In this paper, KstDs from M. neoaurum DSM 1381 were investigated and exemplified their potential application for industrial steroid transformation. Results The recombinant KstD2 from Bacillus subtilis exhibited higher enzymatic activity when 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD) and 22-hydroxy-23, 24-bisnorchol-4-ene-3-one (4HP) were used as the substrates, and resulted in specific activities of 22.40 and 19.19 U mg−1, respectively. However, the specific activities of recombinant KstD2 from Escherichia coli, recombinant KstD1 from B. subtilis and E. coli, and recombinant KstD3, also fed with AD and 4HP, had significantly lower specific activities. We achieved up to 99% bioconversion rate of 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD) from 8 g L−1 AD after 15 h of fermentation using E. coli transformant BL21-kstD2. And in vivo transcriptional analysis revealed that the expression of kstD1 in M. neoaurum DSM 1381 increased by 60.5-fold with phytosterols as the substrate, while the mRNA levels of kstD2 and kstD3 were bearly affected by the phytosterols. Therefore, we attempted to create a 4HP producing strain without kstD1, which could covert 20 g L−1 phytosterols to 14.18 g L−1 4HP. Conclusions In vitro assay employing the recombinant enzymes revealed that KstD2 was the most promising candidate for biocatalysis in biotransformation of AD. However, in vivo analysis showed that the cellular regulation of kstD1 was much more active than those of the other kstDs in response to the presence of phytosterols. Based on the findings above, we successfully constructed E. coli transformant BL21-kstD2 for ADD production from AD and M. neoaurum DSM 1381 ΔkstD1 strain for 4HP production using phytosterols as the substrate. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12934-018-0916-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruijie Zhang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, 201210, Shanghai, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.,Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xiangcen Liu
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, 201210, Shanghai, China
| | - Yushi Wang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, 201210, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuchang Han
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, 201210, Shanghai, China
| | - Junsong Sun
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, 201210, Shanghai, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Jiping Shi
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, 201210, Shanghai, China. .,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.
| | - Baoguo Zhang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, 201210, Shanghai, China.
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25
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Fernández-Cabezón L, Galán B, García JL. New Insights on Steroid Biotechnology. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:958. [PMID: 29867863 PMCID: PMC5962712 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays steroid manufacturing occupies a prominent place in the pharmaceutical industry with an annual global market over $10 billion. The synthesis of steroidal active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) such as sex hormones (estrogens, androgens, and progestogens) and corticosteroids is currently performed by a combination of microbiological and chemical processes. Several mycobacterial strains capable of naturally metabolizing sterols (e.g., cholesterol, phytosterols) are used as biocatalysts to transform phytosterols into steroidal intermediates (synthons), which are subsequently used as key precursors to produce steroidal APIs in chemical processes. These synthons can also be modified by other microbial strains capable of introducing regio- and/or stereospecific modifications (functionalization) into steroidal molecules. Most of the industrial microbial strains currently available have been improved through traditional technologies based on physicochemical mutagenesis and selection processes. Surprisingly, Synthetic Biology and Systems Biology approaches have hardly been applied for this purpose. This review attempts to highlight the most relevant research on Steroid Biotechnology carried out in last decades, focusing specially on those works based on recombinant DNA technologies, as well as outlining trends and future perspectives. In addition, the need to construct new microbial cell factories (MCF) to design more robust and bio-sustainable bioprocesses with the ultimate aim of producing steroids à la carte is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Fernández-Cabezón
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain.,Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Beatriz Galán
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
| | - José L García
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
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26
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Fernández-Cabezón L, Galán B, García JL. Unravelling a new catabolic pathway of C-19 steroids in Mycobacterium smegmatis. Environ Microbiol 2018; 20:1815-1827. [PMID: 29611894 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we have characterized the C-19+ gene cluster (MSMEG_2851 to MSMEG_2901) of Mycobacterium smegmatis. By in silico analysis, we have identified the genes encoding enzymes involved in the modification of the A/B steroid rings during the catabolism of C-19 steroids in certain M. smegmatis mutants mapped in the PadR-like regulator (MSMEG_2868), that constitutively express the C-19+ gene cluster. By using gene complementation assays, resting-cell biotransformations and deletion mutants, we have characterized the most critical genes of the cluster, that is, kstD2, kstD3, kshA2, kshB2, hsaA2, hsaC2 and hsaD2. These results have allowed us to propose a new catabolic route named C-19+ pathway for the mineralization of C-19 steroids in M. smegmatis. Our data suggest that the deletion of the C-19+ gene cluster may be useful to engineer more robust and efficient M. smegmatis strains to produce C-19 steroids from sterols. Moreover, the new KshA2, KshB2, KstD2 and KstD3 isoenzymes may be useful to design new microbial cell factories for the 9α-hydroxylation and/or Δ1-dehydrogenation of 3-ketosteroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Fernández-Cabezón
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - Beatriz Galán
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - José L García
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid 28040, Spain
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27
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Guevara G, Heras LFDL, Perera J, Llorens JMN. Functional characterization of 3-ketosteroid 9α-hydroxylases in Rhodococcus ruber strain chol-4. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017. [PMID: 28642093 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The 3-Ketosteroid-9α-Hydroxylase, also known as KshAB [androsta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione, NADH:oxygen oxidoreductase (9α-hydroxylating); EC 1.14.13.142)], is a key enzyme in the general scheme of the bacterial steroid catabolism in combination with a 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase activity (KstD), being both responsible of the steroid nucleus (rings A/B) breakage. KshAB initiates the opening of the steroid ring by the 9α-hydroxylation of the C9 carbon of 4-ene-3-oxosteroids (e.g. AD) or 1,4-diene-3-oxosteroids (e.g. ADD), transforming them into 9α-hydroxy-4-androsten-3,17-dione (9OHAD) or 9α-hydroxy-1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (9OHADD), respectively. The redundancy of these enzymes in the actinobacterial genomes results in a serious difficulty for metabolic engineering this catabolic pathway to obtain intermediates of industrial interest. In this work, we have identified three homologous kshA genes and one kshB gen in different genomic regions of R. ruber strain Chol-4. We present a set of data that helps to understand their specific roles in this strain, including: i) description of the KshAB enzymes ii) construction and characterization of ΔkshB and single, double and triple ΔkshA mutants in R. ruber iii) growth studies of the above strains on different substrates and iv) genetic complementation and biotransformation assays with those strains. Our results show that KshA2 isoform is needed for the degradation of steroid substrates with short side chain, while KshA3 works on those molecules with longer side chains. KshA1 is a more versatile enzyme related to the cholic acid catabolism, although it also collaborates with KshA2 or KshA3 activities in the catabolism of steroids. Accordingly to what it is described for other Rhodococcus strains, our results also suggest that the side chain degradation is KshAB-independent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Govinda Guevara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Julián Perera
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juana María Navarro Llorens
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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28
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Wiens J, Ho R, Brassinga AK, Deck CA, Walsh PJ, Ben RN, Mcclymont K, Charlton T, Evans AN, Anderson WG. Biosynthesis of 1α-hydroxycorticosterone in the winter skate Leucoraja ocellata: evidence to suggest a novel steroidogenic route. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2017; 91:260-277. [PMID: 28593636 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The present study explores the ability of intracellular bacteria within the renal-inter-renal tissue of the winter skate Leucoraja ocellata to metabolize steroids and contribute to the synthesis of the novel elasmobranch corticosteroid, 1α-hydroxycorticosterone (1α-OH-B). Despite the rarity of C1 hydroxylation noted in the original identification of 1α-OH-B, literature provides evidence for steroid C1 hydroxylation by micro-organisms. Eight ureolytic bacterial isolates were identified in the renal-inter-renal tissue of L. ocellata, the latter being the site of 1α-OH-B synthesis. From incubations of bacterial isolates with known amounts of potential 1α-OH-B precursors, one isolate UM008 of the genus Rhodococcus was seen to metabolize corticosteroids and produce novel products via HPLC analysis. Cations Zn2+ and Fe3+ altered metabolism of certain steroid precursors, suggesting inhibition of Rhodococcus steroid catabolism. Genome sequencing of UM008 identified strong sequence and structural homology to that of Rhodococcus erythropolis PR4. A complete enzymatic pathway for steroid-ring oxidation as documented within other Actinobacteria was identified within the UM008 genome. This study highlights the potential role of Rhodococcus bacteria in steroid metabolism and proposes a novel alternative pathway for 1α-OH-B synthesis, suggesting a unique form of mutualism between intracellular bacteria and their elasmobranch host.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Wiens
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - R Ho
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - A K Brassinga
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - C A Deck
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - P J Walsh
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - R N Ben
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - K Mcclymont
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - T Charlton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - A N Evans
- Department of Coastal Sciences, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, University of Southern Mississippi, 703 East Beach Drive, Ocean Springs, MS, U.S.A
| | - W G Anderson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
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29
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Wang X, Feng J, Zhang D, Wu Q, Zhu D, Ma Y. Characterization of new recombinant 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenases for the biotransformation of steroids. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8378-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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30
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Site-directed mutagenesis under the direction of in silico protein docking modeling reveals the active site residues of 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase from Mycobacterium neoaurum. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-017-2310-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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31
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Montersino S, Te Poele E, Orru R, Westphal AH, Barendregt A, Heck AJR, van der Geize R, Dijkhuizen L, Mattevi A, van Berkel WJH. 3-Hydroxybenzoate 6-Hydroxylase from Rhodococcus jostii RHA1 Contains a Phosphatidylinositol Cofactor. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1110. [PMID: 28670303 PMCID: PMC5472690 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
3-Hydroxybenzoate 6-hydroxylase (3HB6H, EC 1.13.14.26) is a FAD-dependent monooxygenase involved in the catabolism of aromatic compounds in soil microorganisms. 3HB6H is unique among flavoprotein hydroxylases in that it harbors a phospholipid ligand. The purified protein obtained from expressing the gene encoding 3HB6H from Rhodococcus jostii RHA1 in the host Escherichia coli contains a mixture of phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylethanolamine, which are the major constituents of E. coli's cytoplasmic membrane. Here, we purified 3HB6H (RjHB6H) produced in the host R. jostii RHA#2 by employing a newly developed actinomycete expression system. Biochemical and biophysical analysis revealed that Rj3HB6H possesses similar catalytic and structural features as 3HB6H, but now contains phosphatidylinositol, which is a specific constituent of actinomycete membranes. Native mass spectrometry suggests that the lipid cofactor stabilizes monomer-monomer contact. Lipid analysis of 3HB6H from Pseudomonas alcaligenes NCIMB 9867 (Pa3HB6H) produced in E. coli supports the conclusion that 3HB6H enzymes have an intrinsic ability to bind phospholipids with different specificity, reflecting the membrane composition of their bacterial host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Montersino
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University and ResearchWageningen, Netherlands
| | - Evelien Te Poele
- Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
| | - Roberto Orru
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of PaviaPavia, Italy
| | - Adrie H Westphal
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University and ResearchWageningen, Netherlands
| | - Arjan Barendregt
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Research, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Albert J R Heck
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Research, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Robert van der Geize
- Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
| | - Lubbert Dijkhuizen
- Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
| | - Andrea Mattevi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of PaviaPavia, Italy
| | - Willem J H van Berkel
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University and ResearchWageningen, Netherlands
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Wang W, Ge F, Ma C, Li J, Ren Y, Li W, Fu J. Heterologous expression and characterization of a 3-ketosteroid-∆ 1-dehydrogenase from Gordonia neofelifaecis and its utilization in the bioconversion of androst-4,9(11)-dien-3,17-dione. 3 Biotech 2017; 7:19. [PMID: 28391482 PMCID: PMC5385177 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-017-0601-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
3-Ketosteroid-∆1-dehydrogenase (KstD), a key enzyme in microbial steroid catabolism, catalyzes the trans-axial elimination of the C1 and C2 hydrogen atoms of the A-ring from the polycyclic ring structure of 3-ketosteroids, and it was usually used to transform androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (AD) to produce androsta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione. Here, the KstD from Gordonia neofelifaecis was expressed efficiently in Escherichia coli. E. coli cells expressing KstD3gor were subjected to the investigation of dehydrogenation activity for different steroids. The results showed that KstD3gor has a clear preference for steroid substrates with 3-keto-4-ene configuration, and it exhibits higher activity towards steroid substrates carrying a small or no aliphatic side chain than towards substrates having a bulky side chain at the C-17 atom. The recombinant strain could efficiently convert androst-4,9(11)-dien-3,17-dione into androst-1,4,9(11)-trien-3,17-dione (with conversion rate of 96%). 1(2)-Dehydrogenation of androst-4,9(11)-dien-3,17-dione is one of the key steps in glucocorticoid production. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting on the conversion of androst-4,9(11)-dien-3,17-dione catalyzed by recombinant KstD; the expression system of KstD3gor reported here would have an impact in the industrial production of glucocorticoid in the future.
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Tang J, Liu X, Zeng C, Meng H, Tian M, Guo C. A novel route for the preparation of betamethasone from 9α-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione (9αOH-AD) by chemical synthesis and fermentation. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH 2017. [DOI: 10.3184/174751917x14925986241025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A novel and efficient synthesis of betamethasone has been developed from the readily available 9α-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione (9αOH-AD). The 16α-methyl was introduced stereoselectively with CH3Br and converted to the 16β-methyl, the 17-side chain was installed with 2-chlorovinyl ethyl ether in the place of the toxic KCN/HOAc, and a mild fermentation was employed for the 1,2-dehydrogenation, replacing the DDQ oxidation. By adjustments and improvements of the steps, this route produced betamethasone in 11 steps with a 22.9% overall yield, showing its potential for industrial application with relatively low toxicity and cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Tang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, P.R. China
| | - Xirong Liu
- Hunan Norchem Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd, Changsha, Hunan 410205, P.R. China
| | - Chunlin Zeng
- Hunan Norchem Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd, Changsha, Hunan 410205, P.R. China
| | - Hao Meng
- Hunan Norchem Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd, Changsha, Hunan 410205, P.R. China
| | - Mi Tian
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, P.R. China
| | - Cancheng Guo
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, P.R. China
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Shao M, Sha Z, Zhang X, Rao Z, Xu M, Yang T, Xu Z, Yang S. Efficient androst-1,4-diene-3,17-dione production by co-expressing 3-ketosteroid-Δ 1 -dehydrogenase and catalase in Bacillus subtilis. J Appl Microbiol 2017; 122:119-128. [PMID: 27797429 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
AIMS 3-ketosteroid-Δ1 -dehydrogenase (KSDD), a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent enzyme involved in sterol metabolism, specifically catalyses the conversion of androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (AD) to androst-1,4-diene-3,17-dione (ADD). However, the low KSDD activity and the toxic effects of hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) generated during the biotransformation of AD to ADD with FAD regeneration hinder its application on AD conversion. The aim of this work was to improve KSDD activity and eliminate the toxic effects of the generated H2 O2 to enhance ADD production. METHODS AND RESULTS The ksdd gene obtained from Mycobacterium neoaurum JC-12 was codon-optimized to increase its expression level in Bacillus subtilis, and the KSDD activity reached 12·3 U mg-1 , which was sevenfold of that of codon-unoptimized gene. To improve AD conversion, catalase was co-expressed with KSDD in B. subtilis 168/pMA5-ksddopt -katA to eliminate the toxic effects of H2 O2 generated during AD conversion. Finally, under optimized bioconversion conditions, fed-batch strategy was carried out and the ADD yield improved to 8·76 g l-1 . CONCLUSIONS This work demonstrates the potential to improve enzyme activity by codon-optimization and eliminate the toxic effects of H2 O2 by co-expressing catalase. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This study showed the highest ADD productivity ever reported and provides a promising strain for efficient ADD production in the pharmaceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Shao
- Laboratory of Applied Microorganisms and Metabolic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Z Sha
- Laboratory of Applied Microorganisms and Metabolic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - X Zhang
- Laboratory of Applied Microorganisms and Metabolic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Z Rao
- Laboratory of Applied Microorganisms and Metabolic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - M Xu
- Laboratory of Applied Microorganisms and Metabolic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - T Yang
- Laboratory of Applied Microorganisms and Metabolic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Z Xu
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - S Yang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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Fernández-Cabezón L, García-Fernández E, Galán B, García JL. Molecular characterization of a new gene cluster for steroid degradation in Mycobacterium smegmatis. Environ Microbiol 2017; 19:2546-2563. [PMID: 28217856 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The C-19 steroids 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD), 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD) or 9α-hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione (9OH-AD), which have been postulated as intermediates of the cholesterol catabolic pathway in Mycobacterium smegmatis, cannot be used as sole carbon and energy sources by this bacterium. Only the ΔkstR mutant which constitutively expresses the genes repressed by the KstR regulator can metabolize AD and ADD with severe difficulties but still cannot metabolize 9OH-AD, suggesting that these compounds are not true intermediates but side products of the cholesterol pathway. However, we have found that some M. smegmatis spontaneous mutants mapped in the PadR-like regulator (MSMEG_2868) can efficiently metabolize all C-19 steroids. We have demonstrated that the PadR mutants allow the expression of a gene cluster named C-19+ (MSMEG_2851 to MSMEG_2901) encoding steroid degrading enzymes, that are not expressed under standard culture conditions. The C-19+ cluster has apparently evolved independently from the upper cholesterol kstR-regulon, but both clusters converge on the lower cholesterol kstR2-regulon responsible for the metabolism of C and D steroid rings. Homologous C-19+ clusters have been found only in other actinobacteria that metabolize steroids, but remarkably it is absent in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Fernández-Cabezón
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - Esther García-Fernández
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Darwin 3, Madrid, 28049, Spain
| | - Beatriz Galán
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - José L García
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid, 28040, Spain
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Xiong LB, Liu HH, Xu LQ, Wei DZ, Wang FQ. Role Identification and Application of SigD in the Transformation of Soybean Phytosterol to 9α-Hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione in Mycobacterium neoaurum. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:626-631. [PMID: 28035826 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b05314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
9α-Hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione (9-OHAD) is a valuable steroid pharmaceutical intermediate which can be produced by the conversion of soybean phytosterols in mycobacteria. However, the unsatisfactory productivity and conversion efficiency of engineered mycobacterial strains hinder their industrial applications. Here, a sigma factor D (sigD) was investigated due to its dramatic downregulation during the conversion of phytosterols to 9-OHAD. It was determined as a negative regulator in the metabolism of phytosterols, and the deletion of sigD in a 9-OHAD-producing strain significantly enhanced the titer of 9-OHAD by 18.9%. Furthermore, a high yielding strain was constructed by the combined modifications of sigD and choM2, a key gene in the phytosterol metabolism pathway. After the modifications, the productivity of 9-OHAD reached 0.071 g/L/h (10.27 g/L from 20 g/L phytosterol), which was 22.5% higher than the original productivity of 0.058 g/L/h (8.37 g/L from 20 g/L phytosterol) in the industrial resting cell biotransformation system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Bin Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai, China
| | - Hao-Hao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai, China
| | - Li-Qin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai, China
| | - Dong-Zhi Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai, China
| | - Feng-Qing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai, China
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Hernández MA, Lara J, Gago G, Gramajo H, Alvarez HM. The pleiotropic transcriptional regulator NlpR contributes to the modulation of nitrogen metabolism, lipogenesis and triacylglycerol accumulation in oleaginous rhodococci. Mol Microbiol 2016; 103:366-385. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Martín A. Hernández
- INBIOP (Instituto de Biociencias de la Patagonia), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales; Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco; Ruta Provincial N° 1, Km 4-Ciudad Universitaria 9000 Comodoro Rivadavia Chubut Argentina
| | - Julia Lara
- IBR (Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas; Universidad Nacional de Rosario; Ocampo y Esmeralda 2000 Rosario Santa Fe Argentina
| | - Gabriela Gago
- IBR (Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas; Universidad Nacional de Rosario; Ocampo y Esmeralda 2000 Rosario Santa Fe Argentina
| | - Hugo Gramajo
- IBR (Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas; Universidad Nacional de Rosario; Ocampo y Esmeralda 2000 Rosario Santa Fe Argentina
| | - Héctor M. Alvarez
- INBIOP (Instituto de Biociencias de la Patagonia), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales; Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco; Ruta Provincial N° 1, Km 4-Ciudad Universitaria 9000 Comodoro Rivadavia Chubut Argentina
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Galán B, Uhía I, García-Fernández E, Martínez I, Bahíllo E, de la Fuente JL, Barredo JL, Fernández-Cabezón L, García JL. Mycobacterium smegmatis is a suitable cell factory for the production of steroidic synthons. Microb Biotechnol 2016; 10:138-150. [PMID: 27804278 PMCID: PMC5270728 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.12429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A number of pharmaceutical steroid synthons are currently produced through the microbial side-chain cleavage of natural sterols as an alternative to multi-step chemical synthesis. Industrially, these synthons have been usually produced through fermentative processes using environmental isolated microorganisms or their conventional mutants. Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2 155 is a model organism for tuberculosis studies which uses cholesterol as the sole carbon and energy source for growth, as other mycobacterial strains. Nevertheless, this property has not been exploited for the industrial production of steroidic synthons. Taking advantage of our knowledge on the cholesterol degradation pathway of M. smegmatis mc2 155 we have demonstrated that the MSMEG_6039 (kshB1) and MSMEG_5941 (kstD1) genes encoding a reductase component of the 3-ketosteroid 9α-hydroxylase (KshAB) and a ketosteroid Δ1 -dehydrogenase (KstD), respectively, are indispensable enzymes for the central metabolism of cholesterol. Therefore, we have constructed a MSMEG_6039 (kshB1) gene deletion mutant of M. smegmatis MS6039 that transforms efficiently natural sterols (e.g. cholesterol and phytosterols) into 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione. In addition, we have demonstrated that a double deletion mutant M. smegmatis MS6039-5941 [ΔMSMEG_6039 (ΔkshB1) and ΔMSMEG_5941 (ΔkstD1)] transforms natural sterols into 4-androstene-3,17-dione with high yields. These findings suggest that the catabolism of cholesterol in M. smegmatis mc2 155 is easy to handle and equally efficient for sterol transformation than other industrial strains, paving the way for valuating this strain as a suitable industrial cell factory to develop à la carte metabolic engineering strategies for the industrial production of pharmaceutical steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Galán
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Iria Uhía
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain.,MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Esther García-Fernández
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Igor Martínez
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Esther Bahíllo
- Department of Biotechnology, Gadea Biopharma, Parque Tecnológico de León, Nicostrato Vela s/n, 24009, León, Spain
| | - Juan L de la Fuente
- Department of Biotechnology, Gadea Biopharma, Parque Tecnológico de León, Nicostrato Vela s/n, 24009, León, Spain
| | - José L Barredo
- Department of Biotechnology, Gadea Biopharma, Parque Tecnológico de León, Nicostrato Vela s/n, 24009, León, Spain
| | - Lorena Fernández-Cabezón
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - José L García
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
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Zhang X, Wu D, Yang T, Xu M, Rao Z. Over-expression of Mycobacterium neoaurum 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase in Corynebacterium crenatum for efficient bioconversion of 4-androstene-3,17-dione to androst-1,4-diene-3,17-dione. ELECTRON J BIOTECHN 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejbt.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Liu Y, Shen Y, Qiao Y, Su L, Li C, Wang M. The effect of 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase isoenzymes on the transformation of AD to 9α-OH-AD by Rhodococcus rhodochrous DSM43269. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 43:1303-11. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-016-1804-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Rhodococcus rhodochrous DSM43269 is well known for its 3-ketosteroid-9α-hydroxylases. However, the function of its 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenases (KSDD) remains unknown. This study compared the involvement of ksdds in the strain’s androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (AD) transformation via gene deletion. The conversion was performed using AD as substrate or directly with 9α-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione (9α-OH-AD). The single deletion of ksdd1 or ksdd3 did not appear to result in the accumulation of 9α-OH-AD, whereas the single mutant △ksdd2 could preserve this compound to some extent. To further compare the role of ksdds in this strain, double mutants were constructed. All ksdd2 mutants combined with ksdd1 and/or ksdd3 resulted in the accumulation of 9α-OH-AD, among which the double mutant △ksdd2,3 behaved similarly to the single mutant △ksdd2 in this process. The mutant that lacked both ksdd1 and ksdd3 was still displayed, with no effect on the degradation of 9α-OH-AD. The triple mutant △ksdd1,2,3 was then constructed and exhibited the same capability as △ksdd1,2, accumulating more 9α-OH-AD than △ksdd2,3 and △ksdd2. The transcription of KSDD1 and KSDD2 increased, whereas that of KSDD3 seemed to exhibit no change, despite the use of the inducer AD or 9α-OH-AD. Thus, only ksdd1 and ksdd2 were involved in the transformation of AD to 9α-OH-AD. ksdd2 had the main role, ksdd1 had a minor effect on 9α-OH-AD degradation, and ksdd3 did not exhibit any action in this course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- grid.413109.e 0000 0000 9735 6249 Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology 300457 Tianjin People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanbing Shen
- grid.413109.e 0000 0000 9735 6249 Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology 300457 Tianjin People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuqian Qiao
- grid.413109.e 0000 0000 9735 6249 Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology 300457 Tianjin People’s Republic of China
| | - Liqiu Su
- grid.413109.e 0000 0000 9735 6249 Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology 300457 Tianjin People’s Republic of China
| | - Can Li
- grid.413109.e 0000 0000 9735 6249 Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology 300457 Tianjin People’s Republic of China
| | - Min Wang
- grid.413109.e 0000 0000 9735 6249 Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology 300457 Tianjin People’s Republic of China
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Zhang X, Rao Z, Zhang L, Xu M, Yang T. Efficient 9α-hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione production by engineered Bacillus subtilis co-expressing Mycobacterium neoaurum 3-ketosteroid 9α-hydroxylase and B. subtilis glucose 1-dehydrogenase with NADH regeneration. SPRINGERPLUS 2016; 5:1207. [PMID: 27516945 PMCID: PMC4967059 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2871-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
3-Ketosteroid 9α-hydroxylase (KSH, consisting of KshA and KshB), a key enzyme in steroid metabolism, can catalyze the transformation of 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD) to 9α-hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione (9OHAD) with NADH as coenzyme. In this work, KSH from Mycobacterium neoaurum JC-12 was successfully cloned and overexpressed in Bacillus subtilis 168. The expression and purification of KSH was analyzed by SDS-PAGE and KSH activity assay. Preliminary characterization of KSH was performed using purified KshA and KshB. The results showed that KSH was very unstable, and its activity was inhibited by most metal ions, especially Zn(2+). The whole-cells of recombinant B. subtilis, co-expression of KSH and glucose 1-dehydrogenase (GDH), were used as biocatalyst to convert AD to 9OHAD. The biocatalyst, in which the intracellular NADH was regenerated, efficiently catalyzed the bioconversion of AD to 9OHAD with a conversion rate of 90.4 % and productivity of 0.45 g (L h)(-1), respectively. This work proposed a strategy for efficiently producing 9OHAD by using B. subtilis as a promising whole-cell biocatalyst host and co-expressing KSH and GDH to construct a NADH regeneration system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122 Jiangsu People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhiming Rao
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122 Jiangsu People’s Republic of China
| | - Lele Zhang
- Jiangnan University (Rugao) Food Biotechnology Research Institute, Jiangsu Industrial Technology Research Institute, Rugao, 226500 Jiangsu People’s Republic of China
| | - Meijuan Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122 Jiangsu People’s Republic of China
| | - Taowei Yang
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122 Jiangsu People’s Republic of China
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Li Q, Ge F, Tan Y, Zhang G, Li W. Genome-Wide Transcriptome Profiling of Mycobacterium smegmatis MC² 155 Cultivated in Minimal Media Supplemented with Cholesterol, Androstenedione or Glycerol. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E689. [PMID: 27164097 PMCID: PMC4881515 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17050689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium smegmatis strain MC² 155 is an attractive model organism for the study of M. tuberculosis and other mycobacterial pathogens, as it can grow well using cholesterol as a carbon resource. However, its global transcriptomic response remains largely unrevealed. In this study, M. smegmatis MC² 155 cultivated in androstenedione, cholesterol and glycerol supplemented media were collected separately for a RNA-Sequencing study. The results showed that 6004, 6681 and 6348 genes were expressed in androstenedione, cholesterol and glycerol supplemented media, and 5891 genes were expressed in all three conditions, with 237 specially expressed in cholesterol added medium. A total of 1852 and 454 genes were significantly up-regulated by cholesterol compared with the other two supplements. Only occasional changes were observed in basic carbon and nitrogen metabolism, while almost all of the genes involved in cholesterol catabolism and mammalian cell entry (MCE) were up-regulated by cholesterol, but not by androstenedione. Eleven and 16 gene clusters were induced by cholesterol when compared with glycerol or androstenedione, respectively. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the cholesterol responsive transcriptome of M. smegmatis. Our results indicated that cholesterol induced many more genes and increased the expression of the majority of genes involved in cholesterol degradation and MCE in M. smegmatis, while androstenedione did not have the same effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qun Li
- College of Life Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China.
| | - Fanglan Ge
- College of Life Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China.
| | - Yunya Tan
- College of Life Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China.
| | - Guangxiang Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China.
| | - Wei Li
- College of Life Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China.
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A mutant form of 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase gives altered androst-1,4-diene-3, 17-dione/androst-4-ene-3,17-dione molar ratios in steroid biotransformations by Mycobacterium neoaurum ST-095. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 43:691-701. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-016-1743-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Mycobacterium neoaurum ST-095 and its mutant M. neoaurum JC-12, capable of transforming phytosterol to androst-1,4-diene-3,17-dione (ADD) and androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (AD), produce very different molar ratios of ADD/AD. The distinct differences were related to the enzyme activity of 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenase (KSDD), which catalyzes the C1,2 dehydrogenation of AD to ADD specifically. In this study, by analyzing the primary structure of KSDDI (from M. neoaurum ST-095) and KSDDII (from M. neoaurum JC-12), we found the only difference between KSDDI and KSDDII was the mutation of Val366 to Ser366. This mutation directly affected KSDD enzyme activity, and this result was confirmed by heterologous expression of these two enzymes in Bacillus subtilis. Assay of the purified recombinant enzymes showed that KSDDII has a higher C1,2 dehydrogenation activity than KSDDI. The functional difference between KSDDI and KSDDII in phytosterol biotransformation was revealed by gene disruption and complementation. Phytosterol transformation results demonstrated that ksdd I and ksdd II gene disrupted strains showed similar ADD/AD molar ratios, while the ADD/AD molar ratios of the ksdd I and ksdd II complemented strains were restored to their original levels. These results proved that the different ADD/AD molar ratios of these two M. neoaurum strains were due to the differences in KSDD. Finally, KSDD structure analysis revealed that the Val366Ser mutation could possibly play an important role in stabilizing the active center and enhancing the interaction of AD and KSDD. This study provides a reliable theoretical basis for understanding the structure and catalytic mechanism of the Mycobacteria KSDD enzyme.
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Unraveling and engineering the production of 23,24-bisnorcholenic steroids in sterol metabolism. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21928. [PMID: 26898409 PMCID: PMC4761994 DOI: 10.1038/srep21928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The catabolism of sterols in mycobacteria is highly important due to its close relevance in the pathogenesis of pathogenic strains and the biotechnological applications of nonpathogenic strains for steroid synthesis. However, some key metabolic steps remain unknown. In this study, the hsd4A gene from Mycobacterium neoaurum ATCC 25795 was investigated. The encoded protein, Hsd4A, was characterized as a dual-function enzyme, with both 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase activities in vitro. Using a kshAs-null strain of M. neoaurum ATCC 25795 (NwIB-XII) as a model, Hsd4A was further confirmed to exert dual-function in sterol catabolism in vivo. The deletion of hsd4A in NwIB-XII resulted in the production of 23,24-bisnorcholenic steroids (HBCs), indicating that hsd4A plays a key role in sterol side-chain degradation. Therefore, two competing pathways, the AD and HBC pathways, were proposed for the side-chain degradation. The proposed HBC pathway has great value in illustrating the production mechanism of HBCs in sterol catabolism and in developing HBCs producing strains for industrial application via metabolic engineering. Through the combined modification of hsd4A and other genes, three HBCs producing strains were constructed that resulted in promising productivities of 0.127, 0.109 and 0.074 g/l/h, respectively.
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Liu C, Zhang X, Rao ZM, Shao ML, Zhang LL, Wu D, Xu ZH, Li H. Mutation breeding of high 4-androstene-3,17-dione-producing Mycobacterium neoaurum ZADF-4 by atmospheric and room temperature plasma treatment. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2015; 16:286-95. [PMID: 25845362 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b1400274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Steroid medication is used extensively in clinical applications and comprises a large and vital part of the pharmaceutical industry. However, the difficulty of separating 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD) from 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD) restricts the application of the microbial transformation of phytosterols in the industry. A novel atmospheric and room temperature plasma (ARTP) treatment, which employs helium as the working gas, was used to generate Mycobacterium neoaurum mutants producing large amounts of AD. After treatment of cultures with ARTP, four mutants were selected using a novel screening method with a color assay. Among the mutants, M. neoaurum ZADF-4 was considered the best candidate for industrial application. When the fermentation medium contained 15 g/L phytosterols and was cultivated on a rotary shaker at 160 r/min at 30 °C for 7 d, (6.28±0.11) g/L of AD and (0.82±0.05) g/L of ADD were produced by the ZADF-4 mutant, compared with (4.83±0.13) g/L of AD and (2.34±0.06) g/L of ADD by the original strain, M. neoaurum ZAD. Compared with ZAD, the molar yield of AD increased from 48.3% to 60.3% in the ZADF-4 mutant. This result indicates that ZADF-4 may have potential for industrial production of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; Laboratory of Applied Microorganisms and Metabolic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
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A Two-Component para-Nitrophenol Monooxygenase Initiates a Novel 2-Chloro-4-Nitrophenol Catabolism Pathway in Rhodococcus imtechensis RKJ300. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 82:714-23. [PMID: 26567304 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03042-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhodococcus imtechensis RKJ300 (DSM 45091) grows on 2-chloro-4-nitrophenol (2C4NP) and para-nitrophenol (PNP) as the sole carbon and nitrogen sources. In this study, by genetic and biochemical analyses, a novel 2C4NP catabolic pathway different from those of all other 2C4NP utilizers was identified with hydroxyquinol (hydroxy-1,4-hydroquinone or 1,2,4-benzenetriol [BT]) as the ring cleavage substrate. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis indicated that the pnp cluster located in three operons is likely involved in the catabolism of both 2C4NP and PNP. The oxygenase component (PnpA1) and reductase component (PnpA2) of the two-component PNP monooxygenase were expressed and purified to homogeneity, respectively. The identification of chlorohydroquinone (CHQ) and BT during 2C4NP degradation catalyzed by PnpA1A2 indicated that PnpA1A2 catalyzes the sequential denitration and dechlorination of 2C4NP to BT and catalyzes the conversion of PNP to BT. Genetic analyses revealed that pnpA1 plays an essential role in both 2C4NP and PNP degradations by gene knockout and complementation. In addition to catalyzing the oxidation of CHQ to BT, PnpA1A2 was also found to be able to catalyze the hydroxylation of hydroquinone (HQ) to BT, revealing the probable fate of HQ that remains unclear in PNP catabolism by Gram-positive bacteria. This study fills a gap in our knowledge of the 2C4NP degradation mechanism in Gram-positive bacteria and also enhances our understanding of the genetic and biochemical diversity of 2C4NP catabolism.
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Kiss FM, Khatri Y, Zapp J, Bernhardt R. Identification of new substrates for the CYP106A1-mediated 11-oxidation and investigation of the reaction mechanism. FEBS Lett 2015; 589:2320-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2015.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Genetic differences in ksdD influence on the ADD/AD ratio of Mycobacterium neoaurum. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 42:507-13. [PMID: 25572208 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-014-1577-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium neoaurum TCCC 11028 (MNR) and M. neoaurum TCCC 11028 M3 (MNR M3) significantly differ in the ratio of androst-1,4-diene-3,17-dione (ADD) to androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (AD) produced. The large fluctuations are related to the dehydrogenation activity of 3-ketosteroid-Δ(1)-dehydrogenase (KsdD). Analysis of the primary structure of KsdD showed that the Ser-138 of KsdD-MNR changed to Leu-138 of KsdD-MNR M3 because of C413T in the ksdD gene. This phenomenon directly affected KsdD activity. The effect of the primary structure of KsdD on dehydrogenation activity was confirmed through exogenous expression. Whole-cell transformation initially revealed that KsdD-MNR showed a higher dehydrogenation activity than KsdD-MNR M3. Then, ksdD gene replacement strain was constructed by homologous recombination. The results of steroid transformation experiments showed that the ability of the MNR M3ΔksdD::ksdD-MNR strain to produce ADD was improved and it returned to the similar level of the MNR strain. This result indicated that the ADD/AD ratio of the two M. neoaurum strains was influenced by the difference in ksdD. The mechanism by which residue mutations alter enzyme activity may be connected with the crystal structure of KsdD from Rhodococcus erythropolis SQ1. As a key amino acid residue in the active center position, Ser-138 played an important role in maintaining the active center in the hydrophobic environment of KsdD. This study may serve as a basis for future studies on the structural analysis and catalytic mechanism of dehydrogenase.
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Venkataraman H, te Poele EM, Rosłoniec KZ, Vermeulen N, Commandeur JNM, van der Geize R, Dijkhuizen L. Biosynthesis of a steroid metabolite by an engineered Rhodococcus erythropolis strain expressing a mutant cytochrome P450 BM3 enzyme. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 99:4713-21. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-6281-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 11/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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50
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Johnson NS, Yun SS, Li W. Investigations of novel unsaturated bile salts of male sea lamprey as potential chemical cues. J Chem Ecol 2014; 40:1152-60. [PMID: 25355633 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-014-0511-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Sulfated bile salts function as chemical cues that coordinate reproduction in sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus. 7α, 12α, 24-trihydroxy-5α-cholan-3-one 24-sulfate (3kPZS) is the most abundant known bile salt released by sexually mature male sea lampreys and attracts ovulated females. However, previous studies showed that the male-produced pheromone consists of unidentified components in addition to 3kPZS. Here, analysis of water conditioned with mature male sea lampreys indicated the presence of 4 oxidized, unsaturated compounds with molecular weights of 466 Da, 468 Da, and 2 of 470 Da. These compounds were not detectable in water conditioned with immature male sea lampreys. By using mass spectrometry, 4 A-ring unsaturated sulfated bile salts were tentatively identified from male washings as 2 4-ene, a 1-ene, and a 1,4-diene analogs. These were synthesized to determine if they attracted ovulated female sea lampreys to spawning nests in natural streams. One of the novel synthetic bile salts, 3 keto-1-ene PZS, attracted ovulated females to the point of application at a concentration of 10(-12) M. This study reveals the structural diversity of bile salts in sea lamprey, some of which have been demonstrated to be pheromonal cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas S Johnson
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, 13 Natural Resources Building, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
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