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Raju Paul S, Scholzen A, Reeves PM, Shepard R, Hess JM, Dzeng RK, Korek S, Garritsen A, Poznansky MC, Sluder AE. Cytometry profiling of ex vivo recall responses to Coxiella burnetii in previously naturally exposed individuals reveals long-term changes in both adaptive and innate immune cellular compartments. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1249581. [PMID: 37885896 PMCID: PMC10598782 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1249581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Q fever, caused by the intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii, is considered an occupational and biodefense hazard and can result in debilitating long-term complications. While natural infection and vaccination induce humoral and cellular immune responses, the exact nature of cellular immune responses to C. burnetii is incompletely understood. The current study seeks to investigate more deeply the nature of long-term cellular recall responses in naturally exposed individuals by both cytokine release assessment and cytometry profiling. Methods Individuals exposed during the 2007-2010 Dutch Q fever outbreak were grouped in 2015, based on a C. burnetii-specific IFNγ release assay (IGRA), serological status, and self-reported clinical symptoms during initial infection, into asymptomatic IGRA-negative/seronegative controls, and three IGRA-positive groups (seronegative/asymptomatic; seropositive/asymptomatic and seropositive/symptomatic). Recall responses following in vitro re-stimulation with heat-inactivated C. burnetii in whole blood, were assessed in 2016/2017 by cytokine release assays (n=55) and flow cytometry (n=36), and in blood mononuclear cells by mass cytometry (n=36). Results Cytokine release analysis showed significantly elevated IL-2 responses in all seropositive individuals and elevated IL-1β responses in those recovered from symptomatic infection. Comparative flow cytometry analysis revealed significantly increased IFNγ, TNFα and IL-2 recall responses by CD4 T cells and higher IL-6 production by monocytes from symptomatic, IGRA-positive/seropositive individuals compared to controls. Mass cytometry profiling and unsupervised clustering analysis confirmed recall responses in seropositive individuals by two activated CD4 T cell subsets, one characterized by a strong Th1 cytokine profile (IFNγ+IL-2+TNFα+), and identified C. burnetii-specific activation of CD8 T cells in all IGRA-positive groups. Remarkably, increased C. burnetii-specific responses in IGRA-positive individuals were also observed in three innate cell subpopulations: one characterized by an IFNγ+IL-2+TNFα+ Th1 cytokine profile and lack of canonical marker expression, and two IL-1β-, IL-6- and IL-8-producing CD14+ monocyte subsets that could be the drivers of elevated secretion of innate cytokines in pre-exposed individuals. Discussion These data highlight that there are long-term increased responses to C. burnetii in both adaptive and innate cellular compartments, the latter being indicative of trained immunity. These findings warrant future studies into the protective role of these innate responses and may inform future Q fever vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Raju Paul
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | - Patrick M. Reeves
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Robert Shepard
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Joshua M. Hess
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Richard K. Dzeng
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Skylar Korek
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | - Mark C. Poznansky
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ann E. Sluder
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
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Clemente TM, Augusto L, Angara RK, Gilk SD. Coxiella burnetii actively blocks IL-17-induced oxidative stress in macrophages. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.03.15.532774. [PMID: 36993319 PMCID: PMC10055185 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.15.532774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is a highly infectious pathogen that causes Q fever, a leading cause of culture-negative endocarditis. Coxiella first targets alveolar macrophages and forms a phagolysosome-like compartment called the Coxiella-Containing Vacuole (CCV). Successful host cell infection requires the Type 4B Secretion System (T4BSS), which translocates bacterial effector proteins across the CCV membrane into the host cytoplasm, where they manipulate numerous cell processes. Our prior transcriptional studies revealed that Coxiella T4BSS blocks IL-17 signaling in macrophages. Given that IL-17 is known to protect against pulmonary pathogens, we hypothesize that C. burnetii T4BSS downregulates intracellular IL-17 signaling to evade the host immune response and promote bacterial pathogenesis. Using a stable IL-17 promoter reporter cell line, we confirmed that Coxiella T4BSS blocks IL-17 transcription activation. Assessment of the phosphorylation state of NF-κB, MAPK, and JNK revealed that Coxiella downregulates IL-17 activation of these proteins. Using ACT1 knockdown and IL-17RA or TRAF6 knockout cells, we next determined that IL17RA-ACT1-TRAF6 pathway is essential for the IL-17 bactericidal effect in macrophages. In addition, macrophages stimulated with IL-17 generate higher levels of reactive oxygen species, which is likely connected to the bactericidal effect of IL-17. However, C. burnetii T4SS effector proteins block the IL-17-mediated oxidative stress, suggesting that Coxiella blocks IL-17 signaling to avoid direct killing by the macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana M Clemente
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, US
| | - Leonardo Augusto
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, US
| | - Rajendra K Angara
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, US
| | - Stacey D Gilk
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, US
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Raju Paul S, Scholzen A, Mukhtar G, Wilkinson S, Hobson P, Dzeng RK, Evans J, Robson J, Cobbold R, Graves S, Poznansky MC, Garritsen A, Sluder AE. Natural Exposure- and Vaccination-Induced Profiles of Ex Vivo Whole Blood Cytokine Responses to Coxiella burnetii. Front Immunol 2022; 13:886698. [PMID: 35812430 PMCID: PMC9259895 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.886698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by the highly infectious Gram-negative coccobacillus, Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii). The Q fever vaccine Q-VAX® is characterised by high reactogenicity, requiring individuals to be pre-screened for prior exposure before vaccination. To date it remains unclear whether vaccine side effects in pre-exposed individuals are associated with pre-existing adaptive immune responses to C. burnetii or are also a function of innate responses to Q-VAX®. In the current study, we measured innate and adaptive cytokine responses to C. burnetii and compared these among individuals with different pre-exposure status. Three groups were included: n=98 Dutch blood bank donors with unknown exposure status, n=95 Dutch village inhabitants with known natural exposure status to C. burnetii during the Dutch Q fever outbreak of 2007-2010, and n=96 Australian students receiving Q-VAX® vaccination in 2021. Whole blood cytokine responses following ex vivo stimulation with heat-killed C. burnetii were assessed for IFNγ, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, TNFα, IL-1β, IP-10, MIP-1α and IL-8. Serological data were collected for all three cohorts, as well as data on skin test and self-reported vaccine side effects and clinical symptoms during past infection. IFNγ, IP-10 and IL-2 responses were strongly elevated in individuals with prior C. burnetii antigen exposure, whether through infection or vaccination, while IL-1β, IL-6 and TNFα responses were slightly increased in naturally exposed individuals only. High dimensional analysis of the cytokine data identified four clusters of individuals with distinct cytokine response signatures. The cluster with the highest levels of adaptive cytokines and antibodies comprised solely individuals with prior exposure to C. burnetii, while another cluster was characterized by high innate cytokine production and an absence of C. burnetii-induced IP-10 production paired with high baseline IP-10 levels. Prior exposure status was partially associated with these signatures, but could not be clearly assigned to a single cytokine response signature. Overall, Q-VAX® vaccination and natural C. burnetii infection were associated with comparable cytokine response signatures, largely driven by adaptive cytokine responses. Neither individual innate and adaptive cytokine responses nor response signatures were associated retrospectively with clinical symptoms during infection or prospectively with side effects post-vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Raju Paul
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | - Ghazel Mukhtar
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | - Peter Hobson
- Sullivan Nicolaides Pathology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Richard K. Dzeng
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | | | - Rowland Cobbold
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | - Stephen Graves
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Mark C. Poznansky
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Ann E. Sluder, ; Anja Garritsen, ; Mark C. Poznansky,
| | - Anja Garritsen
- InnatOss Laboratories B.V., Oss, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Ann E. Sluder, ; Anja Garritsen, ; Mark C. Poznansky,
| | - Ann E. Sluder
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Ann E. Sluder, ; Anja Garritsen, ; Mark C. Poznansky,
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Sireci G, Badami GD, Di Liberto D, Blanda V, Grippi F, Di Paola L, Guercio A, de la Fuente J, Torina A. Recent Advances on the Innate Immune Response to Coxiella burnetii. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:754455. [PMID: 34796128 PMCID: PMC8593175 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.754455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium and the causative agent of a worldwide zoonosis known as Q fever. The pathogen invades monocytes and macrophages, replicating within acidic phagolysosomes and evading host defenses through different immune evasion strategies that are mainly associated with the structure of its lipopolysaccharide. The main transmission routes are aerosols and ingestion of fomites from infected animals. The innate immune system provides the first host defense against the microorganism, and it is crucial to direct the infection towards a self-limiting respiratory disease or the chronic form. This review reports the advances in understanding the mechanisms of innate immunity acting during C. burnetii infection and the strategies that pathogen put in place to infect the host cells and to modify the expression of specific host cell genes in order to subvert cellular processes. The mechanisms through which different cell types with different genetic backgrounds are differently susceptible to C. burnetii intracellular growth are discussed. The subsets of cytokines induced following C. burnetii infection as well as the pathogen influence on an inflammasome-mediated response are also described. Finally, we discuss the use of animal experimental systems for studying the innate immune response against C. burnetii and discovering novel methods for prevention and treatment of disease in humans and livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Sireci
- Central Laboratory of Advanced Diagnostic and Biological Research (CLADIBIOR), Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), University Hospital "Paolo Giaccone", Università degli studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Giusto Davide Badami
- Central Laboratory of Advanced Diagnostic and Biological Research (CLADIBIOR), Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), University Hospital "Paolo Giaccone", Università degli studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Diana Di Liberto
- Central Laboratory of Advanced Diagnostic and Biological Research (CLADIBIOR), Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), University Hospital "Paolo Giaccone", Università degli studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Valeria Blanda
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Francesca Grippi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Laura Di Paola
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Annalisa Guercio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - José de la Fuente
- SaBio Health and Biotechnology, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC -Spanish National Research Council CSIC - University of Castilla-La Mancha UCLM - Regional Government of Castilla-La Mancha JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain.,Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
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Janssen AWM, Stienstra R, Jaeger M, van Gool AJ, Joosten LAB, Netea MG, Riksen NP, Tack CJ. Understanding the increased risk of infections in diabetes: innate and adaptive immune responses in type 1 diabetes. Metabolism 2021; 121:154795. [PMID: 33971203 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2021.154795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Patients with diabetes have a higher incidence of infections with Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, yet factors contributing to this increased risk are largely unknown. We hypothesize that altered innate and adaptive immune responses during diabetes contribute to an increased susceptibility to infections. MATERIALS AND METHODS We studied cytokine responses to ex vivo pathogenic stimulations in a cohort with type 1 diabetes (n = 243) and non-diabetic healthy control subjects (n = 56) using isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Clinical phenotypical data including BMI, duration of diabetes, and HbA1c levels were collected and related to the cytokine production capacity. RESULTS Adjusted for age, sex and BMI, the presence of diabetes was associated with significantly lower IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-17 production upon ex vivo stimulation of PBMCs with C. albicans and S. aureus (all, p < 0.05). In response to stimulation with M. tuberculosis only IL-17 (p < 0.001) was lower in patients with diabetes. Patients with the shortest diabetes duration had a significant lower IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α production (all, p < 0.01) after M. tuberculosis stimulation. Older patients had a significant lower IFN-γ (p < 0.05) production after stimulation with all three pathogens. HbA1c levels and BMI had no significant impact on cytokine production. CONCLUSIONS PBMCs of patients with type 1 diabetes demonstrate significantly lower cytokine production in response to stimulation with several pathogens, which likely explain, at least in part, the increased susceptibility for these infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna W M Janssen
- Department of Internal Medicine (463), Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Rinke Stienstra
- Department of Internal Medicine (463), Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Martin Jaeger
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Alain J van Gool
- Translational Metabolic Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Leo A B Joosten
- Department of Internal Medicine (463), Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Medical Genetics, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Mihai G Netea
- Department of Internal Medicine (463), Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Medical Genetics, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; Department for Genomics & Immunoregulation, Life and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES), University of Bonn, Germany
| | - Niels P Riksen
- Department of Internal Medicine (463), Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Cees J Tack
- Department of Internal Medicine (463), Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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Scholzen A, de Vries M, Duerr HP, Roest HJ, Sluder AE, Poznansky MC, Kouwijzer MLCE, Garritsen A. Whole Blood Interferon γ Release Is a More Sensitive Marker of Prior Exposure to Coxiella burnetii Than Are Antibody Responses. Front Immunol 2021; 12:701811. [PMID: 34394097 PMCID: PMC8356048 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.701811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
For the zoonotic disease Q fever, serological analysis plays a dominant role in the diagnosis of Coxiella burnetii infection and in pre-screening for past exposure prior to vaccination. A number of studies suggest that assessment of C. burnetii-specific T-cell IFNγ responses may be a more sensitive tool to assess past exposure. In this study, we assessed the performance of a whole blood C. burnetii IFNγ release assay in comparison to serological detection in an area of high Q fever incidence in 2014, up to seven years after initial exposure during the Dutch Q fever outbreak 2007-2010. In a cohort of >1500 individuals from the Dutch outbreak village of Herpen, approximately 60% had mounted IFNγ responses to C. burnetii. This proportion was independent of the Coxiella strain used for stimulation and much higher than the proportion of individuals scored sero-positive using the serological gold standard immunofluorescence assay. Moreover, C. burnetii-specific IFNγ responses were found to be more durable than antibody responses in two sub-groups of individuals known to have sero-converted as of 2007 or previously reported to the municipality as notified Q fever cases. A novel ready-to-use version of the IFNγ release assay assessed in a subgroup of pre-exposed individuals in 2021 (10-14 years post exposure) proved again to be more sensitive than serology in detecting past exposure. These data demonstrate that C. burnetii-induced IFNγ release is indeed a more sensitive and durable marker of exposure to C. burnetii than are serological responses. In combination with a simplified assay version suitable for implementation in routine diagnostic settings, this makes the assessment of IFNγ responses a valuable tool for exposure screening to obtain epidemiological data, and to identify previously exposed individuals in pre-vaccination screens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hendrik-Jan Roest
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, Netherlands
| | - Ann E Sluder
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mark C Poznansky
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
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