Practical Guidance for Clinical Microbiology Laboratories: Diagnosis of Bacterial Gastroenteritis

Unveiling novel threats: Urban river isolation of Aeromonas veronii with unusual VEB-28 extended-spectrum β-lactamase and distinct mcr variants

Aeromonas spp. are frequently encountered in aquatic environments, with Aeromonas veronii emerging as an opportunistic pathogen causing a range of diseases in both humans and animals. Recent reports have raised public health concerns due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant Aeromonas spp. This is particularly noteworthy as these species have demonstrated the ability to acquire and transmit antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). In this study, we report the genomic and phenotypic characteristics of the A. veronii TR112 strain, which harbors a novel variant of the Vietnamese Extended-spectrum β-lactamase-encoding gene, blaVEB-28, and two mcr variants recovered from an urban river located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, Brazil. A. veronii TR112 strain exhibited high minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for ceftazidime (64 μg/mL), polymyxin (8 μg/mL), and ciprofloxacin (64 μg/mL). Furthermore, the TR112 strain demonstrated adherence to HeLa and Caco-2 cells within 3 h, cytotoxicity to HeLa cells after 24 h of interaction, and high mortality rates to the Galleria mellonella model. Genomic analysis showed that the TR112 strain belongs to ST257 and presented a range of ARGs conferring resistance to β-lactams (blaVEB-28, blaCphA3, blaOXA-912) and polymyxins (mcr-3 and mcr-3.6). Additionally, we identified a diversity of virulence factor-encoding genes, including those encoding mannose-sensitive hemagglutinin (Msh) pilus, polar flagella, type IV pili, type II secretion system (T2SS), aerolysin (AerA), cytotoxic enterotoxin (Act), hemolysin (HlyA), hemolysin III (HlyIII), thermostable hemolysin (TH), and capsular polysaccharide (CPS). In conclusion, our findings suggest that A. veronii may serve as an environmental reservoir for ARGs and virulence factors, highlighting its importance as a potential pathogen in public health.

Microbiological Methods Used in the Enterics for Global Health Shigella Surveillance Study

Background

Shigella is a major cause of diarrhea in young children worldwide. Multiple vaccines targeting Shigella are in development, and phase 3 clinical trials are imminent to determine efficacy against shigellosis.

Methods

The Enterics for Global Health (EFGH) Shigella surveillance study is designed to determine the incidence of medically attended shigellosis in 6- to 35-month-old children in 7 resource-limited settings. Here, we describe the microbiological methods used to isolate and identify Shigella. We developed a standardized laboratory protocol for isolation and identification of Shigella by culture. This protocol was implemented across all 7 sites, ensuring consistency and comparability of results. Secondary objectives of the study are to determine the antibiotic resistance profiles of Shigella, compare isolation of Shigella from rectal swabs versus whole stool, and compare isolation of Shigella following transport of rectal swabs in Cary-Blair versus a modified buffered glycerol saline transport medium.

Conclusions

Data generated from EFGH using culture methods described herein can potentially be used for microbiological endpoints in future phase 3 clinical trials to evaluate vaccines against shigellosis and for other clinical and public health studies focused on these organisms.

Microfluidic systems for infectious disease diagnostics

Microorganisms, encompassing both uni- and multicellular entities, exhibit remarkable diversity as omnipresent life forms in nature. They play a pivotal role by supplying essential components for sustaining biological processes across diverse ecosystems, including higher host organisms. The complex interactions within the human gut microbiota are crucial for metabolic functions, immune responses, and biochemical signalling, particularly through the gut-brain axis. Viruses also play important roles in biological processes, for example by increasing genetic diversity through horizontal gene transfer when replicating inside living cells. On the other hand, infection of the human body by microbiological agents may lead to severe physiological disorders and diseases. Infectious diseases pose a significant burden on global healthcare systems, characterized by substantial variations in the epidemiological landscape. Fast spreading antibiotic resistance or uncontrolled outbreaks of communicable diseases are major challenges at present. Furthermore, delivering field-proven point-of-care diagnostic tools to the most severely affected populations in low-resource settings is particularly important and challenging. New paradigms and technological approaches enabling rapid and informed disease management need to be implemented. In this respect, infectious disease diagnostics taking advantage of microfluidic systems combined with integrated biosensor-based pathogen detection offers a host of innovative and promising solutions. In this review, we aim to outline recent activities and progress in the development of microfluidic diagnostic tools. Our literature research mainly covers the last 5 years. We will follow a classification scheme based on the human body systems primarily involved at the clinical level or on specific pathogen transmission modes. Important diseases, such as tuberculosis and malaria, will be addressed more extensively.

Comparative evaluation of the detection rate, workflow and associated costs of a multiplex PCR panel versus conventional methods in diagnosis of infectious gastroenteritis

Introduction. Infectious gastroenteritis is a common reason for consulting a physician. Although most cases of gastrointestinal illness are self-limiting, the identification of the etiologic pathogen by stool specimen analysis is important in cases of more severe illness and for epidemiological reasons.Due to the broad range of causative pathogens, the conventional examination of a stool specimen is labour-intensive and usually requires different diagnostic methods. Multiplex PCR tests [e.g. BioFire Gastrointestinal (GI) Panel] allow the rapid detecting of up to 22 pathogens in one test.Hypothesis. Using a multiplex PCR panel to test stool specimens for infectious gastroenteritis pathogens can improve the detection rate, reduce the time-to-result and hands-on time and lower the costs of a microbiology laboratory.Aim. This study was aimed at evaluating the detection rate, the workflow and associated costs of stool specimen management using the BioFire GI Panel versus conventional methods.Methodology. Stool specimens were evaluated prospectively during the routine operation. Pathogen detection rate, hands-on time, time-to-result and material and personnel costs were determined for the BioFire GI Panel and conventional methods-the latter based on physician request and excluding viral testing.Results. Analysing 333 specimens collected between 2019 and 2020, the detection rate of enteropathogens was significantly higher with a positivity rate of 39.9 % using the multiplex PCR panel compared with 15.0 % using the conventional methods. The BioFire GI Panel presented results in a median time of 2.2 h compared with 77.5 h for culture and 22.1 h for antigen testing, noting that no tests were performed at weekends except for toxinogenic Clostridioides difficile. Based on list prices, the BioFire GI Panel was nine times more expensive compared with conventional methods, whereas hands-on-time was significantly lower using the BioFire GI Panel.Conclusion. Multiplex PCR panels are valuable tools for laboratory identification of infectious agents causing diarrhoea. The higher costs of such a multiplex PCR panel might be outweighed by the higher detection rate, ease of handling, rapid results and most likely improved patient management. However, these panels do not provide information on antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Therefore, if this is necessary for targeted therapy or if outbreak monitoring and control is required, specimens must still be cultured.

Etiologic and Anti-microbial Susceptibility Profiles of Bacterial Urinary Tract Infection and Bacterial Enteritis among Children at a Private Multi-Specialty Healthcare Facility in Abuja, Nigeria: A 5-Year Separate and Comparative Review

BACKGROUND

Urinary tract infection (UTI) and enteritis are major causes of morbidity and mortality in children. A combined profiling of UTI and enteritis could be helpful since stool plays a major role in the etiopathogenesis of UTI.

AIM

This study aimed to examine and compare bacterial UTI and bacterial enteritis in respect of their etiology and anti-microbial susceptibility (AMS) in children aged 0 to 17 years at Alliance Hospital, Abuja.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a retrospective descriptive study of urine cultures in children who were investigated for UTI and of stool cultures in those investigated for enteritis. Data of 543 urine cultures and 614 stool cultures from January 1, 2017 to May 31, 2022 were retrieved. Bacterial yields, percentage susceptibility (PS), log-normalized susceptibility value (SVn), percentage of multi-drug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, and multiple anti-microbial resistance index (MARI) were computed and compared.

RESULTS

The bacterial yields of urine and stool cultures were 29% and 34%, respectively. Escherichia coli was the most common bacterial cause of UTI and enteritis. Overall susceptibility was sub-optimal and similar between uropathogens and enteropathogens [PS, 64% vs. 62%; mean SVn, 5.75 vs. 5.62 (P = 0.564)]. Levofloxacin was the most effective anti-microbial agent against both uro- and entero-pathogens, while amoxicillin clavulanate and cotrimoxazole were among the least effective. The burdens of MDR uro- and entero-pathogens were 39% and 46%, and their MARIs were 0.36 and 0.38, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Like in many healthcare institutions, Escherichia coli is the most common bacterial cause of UTI and enteritis in children at our facility. Second-generation fluoroquinolones remain effective against bacterial UTI and bacterial enteritis in children. Stool AMS surveillance could potentially be a surrogate strategy for urine AMS surveillance in children. Training and re-training on anti-microbial stewardship remain crucial in Nigeria.

Clinical Timing-Sequence Warning Models for Serious Bacterial Infections in Adults Based on Machine Learning: Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND

Serious bacterial infections (SBIs) are linked to unplanned hospital admissions and a high mortality rate. The early identification of SBIs is crucial in clinical practice.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to establish and validate clinically applicable models designed to identify SBIs in patients with infective fever.

METHODS

Clinical data from 945 patients with infective fever, encompassing demographic and laboratory indicators, were retrospectively collected from a 2200-bed teaching hospital between January 2013 and December 2020. The data were randomly divided into training and test sets at a ratio of 7:3. Various machine learning (ML) algorithms, including Boruta, Lasso (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator), and recursive feature elimination, were utilized for feature filtering. The selected features were subsequently used to construct models predicting SBIs using logistic regression (LR), random forest (RF), and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) with 5-fold cross-validation. Performance metrics, including the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and area under the ROC curve (AUC), accuracy, sensitivity, and other relevant parameters, were used to assess model performance. Considering both model performance and clinical needs, 2 clinical timing-sequence warning models were ultimately confirmed using LR analysis. The corresponding predictive nomograms were then plotted for clinical use. Moreover, a physician, blinded to the study, collected additional data from the same center involving 164 patients during 2021. The nomograms developed in the study were then applied in clinical practice to further validate their clinical utility.

RESULTS

In total, 69.9% (661/945) of the patients developed SBIs. Age, hemoglobin, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, fibrinogen, and C-reactive protein levels were identified as important features by at least two ML algorithms. Considering the collection sequence of these indicators and clinical demands, 2 timing-sequence models predicting the SBI risk were constructed accordingly: the early admission model (model 1) and the model within 24 hours of admission (model 2). LR demonstrated better stability than RF and XGBoost in both models and performed the best in model 2, with an AUC, accuracy, and sensitivity of 0.780 (95% CI 0.720-841), 0.754 (95% CI 0.698-804), and 0.776 (95% CI 0.711-832), respectively. XGBoost had an advantage over LR in AUC (0.708, 95% CI 0.641-775 vs 0.686, 95% CI 0.617-754), while RF achieved better accuracy (0.729, 95% CI 0.673-780) and sensitivity (0.790, 95% CI 0.728-844) than the other 2 approaches in model 1. Two SBI-risk prediction nomograms were developed for clinical use based on LR, and they exhibited good performance with an accuracy of 0.707 and 0.750 and a sensitivity of 0.729 and 0.927 in clinical application.

CONCLUSIONS

The clinical timing-sequence warning models demonstrated efficacy in predicting SBIs in patients suspected of having infective fever and in clinical application, suggesting good potential in clinical decision-making. Nevertheless, additional prospective and multicenter studies are necessary to further confirm their clinical utility.

Prevalence and virulence potential of Aeromonas spp. isolated from human diarrheal samples in North East Italy

IMPORTANCE

In this work, we demonstrate the epidemiologic relevance of the Aeromonas genus as the cause of infective diarrhea in North East Italy, both in children and adult subjects, with the significative presence of highly pathogenic strains. Aeromonas strains possess a heterogeneous armamentarium of pathogenicity factors that allows the microbe to affect a wide range of human intestinal epithelial cell processes that justify the ability to induce diarrhea through different mechanisms and cause diseases of variable severity, as observed for other gastrointestinal pathogens. However, it remains to be determined whether specific genotype(s) are associated with clinical pictures of different severity to implement the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this relevant enteric pathogen.

A diagnostic stewardship approach to prevent unnecessary testing of an enteric bacterial molecular panel

IMPORTANCE

Testing for enteric bacterial pathogens in patients hospitalized for more than 3 days is almost always inappropriate. Our study validates the utility of the 3-day rule and the use of clinical decision support tools to decrease unnecessary testing of enteropathogenic bacteria other than C. difficile. Overriding the restriction was very low yield. Our study highlights the importance of diagnostic stewardship and further refines the criteria for allowing providers to override the restriction while monitoring the impact of the interventions.

Molecular Characterization of Hetero-Pathogenic and Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli Pathotypes in Diarrheic Children under Five Years and Exposure Environment in Ogun State, South-West Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) is one of the most common etiological agents of moderate-to-severe diarrhea in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). Therefore, determining the source(s) of DEC in index cases and exposure environment is important for developing a prevention strategy. The current study aims to investigate the prevalence of DEC among children under 5 years and their exposure environment in Ogun State, Nigeria.

METHODS

Samples from 228 diarrheic children and their exposure environment were collected and screened for E. coli. Bio-chemically compatible distinct colonies were molecularly characterized using a 7-virulence-gene multiplex PCR with virulence factors (VFs) indicative of four pathotypes of E. coli: enterotoxigenic (ETEC), verotoxigenic (VTEC), enteropathogenic (EPEC), and enteroinvasive (EIEC). Representative pathotypes were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility and over-expressed efflux pump assays.

RESULTS

One or more VFs typical of specific pathotypes were detected in 25.9% (59/228) diarrhea cases consisting of ETEC (21.5%) and EPEC (0.4%), while hetero-pathogenic pathotypes were found in 4.0% of cases. Of the food sources, 27.9% (101/362) were positive for DEC, of which ETEC accounted for 21.0%, VTEC 1.9%, EPEC 0.6%, EIEC 0.6%, and hetero-pathogenic pathotypes were 3.9%. Furthermore, ETEC was the only pathotype detected in the wastewater (4/183). Interestingly, the consumption of street-vended foods was the most significant (p = 0.04) risk factor for DEC infection in the study area. A total of 73.3% of selected DEC pathotypes showed resistance to antimicrobials, while 27.5% demonstrated over-expression of efflux pump activity.

CONCLUSION

The high prevalence of ETEC across all sources and the occurrence of hetero-pathogenic DEC in diarrheic children and food sources emphasizes the importance of establishing a better strategy for the control and prevention of diarrhea among children in low- and medium-income households.

Therapeutic Effects of Oral Application of Menthol and Extracts from Tormentil (Potentilla erecta), Raspberry Leaves (Rubus idaeus), and Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) during Acute Murine Campylobacteriosis

Human food-borne infections with the enteropathogen Campylobacter jejuni are becoming increasingly prevalent worldwide. Since antibiotics are usually not indicated in campylobacteriosis, alternative treatment regimens are important. We here investigated potential disease-alleviating effects of menthol and of extracts from tormentil, raspberry leaves, and loosestrife in acute murine campylobacteriosis. Therefore, C. jejuni-infected microbiota-depleted IL-10-/- mice were orally treated with the compounds alone or all in combination from day 2 until day 6 post-infection. Whereas neither treatment regimen affected gastrointestinal pathogen loads, the combination of compounds alleviated C. jejuni-induced diarrheal symptoms in diseased mice on day 6 post-infection. Furthermore, the therapeutic application of tormentil and menthol alone and the combination of the four compounds resulted in lower colonic T cell numbers in infected mice when compared to placebo counterparts. Notably, pro-inflammatory cytokines measured in mesenteric lymph nodes taken from C. jejuni-infected mice following tormentil, menthol, and combination treatment did not differ from basal concentrations. However, neither treatment regimen could dampen extra-intestinal immune responses, including systemic pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion on day 6 post-infection. In conclusion, the combination of menthol and of extracts from tormentil, raspberry leaves, and loosestrife constitutes an antibiotic-independent approach to alleviate campylobacteriosis symptoms.

Diagnostic value of serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein in discriminating between bacterial and nonbacterial colitis: a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Differentiating between bacterial and nonbacterial colitis remains a challenge. We aimed to evaluate the value of serum procalcitonin (PCT) and C-reactive protein (CRP) in differentiating between bacterial and nonbacterial colitis.

METHODS

Adult patients with three or more episodes of watery diarrhea and colitis symptoms within 14 days of a hospital visit were eligible for this study. The patients' stool pathogen polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing results, serum PCT levels, and serum CRP levels were analyzed retrospectively. Patients were divided into bacterial and nonbacterial colitis groups according to their PCR. The laboratory data were compared between the two groups. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was used to evaluate diagnostic accuracy.

RESULTS

In total, 636 patients were included; 186 in the bacterial colitis group and 450 in the nonbacterial colitis group. In the bacterial colitis group, Clostridium perfringens was the commonest pathogen (n=70), followed by Clostridium difficile toxin B (n=60). The AUC for PCT and CRP was 0.557 and 0.567, respectively, indicating poor discrimination. The sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing bacterial colitis were 54.8% and 52.6% for PCT, and 52.2% and 54.2% for CRP, respectively. Combining PCT and CRP measurements did not increase the discrimination performance (AUC, 0.522; 95% confidence interval, 0.474-0.571).

CONCLUSION

Neither PCT nor CRP helped discriminate bacterial colitis from nonbacterial colitis.

Gastrointestinal Infection in South African Children under the Age of 5 years: A Mini Review

Objective

To estimate gastroenteritis disease and its etiological agents in children under the age of 5 years living in South Africa.

Methods

A mini literature review of pertinent articles published in ScienceDirect, PubMed, GoogleScholar, and Scopus was conducted using search terms: "Gastroenteritis in children," "Gastroenteritis in the world," Gastroenteritis in South Africa," "Prevalence of gastroenteritis," "Epidemiological surveillance of gastroenteritis in the world," and "Causes of gastroenteritis".

Results

A total of 174 published articles were included in this mini review. In the last 20 years, the mortality rate resulting from diarrhea in children under the age of 5 years has declined and this is influenced by improved hygiene practices, awareness programs, an improved water and sanitation supply, and the availability of vaccines. More modern genomic amplification techniques were used to re-analyze stool specimens collected from children in eight low-resource settings in Asia, South America, and Africa reported improved sensitivity of pathogen detection to about 65%, that viruses were the main etiological agents in patients with diarrhea aged from 0 to 11 months but that Shigella, followed by sapovirus and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli had a high incidence in children aged 12-24 months. In addition, co-infections were noted in nearly 10% of diarrhea cases, with rotavirus and Shigella being the main co-infecting agents together with adenovirus, enteropathogenic E. coli, Clostridium jejuni, or Clostridium coli.

Conclusions

This mini review outlines the epidemiology and trends relating to parasitic, viral, and bacterial agents responsible for gastroenteritis in children in South Africa. An increase in sequence-independent diagnostic approaches will improve the identification of pathogens to resolve undiagnosed cases of gastroenteritis. Emerging state and national surveillance systems should focus on improving the identification of gastrointestinal pathogens in children and the development of further vaccines against gastrointestinal pathogens.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns of Shigella Species among Children under Five Years of Age with Diarrhea in Selected Health Centers, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Background

Shigella and parasitic infections are common public health problems throughout the world. Shigellosis is an acute gastroenteritis infection and one of Ethiopia's most common causes of morbidity and mortality, especially in children under five. High resistance rates to commonly used antibiotic agents have been documented in different locations in Ethiopia.

Objective

This study aimed to characterize the antimicrobial features of the Shigella species isolated from children under five years of age with acute diarrhea in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Methods

Using a cross-sectional study, freshly passed fecal specimens were collected for intestinal parasite and bacterial isolation. Fecal samples for bacterial identification were placed immediately in Cary-Blair media and transported to the Ethiopian Public Health Institution (EPHI) laboratory. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AMST) was conducted using the disk diffusion method. Data were described using descriptive statistical tools. The association of independent and dependent variables was evaluated with logistic regression. A P value ≤0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

The prevalence of intestinal parasites was 8.2% with seven different species. Among the 534 stool-cultured specimens, 47 (8.8%) were positive for Shigella species. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AMST) showed that 100%, 93.6%, 80.9%, 72.3%, and 57.5% were susceptible to norfloxacin, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, and cefoxitin, respectively. However, 100% of the isolates were resistant to amoxicillin and erythromycin. More than 50% of the isolates were resistant to three and above antibiotics, while none of them were susceptible to all the antibiotics tested. All risk factors assessed did not show a statistically significant association with Shigella infection.

Conclusion

The high levels of antibiotic resistance observed among the commonly prescribed antibiotics are alarming. The emerging resistance to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid signals a severe public health threat in the management of shigellosis. Raising awareness about resistance and educating health professionals, policymakers, and the public can help improve the quality of patient care and rational antibiotic use.

Identification of Pediatric Bacterial Gastroenteritis From Blood Counts and Interviews Based on Machine Learning

INTRODUCTION

 Differentiating between bacterial and viral gastroenteritis is crucial in pediatric enteritis practice. Our objective was to use machine learning (ML) to identify acute gastroenteritis (AG) caused by bacteria based on blood cell counts and interview findings.

METHODS

 ML was performed using a decision tree classifier based on data from previously published papers. We included 164 children between one and 108 months diagnosed with gastroenteritis, with 112 having bacterial AG and 52 having viral AG as subjects and controls. Feature selection was performed using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO), and the classifier's performance was evaluated by five-fold cross-validation. Additionally, we presented a tree diagram of the decision tree classifier as a flowchart for practical applications.

RESULTS

 The area under curve (AUC) was 0.80, indicating a moderate model. Three important features in this model were platelet-lymphocyte ratio, eosinophil count, and leukocyte count.

CONCLUSIONS

 In conclusion, this study demonstrates that bacterial AG can be estimated from blood cell counts with moderate accuracy. These findings may be valuable in narrowing down bacterial AG in children with gastrointestinal symptoms.

From Eberthella typhi to Salmonella Typhi: The Fascinating Journey of the Virulence and Pathogenicity of Salmonella Typhi

Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi), the invasive typhoidal serovar of Salmonella enterica that causes typhoid fever in humans, is a severe threat to global health. It is one of the major causes of high morbidity and mortality in developing countries. According to recent WHO estimates, approximately 11-21 million typhoid fever illnesses occur annually worldwide, accounting for 0.12-0.16 million deaths. Salmonella infection can spread to healthy individuals by the consumption of contaminated food and water. Typhoid fever in humans sometimes is accompanied by several other critical extraintestinal complications related to the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, pulmonary system, and hepatobiliary system. Salmonella Pathogenicity Island-1 and Salmonella Pathogenicity Island-2 are the two genomic segments containing genes encoding virulent factors that regulate its invasion and systemic pathogenesis. This Review aims to shed light on a comparative analysis of the virulence and pathogenesis of the typhoidal and nontyphoidal serovars of S. enterica.

Molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial susceptibility of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli isolated from children under age five with and without diarrhea in Central Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Diarrhea is a serious health problem in children, with the highest mortality rate in sub-Saharan Africa. Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) is among the major bacterial causes of diarrhea in children under age five. The present study aims to determine molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance profiles of DEC and identify contributing factors for acquisition among children under age five in Central Ethiopia.

METHODS

A health facility-centered cross-sectional study was conducted in Addis Ababa and Debre Berhan, Ethiopia, from December 2020 to August 2021. A total of 476 specimens, 391 from diarrheic and 85 from non-diarrheic children under age five were collected. Bacterial isolation and identification, antimicrobial susceptibility, and pathotype determination using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were done.

RESULTS

Of the 476 specimens analyzed, 89.9% (428/476) were positive for E. coli, of which 183 were positive for one or more genes coding DEC pathotypes. The overall prevalence of the DEC pathotype was 38.2% (183/476). The predominant DEC pathotype was enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) (41.5%, 76/183), followed by enterotoxigenic E. coli (21.3%, 39/183), enteropathogenic E. coli (15.3%, 28/183), enteroinvasive E. coli (12.6%, 23/183), hybrid strains (7.1%, 13/183), Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (1.6%, 3/183), and diffusely-adherent E. coli (0.6%, 1/183). DEC was detected in 40.7% (159/391) of diarrheic and 28.2% (24/85) in non-diarrheic children (p = 0.020). The majority of the DEC pathotypes were resistant to ampicillin (95.1%, 174/183) and tetracycline (91.3%, 167/183). A higher rate of resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (58%, 44/76), ciprofloxacin (22%, 17/76), ceftazidime and cefotaxime (20%, 15/76) was seen among EAEC pathotypes. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was detected in 43.2% (79/183) of the pathotypes, whereas extended spectrum ß-lactamase and carbapenemase producers were 16.4% (30/183) and 2.2% (4/183), respectively.

CONCLUSION

All six common DEC pathotypes that have the potential to cause severe diarrheal outbreaks were found in children in the study area; the dominant one being EAEC with a high rate of MDR.

Inactivation of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and retardation of quality loss in oyster (Crassostrea gigas) by ultrasound processing during storage

The health problems caused by foodborne pathogens of raw oysters have been widely concerned. Traditional heating methods tend to lead the loss of the original nutrients and flavors, in this study, the nonthermal ultrasound technology was applied to inactivate Vibrio parahaemolyticus on raw oysters, and the retardation effects on microbial growth and quality loss of oysters stored at 4 ℃ after ultrasonic treatment were also investigated. After treated by 7.5 W/mL ultrasound for 12.5 min, the Vibrio parahaemolyticus in oysters was reduced by 3.13 log CFU/g. By measuring total aerobic bacteria and total volatile base nitrogen, the growth trend after ultrasonic treatment was delayed compared with heat treatment, and the shelf life of oysters was prolonged. At the same time, ultrasonic treatment delayed the changes of color difference and lipid oxidation of oysters during cold storage. Texture analysis showed that ultrasonic treatment helped maintain the good textural structure of oysters. Histological section analysis also demonstrated that muscle fibers were still tightly packed after ultrasonic treatment. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) illustrated that the water in the oysters was well maintained after ultrasonic treatment. In addition, gas chromatograph - ion mobility spectrometer (GC-IMS) showed that ultrasound treatment could better preserve the flavor of oysters during cold storage. Therefore, it is believed that ultrasound can inactivate foodborne pathogens of raw oysters and keep its freshness and original taste better during storage.

Incidence of surgical site infection, bacterial isolate, and their antimicrobial susceptibility pattern among patients who underwent surgery at Dessie Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Northeast Ethiopia

Objective

Surgical site infection is the most common postoperative complication worldwide, representing a major burden for patients and health systems. The aim of the study is to determine the incidence and bacterial profile that cause surgical site infection among patients who underwent surgery in parts of Northeast Ethiopia.

Methods

A health facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Dessie Comprehensive Specialized Hospital from July 22 to October 25, 2016. A total of 338 patients from the obstetrics and gynecology and general surgical wards were included, through consecutive sampling technique. The specimens were collected aseptically on the first day when the patients had presented with clinical evidence of infection and then sent to the microbiology laboratory. The data were entered and analyzed by SPSS version 20, and the results were explained by frequency distribution in tables and figures.

Results

The majority of participants were female (74.3%) and more than half (61.2%) of the surgeries were performed in the gynecology and obstetrics ward. Clinically, 49 patients (14.5%) were diagnosed as developing surgical site infection, and wound swabs were taken for bacteriological study. About 41 (83.7%) swabs showed bacterial growth, indicating 12.13% overall prevalence of bacterial surgical site infection. Out of 48 bacterial isolates, more than half (56.25%) of them were Gram negative. The most frequent isolate was Staphylococcus aureus, 14 (66.67%), followed by Escherichia coli, 9 (33.33%). Out of the total bacterial isolates, 38 (79.2%) isolates were found to be multidrug resistant, and the rate of multidrug resistant was higher among Gram-negative isolates.

Conclusion

An average rate of surgical site infection was found to be reported and significant numbers of bacterial isolates were also detected. The highest rate of surgical site infection was reported in prostate surgery, followed by small bowel, vaginal hysterectomy, and exploratory laparotomy surgical procedures. Periodic surveillance on the incidence rate and bacterial profile along with the determination of their antibiotic susceptibility should be performed.

Investigation of intestinal parasites by conventional and molecular methods in children with gastrointestinal system complaints

Intestinal parasitic infections are a global health problem that causes morbidity and mortality, especially in children living in rural areas. In this study, stool samples of pediatric patients with gastrointestinal complaints were examined by conventional and molecular methods to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites. A total of 100 pediatric patients with gastrointestinal complaints and 50 healthy children were included in the study. Stool samples were collected from each child and examined by direct microscopic examination (native-Lugol method), formol-ethyl acetate concentration technique, Kinyoun's acid-fast staining, and Wheatley trichrome staining methods. Real-time PCR was used for the detection of Blastocystis spp. and D. fragilis in the stool samples. Sanger sequencing was used to identify Blastocystis spp. subtypes. One or more intestinal parasites were found in 12% (n = 100) of the patient group and 1% (n = 50) of the control group using conventional techniques. By using real-time PCR, Blastocystis spp. was discovered in 14% (14/100) of the patient group and 8% (4/50) of the control group. There was no significant difference in the frequency of Blastocystis spp. between the two groups. The most prevalent Blastocystis subtype was ST1 and the most frequent allele was a2 among the samples successfully amplified and sequenced. D. fragilis was detected in 17% (17/100) of the patient group and 8% (4/50) of the control group by real-time PCR. The prevalence of D. fragilis was not significantly different between the patient and control groups, as well. Blastocystis spp. and D. fragilis were found in high prevalence in pediatric patients with gastrointestinal complaints in this study. Although the role of these protists as a pathogen in humans is still controversial, it is supposed to the presence of the parasites are associated with gastrointestinal disorders such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. More case-control studies are needed to understand the pathogenic or commensal role of these parasites on the intestinal microbiota, especially in both patients with gastrointestinal disorders and healthy individuals.

The Impact of a Positive Biofire® FilmArray® Gastrointestinal Panel Result on Clinical Management and Outcomes

The gold standard diagnostic method for gastrointestinal infections is stool culture, which has limited sensitivity and long turnaround time. Infection diagnosis recently shifted to syndrome-based panel assays. This study employed the FilmArray® Gastrointestinal Panel, which detects 22 pathogens simultaneously, to investigate gastrointestinal infection and pathogen distribution in 91 stool samples of patients hospitalized at the Tzafon Medical Center, Israel, during 2020, and to compare the clinical and demographic data of negative vs. positive samples. Among the 61 positive samples (67%), the most common pathogen was Campylobacter (34.4%). Positive test results were associated with a slightly younger patient age (p = 0.012), significantly higher post-diagnosis use of antibiotics (63.9% vs. 36.7%; p = 0.014), and shorter length of stay and time to discharge (p = 0.035, p = 0.003, respectively) than negative test results. To conclude, the FilmArray® Gastrointestinal Panel enabled the early identification of causative infectious agents and enhanced clinical management and outcomes.

Siderophore-Linked Ruthenium Catalysts for Targeted Allyl Ester Prodrug Activation within Bacterial Cells

Due to rising resistance, new antibacterial strategies are needed, including methods for targeted antibiotic release. As targeting vectors, chelating molecules called siderophores that are released by bacteria to acquire iron have been investigated for conjugation to antibacterials, leading to the clinically approved drug cefiderocol. The use of small-molecule catalysts for prodrug activation within cells has shown promise in recent years, and here we investigate siderophore-linked ruthenium catalysts for the activation of antibacterial prodrugs within cells. Moxifloxacin-based prodrugs were synthesised, and their catalyst-mediated activation was demonstrated under anaerobic, biologically relevant conditions. In the absence of catalyst, decreased antibacterial activities were observed compared to moxifloxacin versus Escherichia coli K12 (BW25113). A series of siderophore-linked ruthenium catalysts were investigated for prodrug activation, all of which displayed a combinative antibacterial effect with the prodrug, whereas a representative example displayed little toxicity against mammalian cell lines. By employing complementary bacterial growth assays, conjugates containing siderophore units based on catechol and azotochelin were found to be most promising for intracellular prodrug activation.

[Microscopy vs. molecular biology in the diagnosis of intestinal protozoal infections, is it time for a change?]

OBJECTIVE

Microscopic examination of the intestinal parasites, from the patient's concentrated feces, has a lower sensitivity when compared to molecular diagnostic techniques. Therefore, the objective of this study has been to compare both techniques, as well as to evaluate whether there is a correlation between the microscopic examination and the threshold cycles (Ct) obtained for Blastocystis hominis.

METHODS

Retrospective study of the samples received in the Microbiology laboratory during September 2021. The MiniParasep SF® concentration test was performed for microscopic visualization and then PCR was performed with the Seegene AllplexTM Parasite Assay panel.

RESULTS

A 27% (n=74) of the samples were positive by molecular diagnosis, with a total of 87 parasites detected. 53% (n=39) were women with a mean age of 47 ± 24 years. In 76% (n=56) of the cases the service of origin was Primary Care. The most frequently found parasite was B. hominis, 85% (n=64), followed by Dientamoeba fragilis 20% (n=15) and Giardia lamblia 11% (n=8). Co-infection by two parasites was detected in 13 cases (B. hominis + D. fragilis in 6 cases, and B. hominis + G. lamblia in 7 cases). In the microscopic diagnosis, 9.5% (n=26) positivity was obtained. The most frequently found parasite was B. hominis, 84% (n=23), followed by G. lamblia, which was seen in three cases by microscopy. D. fragilis was not seen in any case. Coinfection of B. hominis + G. lamblia was observed in one sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Techniques for molecular diagnosis of intestinal parasites are fast, reliable and more sensitive than microscopic techniques, improving microbiological diagnosis and quality of care.

Identification of Salmonella carriers by amplification of FimA, Stn and InvA genes and bacterial culture methods in fecal samples of buffalo

Salmonellosis is one of the most important bacterial diseases in human and animals. Rapid diagnosis and sub sequence accurate treatment of Salmonella carriers help reduce the salmonellosis in human and livestock animals. In this study, 420 fecal samples were taken during year 2019 from buffalo in the Urmia, Khoy and Piranshahr regions in west Azerbaijan province, Iran. Samplings were carried out in different seasons. Presence of Salmonella invasion genes (FimA, Stn and InvA) were evaluated by polymerase chain reaction. The bacterial culture and biochemical tests were performed on feces samples for isolation of bacterium Salmonella; however, all samples were negative in culture method. PCR findings showed that, 50 (11.90%) fecal samples were positive to the genes. The analysis of results showed that frequency of salmonellosis outbreak in different parts of west Azerbaijan province followed a similar pattern and the incidence of salmonellosis according to forecast in the warm seasons (spring and summer) was more than in cold seasons (autumn and winter). The prevalence of Salmonella in buffalo's feces based on warm and cold seasons were 32 (64.00%) and 18 (36.00%), respectively. The results showed significant difference between cold and warm season in the prevalence of salmonellosis. Therefore, the application of molecular technics is essential for the prevention and treatment of salmonellosis. The results also showed that specificity of PCR method was better than culture method for detection of Salmonella in feces sample.

Carriage of CdtB Encoding Campylobacter spp., Salmonella enterica, and Yersinia entercolitica in Patients with Gastroenteritis and Irritable Bowel Syndrome

INTRODUCTION

Cytolethal distending toxin (Cdt) is one of the bacterial toxins that present in a variety of gram-negative human pathogens, such as E. coli, Salmonella spp., and Campylobacter spp. CDT is composed of three subunits encoded by three adjacent genes, including cdtA, cdtB, and cdtC. cdtB has been shown to have toxic activity and cause DNA damage in host cells. Despite its presence in different bacterial species, the role of CdtB in acute and chronic infections, such as gastroenteritis and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), is unclear. To analyze this correlation, we studied the prevalence of cdtB among different enteropathogenic bacteria in patients with gastroenteritis and IBS compared with healthy people.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this cross-sectional descriptive study, 230 stool samples were collected from patients with gastroenteritis, IBS, and healthy people. The presence of CdtB encoding bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp., Yersinia entercolitica, Providencia alkalifacience, and Salmonella enterica, was examined by polymerase chain reaction using genus-specific primers.

RESULTS

Out of 230 stool samples, CdtB encoding Campylobacter spp. were found in 34.6% (52/150), 6.25% (5/80), and 4% (2/50) of the patients with gastroenteritis, IBS, and the control group, respectively. Carriage of CdtB encoding Salmonella enterica was characterized among 5.3% (8/150) of the patients with gastroenteritis and 17.5% (14/80) of the IBS patients. Although none of the patients carried CdtB encoding E. coli and Providencia spp., cdtB of Y. enterocolitica was detected in one of the patients with gastroenteritis (0.6%). Statistical analysis showed significant correlation between infection with CdtB encoding Campylobacter spp. and IBS-D subtype. No significant correlation was found between infection with CdtB encoding bacteria and other clinical and demographic data.

CONCLUSION

Our results confirmed a relatively higher frequency of CdtB encoding bacteria in the intestine of patients with gastroenteritis and those with IBS compared with healthy individuals. Regarding the frequency of CdtB encoding Salmonella and Campylobacter bacteria, it was proposed that infection with these enteropathogens could be considered a risk factor for the development or progression of IBS among Iranian patients. Further studies are needed to establish this involvement.

Effect of Ciprofloxacin, Levofloxacin, and Ofloxacin on Pseudomonas aeruginosa: A case control study with time kill curve analysis

Background

Antibiotic resistance is closely related to therapy failure. Most antibiotic resistance is caused by delays in determining antibiotic agents, low administration doses, long periods between doses (inadequate pharmacokinetics) and single drug administration in infections caused by more than one pathogen. Treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) with ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, and ofloxacin as monotherapy can lead to drug resistance, although combination therapy also does not provide a better outcome.

Objective

To analyze the time-kill curve for P. aeruginosa and Multidrug resistance (MDR) P. aeruginosa.

Methods

This research is a case control study using isolates of P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853, clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa and MDR P. aeruginosa. Exposure of ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, and ofloxacin to isolates with 1MIC, 2MIC, and 4MIC were then cultured at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 24 h of testing, then counting the number of colonies that grew and then analyzed by time-kill curve and statistical tests. The statistical test used in this study was the ANOVA and Mann-Whitney test with p < 0.05.

Results

Ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin achieved bactericidal activity, especially at a concentration of 4MIC. Levofloxacin ultimately achieved bactericidal activity at all concentrations. Statistical analysis showed there were significant differences in the number of colonies p < 0.001 in the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth hour between the three isolates, p < 0.001 in the sixth and second 4 h between 1MIC and 4MIC, p = 0.012 in the second 4 h between levofloxacin and ofloxacin antibiotics.

Conclusion

Levofloxacin has shown to have better bactericidal activity than ciprofloxacin, and ciprofloxacin has almost the same bactericidal activity as ofloxacin in vitro tests seen from the time-kill curve.

•

Antibiotics for P. aeruginosa were effective in reducing colonies at 8 h.

•

A significant comparison for antibiotics on P. aeruginosa and MDR.

•

Levofloxacin is the most effective compared to ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin for P. aeruginosa.

Clinical and Laboratory Features of Enteric Fever in Children and Antibiotic Sensitivity Pattern in a Tertiary Care Hospital of a Low- and Middle-Income Country

BACKGROUND

Globally, enteric fever (EF) significantly gives rise to an appalling death toll. It is an endemic illness in Bangladesh and South Asia. The condition manifests in a wide range of clinical features in children. Nowadays, antibiotic resistance is an international stumbling block that hampers the appropriate treatment and outcome of EF.

OBJECTIVE

The study evaluated the clinical and laboratory characteristics and antibiotic sensitivity pattern of Salmonella enterica in children.

METHODS

This prospective research was conducted at Delta Medical College and Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh, from January 2017 to December 2019. A total of 200 pediatric cases of EF were included in this study who were either culture positive or had significantly raised Widal test titer for Salmonella with suggestive clinical features.

RESULTS

All the patients had a fever, and most had coated tongue, vomiting, abdominal pain, organomegaly, and diarrhea. Among the selected 200 cases of EF, 43.5% were Salmonella typhi culture-positive. A high erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) was observed in a substantial number (53%) of patients. Ceftriaxone was the most sensitive (100%) antibiotic through laboratory analysis, followed by cefotaxime (95.1%). Among the oral antibiotics used, cefixime (92.8%) was the most sensitive.

CONCLUSION

EF in children can present with varied clinical manifestations. Selective antibiotic treatment according to sensitivity patterns is crucial for effective illness management and will reduce morbidity and mortality in the pediatric population.

Antimicrobial resistance and genomic investigation of non-typhoidal Salmonella isolated from outpatients in Shaoxing city, China

Human non-typhoidal salmonellosis is among the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, resulting in huge economic losses and threatening the public health systems. To date, epidemiological characteristics of non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) implicated in human salmonellosis in China are still obscure. Herein, we investigate the antimicrobial resistance and genomic features of NTS isolated from outpatients in Shaoxing city in 2020. Eighty-seven Salmonella isolates were recovered and tested against 28 different antimicrobial agents, representing 12 categories. The results showed high resistance to cefazolin (86.21%), streptomycin (81.61%), ampicillin (77.01%), ampicillin-sulbactam (74.71%), doxycycline (72.41%), tetracycline (71.26%), and levofloxacin (70.11%). Moreover, 83.91% of isolates were resistant to ≥3 categories, which were considered multi-drug resistant (MDR). Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) combined with bioinformatic analysis was used to predict serovars, MLST types, plasmid replicons, antimicrobial resistance genes, and virulence genes, in addition to the construction of phylogenomic to determine the epidemiological relatedness between isolates. Fifteen serovars and 16 STs were identified, with the dominance of S. I 4, [5], 12:i:- ST34 (25.29%), S. Enteritidis ST11 (22.99%), and S. Typhimurium ST19. Additionally, 50 resistance genes representing ten categories were detected with a high prevalence of aac(6')-Iaa (100%), bla _TEM-1B (65.52%), and tet(A) (52.87%), encoding resistance to aminoglycosides, β-lactams, and tetracyclines, respectively; in addition to chromosomic mutations affecting gyrA gene. Moreover, we showed the detection of 18 different plasmids with the dominance of IncFIB(S) and IncFII(S) (39.08%). Interestingly, all isolates harbor the typical virulence genes implicated in the virulence mechanisms of Salmonella, while one isolate of S. Jangwani contains the cdtB gene encoding typhoid toxin production. Furthermore, the phylogenomic analysis showed that all isolates of the same serovar are very close to each other and clustered together in the same clade. Together, we showed a high incidence of MDR among the studied isolates which is alarming for public health services and is a major threat to the currently available treatments to deal with human salmonellosis; hence, efforts should be gathered to further introduce WGS in routinely monitoring of AMR Salmonella in the medical field in order to enhance the effectiveness of surveillance systems and to limit the spread of MDR clones.

Prevalence and determinants of diarrhea among under-five children in five Southeast Asian countries: Evidence from the demographic health survey

PURPOSE

To describe the prevalence and the correlation between individual, environmental and household, health behavior, and source of information factors with diarrhea among under-five children in five Southeast Asian countries based on the National Health Survey.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Cross-sectional design conducted in five countries in Southeast Asia. Datasets from Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys in five countries were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 12,447 children under 5 years of age from five countries in Southeast Asia (Indonesia 1807, Cambodia 2650, Myanmar 1717, the Philippines 3669, and Timor-Leste 2614) were included in this study. Binary logistic regression was performed to analyze the data. A total of 12,447 under-five children were included in the study. Overall, in five Southeast Asian countries, the prevalence of diarrhea is known from 8.39% in the Philippines to 18.21% in Indonesia. Several factors related to diarrhea are individual; environmental and household; health behavior such as stool disposal, breastfeeding mothers, and children's food history; and source of information factors.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study indicate that diarrhea is a serious public health problem in the Southeast Asian region that must be addressed using preventive and curative approaches.

PRACTICE IMPLICATION

The results indicate the need for cross-collaboration among nurses, medical doctor, and sanitarian is needed to tackle the childhood diarrhea and minimize the severity based on those determinants.

Symptom profiling for infectious intestinal disease (IID): Do symptom profiles alter with age?

Symptom profiles have previously been identified for infectious intestinal disease (IID) which distinguish bacterial from viral organisms. However, there is evidence that the seasonality, severity, and duration of IID may differ between children, adults and elderly. A secondary data analysis was undertaken to explore whether symptom profiles for bacterial and viral IID vary across different age groups. Data from 844 cases of IID were divided into three age categories: <16 years, 16–65 years and >65 years. Multivariable logistic regression modelling was used to compare the significance of different symptoms across the three age groups. The odds of bacterial IID in children were increased by onset in the summer, diarrhoea in the absence of vomiting and fever. These symptoms were also associated with lower odds of a viral pathogen. In adults, diarrhoea but no vomiting, bloody diarrhoea and diarrhoea lasting more than 3 days were associated with increased odds of a bacterial organism, whilst onset in the winter or spring and a loss of appetite were associated with viral IID. In the elderly, diarrhoea in the absence of vomiting and diarrhoea lasting more than 3 days were associated with higher odds of bacterial IID and lower odds of a viral cause. Only diarrhoea in the absence of vomiting emerged as a key symptom across all three age groups. Variation in symptom profiles by age has implications for clinicians, public health specialists and epidemiologists who use symptoms to guide presumptive diagnoses in the absence of microbiological confirmation.

Clinical impact of a gastrointestinal PCR panel in children with infectious diarrhoea

OBJECTIVES

Multiplex gastrointestinal PCR (GI-PCR) allows fast and simultaneous detection of 22 enteric pathogens (including Campylobacter, Salmonella, Shigella/enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC), among other bacteria, parasites and viruses). However, its impact on the management of children with infectious diarrhoea remains unknown.

PATIENTS/DESIGN

All children eligible for stool culture from May to October 2018 were prospectively included in a monocentric study at Robert-Debré University-Hospital.

INTERVENTION

A GI-PCR (BioFire FilmArray) was performed on each stool sample.

MAIN MEASURES

Data on the children's healthcare management before and after GI-PCR results were collected. Stool culture results were also reported.

RESULTS

172 children were included. The main criteria for performing stool analysis were mucous/bloody diarrhoea and/or traveller's diarrhoea (n=130). GI-PCR's were positive for 120 patients (70%). The main pathogens were enteroaggregative E. coli (n=39; 23%), enteropathogenic E. coli (n=34; 20%), Shigella/EIEC (n=27; 16%) and Campylobacter (n=21; 12%). Compared with stool cultures, GI-PCR enabled the detection of 21 vs 19 Campylobacter, 12 vs 10 Salmonella, 27 Shigella/EIEC vs 13 Shigella, 2 vs 2 Yersinia enterocolitica, 1 vs 1 Plesiomonas shigelloides, respectively. Considering the GI-PCR results and before stool culture results, the medical management was revised for 40 patients (23%): 28 initiations, 2 changes and 1 discontinuation of antibiotics, 1 hospitalisation, 2 specific room isolations related to Clostridioides difficile infections, 4 additional test prescriptions and 2 test cancellations.

CONCLUSION

The GI-PCR's results impacted the medical management of gastroenteritis for almostone-fourth of the children, and especially the prescription of appropriate antibiotic treatment before stool culture results.

Network-wide analysis of the Serosep EntericBio Gastro Panel 2 for the detection of enteric pathogens in Public Health Wales microbiology laboratories

Introduction. A retrospective data analysis of 34 months (spanning 2016-2020) of 961573 diagnostic results obtained before and after nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) implementation, across the Public Health Wales microbiology network.Hypothesis / Gap Statement. This is the first network-wide analysis of the implementation of enteric NAAT in diagnostic microbiology.Aim. To assess the outcome of replacing microscopy and bacterial culture with NAAT as the primary test in the diagnosis of: Campylobacter spp., Salmonella sp., Shigella spp., Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis infections.Methodology. Following NAAT introduction, bacterial culture was performed as a secondary test, to provide further information from NAAT positive samples for epidemiological purposes. Primary detection rates and overall bacterial culture rates were calculated for each target pathogen using both testing regimes (Stage I) including a comparison of in-patient and out-patient diagnoses (Stage II).Results. Stage I analysis showed that the primary detection rate significantly increased for Campylobacter spp. (P<0.0001), Salmonella sp. (P=0.0151), Shigella spp. (P<0.0001), STEC (P<0.0001), Cryptosporidium spp. (P<0.0001) and Giardia duodenalis (P<0.0001) when using NAAT compared to microscopy or bacterial culture. A significant decrease was seen in the overall rate of Campylobacter spp. isolation by bacterial culture (P<0.0001), whilst other targets remained unaffected. Stage II analysis showed that NAAT positive out-patient samples were more likely to be supplemented by a positive bacterial culture than NAAT positive in-patient samples for Campylobacter spp. (P<0.0001), Salmonella sp. (P=0.0004) and STEC (P=0.0039). However, Shigella spp. was more frequently isolated from NAAT positive in-patient samples (P=0.0005). A notable increase was seen for G. duodenalis detection from in-patient samples (P=0.0002). Reference laboratory data showed the NAAT assay can detect at least 53 serotypes of STEC but may not be able to detect some of the rarer species of Cryptosporidium seen in human infections.Conclusion. The implementation of NAAT has significantly increased the primary detection rate of all target enteric pathogens in Wales and information gleaned previously from direct culture is largely unaffected.

Diarrhoeagenic E. coli occurrence and antimicrobial resistance of Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamases isolated from diarrhoea patients attending health facilities in Accra, Ghana

INTRODUCTION

Diarrhoea accounts for high morbidity and mortality in children and adults worldwide. Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE) and Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) contribute to prolonged hospitalization because of their resistance and virulence properties aiding in the spread of diarrhoeal disease and delayed treatment.

AIM

To determine DEC and the antimicrobial resistance of ESBL-PE isolated among diarrhoea patients attending two health facilities in Ghana.

METHODS

Stool samples were collected from 122 diarrhoeal patients who attended Maamobi General Hospital and Kaneshie Polyclinic between January 2019 and March 2020. Identification of bacteria was performed by using the Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Using disk diffusion, antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) was conducted and interpreted according to the 2018 CLSI guidelines. Detection of ESBL and DEC genes was performed using Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

RESULTS

A total of 80.3% (98/122) Enterobacteriaceae was recovered from the patients in the study with an overall ESBL occurrence of 20.4% (20/98), predominantly among E. coli showed 13.2% (10/76), Klebsiella pneumoniae,35.7%(5/14) and Proteus mirabilis, 57.1%(4/7). Among the ESBL genes detected, blaTEM (n = 14) was common, followed by blaCTX-M (n = 13) and blaSHV (n = 4). Thirty-four E. coli isolates possessed the heat labile (Lt) gene of Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC).

CONCLUSION

Our findings confirm the existence of DEC and the antimicrobial resistance patterns of ESBL-PE among stool isolates, limiting the options of commonly used drugs for diarrhoeal treatment in Ghana. Routine laboratory testing in health care facilities and strengthened surveillance systems among hospital networks are encouraged for a better understanding of their epidemiology and clinical implications.

A review of Leaves and Seeds Moringa oleifera Extract: The potential Moringa oleifera as Antibacterial, Anti-Inflammatory, Antidiarrhoeal, And Antiulcer Approaches To Bacterial Gastroenteritis

BACKGROUND: Bacterial gastroenteritis is a disease in the tropics in the form of inflammation of the stomach and intestines due to several bacteria, such as Salmonella, Campylobacter, Shigella, Escherichia coli, Vibrio, Yersinia, and Listeria with symptoms of diarrhea without or with vomiting and frequent fever. Gastroenteritis is a global disease with the highest prevalence in the agricultural community, especially farmers and fishermen. AIM: This research is to determine the potential of leaf and seed extract Moringa oleifera as an alternative therapy for bacterial gastroenteritis. METHODS: A literature review approach derived from the analysis and synthesis of various related references is used. The author selects journals full text and books published in the last ten years maximum through several databases, namely PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and Cochrane with the keywords: diarrhea, gastroenteritis, antibacterial, antiulcer, anti-inflammation, and M. oleifera. RESULTS: Seed and leaf extract M. oleifera played a role in preventing some of the effects of the pathogenesis of diarrhea due to bacterial infection. Methanol, N-hexane, ethyl acetate, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, alkaloids, tannins, and steroids from seed and leaf extract M. oleifera have antibacterial effects. The content of quercetin has an anti-inflammatory effect. The content of tannins, flavonoids, and alkaloids has antidiarrheal activity. The content of ethanol and tannins has an antiulcer effect. This potential can help cure patients with bacterial gastroenteritis. CONCLUSION: Leaf and seed extract of M. oleifera has good antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, and antidiarrheal potential for the treatment of bacterial gastroenteritis.

Polymerase Chain Reaction Study of Human Bocavirus in Children with Acute Gastroenteritis

Aim:

The present study aimed to detect Human bocavirus (HBoV) in stool samples from young children below 5 years complaining of acute gastroenteritis (GE) in addition to detection of rotavirus, norovirus, and astrovirus.

Methods:

The study included 90 children below 5 years with acute GE with excluded bacterial pathogens. The determination of the presence of HBoV was performed by nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) beside determination of astrovirus and norovirus by multiplex PCR and rotavirus antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results:

The most prevalent virus among the studied viruses was rotavirus (33.3%) detected by ELISA for antigen in the stool. The other three viruses detected by molecular methods were bocavirus (14.4%), astrovirus (13.3%), and norovirus (10%). Mixed viral infection with two or more viruses was detected in 16 children (17.8%). The most common was bocavirus and rotavirus in 6 patients (37.5%). In the study of demographic and clinical presentations of the children with HBoV, the affected children were mainly females, i.e., 10 (76.9%), from rural residence i.e., 11 (84.6%) with the mild classification of GE in 7 children (53.8%) and moderate GE in 6 children (46.2%) and none of them had severe GE. Fever was the most common presenting sign in those children (53.8%) followed by vomiting (46.2%).

Conclusion:

The study highlights the existence of HBoV in children with acute GE under the age of five. The infection associated with this virus was either mild or moderate in severity. The combined viral infection was common especially associated with rotavirus. There is a need for further additional study to identify the type of the circulated strain of bocavirus and the confections with other pathogens.

Is the Medium Still the Message? Culture-Independent Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal Infections

Infectious diarrhea is caused by a variety of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and parasitic organisms. Though the causative agent of diarrhea has historically been evaluated via stool cultures, recently, culture-independent diagnostic tests (CIDT) have been developed and utilized with increasing frequency. Current practice guidelines recommend their use as adjuncts to stool cultures for diagnosing acute and chronic diarrhea. The three principal CIDT are microscopy, enzyme-based immunoassays (EIAs), and molecular based polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This review explores the common causes of infectious diarrhea, the basics of stool culture, the diagnostic utility of these three culture-independent modalities, and the strengths and weaknesses of all currently available clinical techniques. It also outlines considerations for specific populations including returning travelers and those with inflammatory bowel disease.

Assessment of potential factors that support the endemicity of cholera in Nigeria from food handlers, health workers and the environment

Background and Aims: Diarrheal diseases caused by bacterial pathogens are widespread and they result in morbidity and mortality of a lot of people yearly. The aim of this study was to assess the role of the environment, health workers and food handlers as reservoirs of Vibrio cholerae, and other diarrhea causing bacteria. Methods: Healthcare workers were proportionally selected and multistage sampling technique was adopted in selecting food handlers for the study. A total of 374 participants consisting of health workers and food handlers were recruited. Socio-demographic and clinical information were collected using questionnaires, while stool and environmental samples were also collected. Results: More female 55.9 % than male 44.1 % participated in the study and the mean age of participants was 38.7 ± 10.9. A significant number of participants identified poor hygiene practices as the major cause of diarrhea. V. cholerae O1 serotype was not detected in any of the environmental samples nor stool samples of both food handlers and health workers. However, V. cholerae (Non O1/Non O139) was isolated from the stool samples of food handlers and health workers in Kano State implying that they could be serving a source of the continuous dissemination of the pathogen. Other bacterial pathogens that are aetiology of diarrhea including Salmonella spp. Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, and Enterobacter spp. were also isolated. Conclusion: It is therefore imperative that food handlers and health workers undergo periodic health checks to ensure they are free of pathogens they could easily transmit through food or to patients.

Increased incidence and antimicrobial resistance among Vibrio parahaemolyticus in shellfishes from major fish markets in Cochin, South India: Seafood risk assessment

India remains as a top supplier of value-added seafoods to the global markets. Cochin is one of the leading fishing ports in India contributing to country’s major seafood export. As part of risk assessment, we analyzed the prevalence of multi-drug resistant Vibrio parahaemolyticus; seafood borne gastroenteritis-causing pathogen, in shellfishes collected from major fish markets in Cochin. This bacterial species was initially isolated on Thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose agar and HiCrome™ Vibrio agar, further confirmed by detection of V. parahaemolyticus species-specific toxR gene and by 16S r RNA sequencing. A total of 113 confirmed V. parahaemolyticus were recovered. Almost all the strains exhibited resistance towards three or more antibiotics (multiple-drug resistant) and harbored virulence related exoenzymes especially hemolysin (Kanagawa phenomenon); which is indeed a matter of concern. The multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index of the isolates ranged from 0.21 to 0.57. Furthermore, our results also indicate a substantial increase in the incidence of the pathogen in seafood from the area compared to previous years. This may pose a risk to the local and international consumers of the seafood. Practicing complete hygiene and adequate cooking is strongly recommended. Regular monitoring of aquaculture areas and fish markets is urged to reduce dissemination of pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus in seafood and to prevent fatal cases of human infection induced by this species in the country.

Cholera Presenting With Hyperkalemia, Rhabdomyolysis, and Acute Renal Failure

Cholera is a well known cause of significant disease, particularly in resource-poor nations, but it is very rare in developed countries. The morbidity and mortality of cholera is resultant from large-volume diarrhea, hypovolemia, and electrolyte derangement. In the following case, a 60-year-old man with no recent travel history presented to the emergency department with muscle cramping, abdominal pain, and gastrointestinal distress. It was later confirmed that he was suffering from cholera. On presentation, he was hyperkalemic with ECG changes and soon went into a hypovolemic shock. After a complicated hospital course, he fortunately made a complete recovery. This case demonstrates that common complaints may result in uncommon diagnoses. It is important to pay attention to the clinical situation and intervene accordingly.

Chronic diarrhea and parasitic infections: Diagnostic challenges

BACKGROUND

Diarrhea is among the top ten global causes of death. Chronic diarrhea may have destructive impact on physical and mental health of patients and is also associated with high risk of mortality in children. Parasitic intestinal infections remain an important cause of chronic diarrhea especially in the developing part of the world.

OBJECTIVE

To study the parasitic causes of chronic diarrhea and highlight the challenges faced in the diagnosis of chronic diarrhea caused due to parasitic infections.

CONTENT

Due to non-specific symptoms, insensitive available diagnostic techniques, asymptomatic carriage and transmission, recurrent infections in endemic areas, pose a challenge for diagnosis of the parasitic infections and thus delay the treatment. Conventional techniques like microscopy, though cheaper are not very sensitive. Advanced techniques like molecular methods are more sensitive but expensive and are not readily available in resource limited settings. Newer cost-effective diagnostic techniques with higher sensitivity and specificity are required to detect the infectious agent and for appropriate management.

Utilizing Probiotics for the Prevention and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Diseases

Probiotics are heavily advertised to promote a healthy gastrointestinal tract and boost the immune system. This review article summarizes the history and diversity of probiotics, outlines conventional in vitro assays and in vivo models, assesses the pharmacologic effects of probiotic and pharmaceutical co-administration, and the broad impact of clinical probiotic utilization for gastrointestinal disease indications.

Aeromonas spp. diversity in U.S. mid-Atlantic surface and reclaimed water, seasonal dynamics, virulence gene patterns and attachment to lettuce

Aeromonas, a ubiquitous taxon in water environments, is emerging as a foodborne pathogen of concern that remains understudied and under-reported. We evaluated the distribution of 331 Aeromonas spp. isolates collected from irrigation water over one year and characterised their virulence profile, attachment and ability to persist on lettuce. Water sources included non-tidal and tidal river, farm pond and reclaimed water. Twenty Aeromonas species were identified; A. veronii, A. hydrophila and A. jandaei predominated in all water types and seasons, comprising ~63% of isolates. Species distribution was most affected by water type. The highest and lowest diversity were detected in river and pond water, respectively. A. hydrophila and A. veronii ranked highest in frequency in fresh river and reclaimed water, while A. jandaei ranked first in pond water. Only two isolates carried all five virulence genes tested, while 46% of A. hydrophila (n = 50), 54% of A. veronii (n = 61) and 50% of A. jandaei (n = 32) isolates harboured multiple enterotoxin genes. Detection of alt and ast genes was more likely in summer collections, while ast detection was less likely in tidal brackish river and pond water isolates. Season was a factor in attachment to polystyrene, being strongest in spring isolates. The gene flaA was associated with strong attachment and was more likely to be detected in non-tidal fresh river isolates. A. hydrophila and A. jandaei isolates persisted on lettuce leaves for 24 h, but populations dwindled over 120 h, while loosely and strongly attached cells of A. veronii isolates persisted for 120 h. This study provides comprehensive data on Aeromonas species distribution and environmental traits. The associations revealed among diversity, water type, season, virulence factors and phyllosphere attachment capacity can inform agricultural water standards in novel ways. Moreover, understanding Aeromonas-plant interactions is an important step in advancing food safety of fruit and vegetables.

Prevalence, Laboratory Findings and Clinical Characteristics of Campylobacteriosis Agents among Hospitalized Children with Acute Gastroenteritis in Lebanon

PURPOSE

Campylobacter species are currently the most common cause of bacterial gastroenteritis. In Lebanon, Campylobacter infection occurrence is underdiagnosed owing to the lack of specific culture and rapid test kits, particularly among children. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence, laboratory findings, and clinical characteristics of Campylobacter infection in hospitalized children with acute gastroenteritis in South Lebanon.

METHODS

We conducted a 6-month retrospective cohort study between January and June 2018, including 291 children aged between 1 month and 12 years, who were admitted to a tertiary healthcare center in South Lebanon. The medical files of the patients were reviewed to retrieve the required clinical information, including clinical and laboratory data.

RESULTS

The prevalence of campylobacteriosis agents in pediatric patients with acute gastroenteritis is 12.02%. Patients infected with Campylobacter had more severe acute gastroenteritis than Campylobacter-negative patients and often presented with high-grade fever, diarrhea episodes more than six times per day, diarrhea lasting for more than five days, and dehydration. Indeed, children with high-grade fever (≥38.5°C) were five times more likely to test positive for Campylobacter than those with low-grade fever. In addition, the results showed a higher Vesikari score for the majority of Campylobacter-positive patients with severe acute gastroenteritis compared to a moderate profile for Campylobacter-negative patients.

CONCLUSION

The present study findings highlight that Campylobacter infection is frequent among children with acute gastroenteritis. Therefore, the detection of Campylobacter should be carried out for the diagnosis of human gastroenteritis in Lebanon, along with the detection of routine enteropathogens.

Diagnostic syndromic multiplex approaches for gastrointestinal infections

Introduction: Gastrointestinal diseases due to infectious pathogens currently represent an important global health concern, especially in children and developing countries. Early and accurate detection of gastrointestinal pathogens is important to initiate the appropriate type of therapy. Multiplex molecular gastrointestinal panels rapidly detect several gastrointestinal pathogens at once with high sensitivity.Areas covered: We assess the scope and limitations of several multiplex gastrointestinal panels approved by the Food and Drug Administration or marked by Conformité Européenne-in vitro diagnostic. We compare 10 syndromic gastrointestinal panels, 14 bacteria-specific multiplex panels, seven parasite-specific multiplex panels, and eight virus-specific multiplex panels.Expert opinion: Thanks to the advances made in the diagnostic approaches for gastrointestinal infections, there are various panels to choose. The choice of a specific syndromic gastrointestinal multiplex panel should be made to improve patient care. Diagnostic syndromic multiplex approaches for gastrointestinal infections should be customized; each hospital should develop its diagnostic algorithm for gastrointestinal infections tailored to its setting, study population, and geographical site. Current multiplex gastrointestinal panels could be improved by including the detection of antimicrobial resistance, toxigenic Clostridioides difficile, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic).

The effect of calcium on the duration of acute gastroenteritis in children: A randomized clinical trial

Background: Currently, the role of calcium in reducing the duration and severity of diarrhea and its consequences has been considered as a topic of concern. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of oral calcium on the duration of acute gastroenteritis in children.

Methods: This single-blind randomized clinical trial was performed from 2014 to 2016 at Ali Asghar Children’s Hospital, Tehran, Iran. Totally, 124 patients (one month to twelve years old) with acute gastroenteritis were enrolled in this study. The patients were divided equally into intervention and placebo groups and received the calcium gluconate 10%, 0.5cc/kg/day and distinct water, respectively. Data analysis was performed using the statistical software SPSS version 20.0 for windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) and p<0.05 was considered significant.

Results: The mean age of the intervention and placebo groups was 26.43±3.74 and 20.84±2.70 months, respectively, and the difference was not significant (p=0.228). The duration of diarrhea in the intervention and placebo groups was 5.27±2.01 and 6.71 ± 2.44 days respectively (p=0.001). In the placebo group, the plasma calcium level was less than 8mg/dl in 1 (1.6%), 8 - 10 mg/dl in 55 (88.7%) and more than 10mg/dl in 6 cases (9. 7%). In the intervention group, there were 7 (11.3%), 55 (88.7%) and 0 (0%) cases in three groups, respectively (p=0.005).

Conclusion: The oral calcium gluconate might shorten the duration of acute gastroenteritis. Therefore, it could be considered as an adjunctive therapy. Whether the formulation of the oral rehydration solution (ORS) will be updated in the future with adding the calcium salts remains to be defined and needs more investigations.

A Prospective Study of Etiological Agents Among Febrile Patients in Sierra Leone

Introduction

Sierra Leone has one of the highest burdens of febrile illnesses in the world. As the incidence of malaria diminishes, a better understanding of the spectrum of etiological agents was important for accurate diagnosis and empirical treatment of febrile illness.

Methods

Blood, nasopharyngeal, and fecal specimens were collected from febrile patients for serological, molecular detection, and microbiologic culture to identify potential pathogens.

Results

For this prospective study, 142 febrile patients were enrolled. The prevalence of malaria was higher in children aged 5–15 years old (P = 0.185) and adults (P = 0.018). Acute respiratory infection (ARI) presented more commonly in the under 5 years old group (P = 0.009). For diarrhea, all children groups (P = 0.024) were predominant. A total of 22.5% of the febrile patients had malaria infection, 19.7% had typhoid infection, and 2.8% were coinfected with malaria and typhoid. ARI was the most common causes of fever, accounting for 31.7% of patients, influenza A virus, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and five other respiratory pathogens were found. Diarrhea accounted for 16.2%, and seven kinds of diarrhea bacteria were isolated. Hepatitis B accounted for 8.5%, including five cases of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and ascites smear staining were both Gram-negative bacteria. Tuberculous encephalitis, parasitic diseases (ascaris and filariasis), and skin infection caused by Staphylococcus aureus accounted for 0.7%, 2.1%, and 0.7%, respectively.

Conclusions

Evidence of a wide spectrum of febrile etiological agents other than malaria was identified. The spread of malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) out of hospital and establishment of a national standard for Widal test will reduce the misdiagnosis of febrile diseases. Antibiotics against Gram-negative bacteria are helpful for empirical treatment.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40121-021-00474-y.

Sierra Leone has one of the highest burdens of febrile illnesses in the world. Evidence of a wide spectrum of febrile pathogens other than malaria has been proven in this study. We considered that the etiology of febrile patients was closely related to local geography, heredity, immune features, economic industry, living habits, air pollution, medical and health conditions, and this was fully analyzed and discussed. The screening process used in this study can further simplify and identify the etiological agents of fever in more than 70% of the study population. This laid the foundation for the establishment of a more simplified and efficient diagnosis and treatment process in the local area. We also found the characteristics of age distribution of different febrile diseases. Children were an important susceptible population to fever. This study indicated the importance of reliable diagnostic tests for febrile pathogens and provided the necessary information for RDT requirements. The spread of malaria RDTs out of hospital and establishment of a national standard for Widal test will reduce the misdiagnosis of febrile diseases. For empirical treatment, antimalarial treatment was still targeted at falciparum malaria in Sierra Leone. Antibiotics against Gram-negative bacteria contributed to the empirical treatment of febrile diseases. For patients with acute respiratory tract infection, Gram-positive coccal antibiotics could be candidates for treatment. In addition, systematic and professional treatment of liver diseases should be promoted to reduce infection complications.

Multidrug-Resistant Shigellosis among Children Aged below Five Years with Diarrhea at Banadir Hospital in Mogadishu, Somalia

Globally, shigellosis remains the second leading cause of diarrhea-associated deaths among children under five years of age, and the infections are disproportionately higher in resource-limited settings due to overcrowding, poor sanitation, and inadequate safe drinking water. The emergence and global spread of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Shigella are exacerbating the shigellosis burden. We adopted a cross-sectional study design to determine the distribution and antimicrobial susceptibility (AST) patterns of Shigella serogroups among children aged below five years presenting with diarrhea at Banadir Hospital in Mogadishu, Somalia, from August to October 2019. Stool and rectal swab samples were collected from 180 children consecutively enrolled using a convenient sampling technique and processed following standard bacteriological methods. AST was determined using the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method and interpreted as per the Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute (2018) guidelines. Shigellosis prevalence was 20.6% (37/180), and S. flexneri (26/37 (70.3%)) was the predominant serogroup. All the serogroups were 100% resistant to ampicillin (AMP), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (SXT), and tetracycline (TE). Ceftriaxone (CRO) resistance was the highest among S. sonnei (66.7%) isolates. 19.2% of S. flexneri and S. sonnei (50%) serogroups were resistant to ciprofloxacin (CIP), but all S. dysenteriae type 1 isolates remained (100%) susceptible. Forty percent of CIP-susceptible S. dysenteriae type 1 were resistant to CRO. Seven MDR Shigella phenotypes were identified, dominated by those involving resistance to AMP, SXT, and TE (100%). Our findings showed a high prevalence of shigellosis with S. flexneri as the most predominant serogroup among children under five years of age in Banadir Hospital, Somalia. AMP and SXT are no longer appropriate treatments for shigellosis in children under five years in Banadir Hospital. MDR Shigella strains, including those resistant to CIP and CRO, have emerged in Somalia, posing a public health challenge. Therefore, there is an urgent need for AMR surveillance and continuous monitoring to mitigate the further spread of the MDR Shigella strains in Banadir Hospital and beyond.

Amino Acid-Based Diet Prevents Lethal Infectious Diarrhea by Maintaining Body Water Balance in a Murine Citrobacter rodentium Infection Model

Infectious diarrhea is one of the most important health problems worldwide. Although nutritional status influences the clinical manifestation of various enteric pathogen infections, the effect of diet on enteric infectious diseases remains unclear. Using a fatal infectious diarrheal model, we found that an amino acid-based diet (AD) protected susceptible mice infected with the enteric pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. While the mice fed other diets, including a regular diet, were highly susceptible to C. rodentium infection, AD-fed mice had an increased survival rate. An AD did not suppress C. rodentium colonization or intestinal damage; instead, it prevented diarrhea-induced dehydration by increasing water intake. An AD altered the plasma and fecal amino acid levels and changed the gut microbiota composition. Treatment with glutamate, whose level was increased in the plasma and feces of AD-fed mice, promoted water intake and improved the survival of C. rodentium-infected mice. Thus, an AD changes the systemic amino acid balance and protects against lethal infectious diarrhea by maintaining total body water content.