Fur Represses Adhesion to, Invasion of, and Intracellular Bacterial Community Formation within Bladder Epithelial Cells and Motility in Uropathogenic Escherichia coli

CsiR-Mediated Signal Transduction Pathway in Response to Low Iron Conditions Promotes Escherichia coli K1 Invasion and Penetration of the Blood-Brain Barrier

Escherichia coli K1 is the leading cause of neonatal gram-negative bacterial meningitis, but the pathogenesis of E coli K1 meningitis remains unclear. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration is a crucial step in E coli meningitis development. Here, we uncovered the crucial role of CsiR, a GntR family regulator, in E coli K1 virulence. During infection, csiR expression was induced due to the derepression by Fur in the blood and human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs). CsiR positively regulated ilvB expression, which is associated with branched chain amino acid synthesis. Furthermore, we revealed that IlvB activated the FAK/PI3K pathway of HBMECs to induce actin cytoskeleton rearrangements, thereby promoting the bacterial invasion and penetration of the BBB. Overall, this study reveals a CsiR-mediated virulence regulation pathway in E coli K1, which may provide a useful target for the prevention or therapy of E coli meningitis.

Characterization of the ferric uptake regulator VaFur regulon and its role in Vibrio anguillarum pathogenesis

The Gram-negative marine bacterium Vibrio anguillarum is able to cause vibriosis with hemorrhagic septicemia in many fish species, and iron acquisition is a critical step for virulence. Despite the fact that genes specific to certain processes of iron transport have been studied, the iron-regulated circuits of the V. anguillarum strains remain poorly understood. In this study, we showed that in V. anguillarum strain 775, iron could affect the expression of a number of critical metabolic pathways and virulence factors. The global iron uptake regulator VaFur is the major actor to control these processes for the bacterium to respond to different iron conditions. A VaFur binding motif was identified to distinguish directly and indirectly regulated targets. The absence of VaFur resulted in the aberrant expression of most iron acquisition determinants under rich-iron conditions. A similar regulation pattern was also observed in the transcription of genes coding for the type VI secretion system. The expression of peroxidase genes is positively controlled by VaFur to prevent iron toxicity, and the deletion of Vafur caused impaired growth in the presence of iron and H2O2. VaFur also upregulates some virulence factors under limited-iron conditions, including metalloprotease EmpA and motility, which are likely critical for the high virulence of V. anguillarum 775. The deletion of VaFur led to reduced swimming motility and decreased extracellular protease activity under limited-iron conditions, thereby leading to attenuated pathogenicity. Our study provides more evidence to better understand the VaFur regulon and its role in the pathogenesis of V. anguillarum.IMPORTANCEVibriosis, the most common disease caused by marine bacteria belonging to the genus Vibrio, leads to massive mortality of economical aquatic organisms in Asia. Iron is one of the most important trace elements, and its acquisition is a critical battle occurring between the host and the pathogen. However, excess iron is harmful to cells, so iron utilization needs to be strictly controlled to adapt to different conditions. This process is mediated by the global iron uptake regulator Fur, which acts as a repressor when iron is replete. On the other hand, free iron in the host is limited, so the reduced virulence of the Δfur mutant should not be directly caused by abnormally regulated iron uptake. The significance of this work lies in uncovering the mechanism by which the deletion of Fur causes reduced virulence in Vibrio anguillarum and identifying the critical virulence factors that function under limited-iron conditions.

Cloning and Expression of Pigeon-Derived Escherichia coli Type 1 Pilus Clusters and Analysis of Amino Acid Sequence Characteristics of Functional Proteins

BACKGROUND

Type 1 pili, as an important virulence factor of E. coli, has certain homology between APEC and UPEC, but the homology degree is not clear enough.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to compare the homology between them.

METHODS

The recombinant bacteria were constructed by homologous recombination. The pili were observed by TEM, and the hemagglutination characteristics were determined by MHSA. The complete gene sequence was determined by sequencing, and the amino acid sequences of the functional proteins of type 1 pili of APEC and UPEC were compared.

RESULTS

TEM showed that they could express pili, which were slender, straight, and dense. Stable-pUC-fimBH has MHSA but stable-pUC-fimBG does not. The amino acid sequence similarity of FimB of NJ05 and UPEC was 98.8%, FimE was 99.4%, and the similarity between them was 51.5%. Compared with UPEC's type 1 pili FimC and FimD sequences, the similarity was 99.52% and 87.8%, respectively. The amino acid sequence of FimA of NJ05 was 89-96%, similar to UPEC, and the N-terminal and C-terminal amino acid sequences were exactly the same. The gene sequence and amino acid sequence similarity of FimH between them were both above 99%. The similarity of the pilus binding domain of FimH was 52.8%, but only 27.6% in the receptor binding domain. A few of the same amino acid residues were found in the corresponding regions of FimA, FimF, FimG, and FimH.

CONCLUSIONS

The type 1 pili of APEC and UPEC come from the same origin, which is helpful to further reveal the pathogenic mechanism of E. coli infection in the poultry respiratory tract.

Iron limitation induces motility in uropathogenic E. coli CFT073 partially through action of LpdA

More than half of women will experience a urinary tract infection (UTI) with most cases caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). Bacterial swimming motility enhances UPEC pathogenicity, resulting in more severe disease outcomes including kidney infection. Surprisingly, the connection between motility and iron limitation is mostly unexplored despite the lack of free iron available in the host. We sought to investigate a potential connection between iron restriction and regulation of motility in UPEC. We cultured E. coli CFT073, a prototypical UPEC strain, under iron limitation and observed that CFT073 had elevated fliC (flagella) promoter activity, and this iron-specific response was repressed by the addition of exogenous iron. We confirmed increased flagellar expression in CFT073 by measuring fliC transcript, FliC protein, and surface-expressed flagella under iron-limited conditions. Interestingly, known motility regulator flhDC did not have altered transcription under these conditions. To define the regulatory mechanism of this response, we constructed single knockouts of eight master regulators and found the iron-regulated response was lost in crp, arcA, and fis mutants. Thus, we focused on the five genes regulated by all three regulators. Of the five genes knocked out, the iron-regulated motility response was most strongly dysregulated in the lpdA mutant, which also resulted in significantly lowered fitness in the murine model of ascending UTI, both against the WT and a non-motile fliC mutant. Collectively, we demonstrated that iron-mediated motility in CFT073 is partially regulated by lpdA, which contributes to the understanding of how uropathogens differentially regulate motility mechanisms in the iron-restricted host.

IMPORTANCE

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are ubiquitous and responsible for over five billion dollars in associated health care costs annually. Both iron acquisition and motility are highly studied virulence factors associated with uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), the main causative agent of uncomplicated UTI. This work is innovative by providing mechanistic insight into the synergistic relationship between these two critical virulence properties. Here, we demonstrate that iron limitation has pleiotropic effects with consequences that extend beyond metabolism and impact other virulence mechanisms. Indeed, targeting iron acquisition as a therapy may lead to an undesirable enhancement of UPEC pathogenesis through increased motility. It is vital to understand the full breadth of UPEC pathogenesis to adequately respond to this common infection, especially with the increase of antibiotic-resistant pathogens.

TusDCB, a sulfur transferase complex involved in tRNA modification, contributes to UPEC pathogenicity

tRNA modifications play a crucial role in ensuring accurate codon recognition and optimizing translation levels. While the significance of these modifications in eukaryotic cells for maintaining cellular homeostasis and physiological functions is well-established, their physiological roles in bacterial cells, particularly in pathogenesis, remain relatively unexplored. The TusDCB protein complex, conserved in γ-proteobacteria like Escherichia coli, is involved in sulfur modification of specific tRNAs. This study focused on the role of TusDCB in the virulence of uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC), a bacterium causing urinary tract infections. The findings indicate that TusDCB is essential for optimal production of UPEC's virulence factors, including type 1 fimbriae and flagellum, impacting the bacterium's ability to aggregate in bladder epithelial cells. Deletion of tusDCB resulted in decreased virulence against urinary tract infection mice. Moreover, mutant TusDCB lacking sulfur transfer activity and tusE- and mnmA mutants revealed the indispensability of TusDCB's sulfur transfer activity for UPEC pathogenicity. The study extends its relevance to highly pathogenic, multidrug-resistant strains, where tusDCB deletion reduced virulence-associated bacterial aggregation. These insights not only deepen our understanding of the interplay between tRNA sulfur modification and bacterial pathogenesis but also highlight TusDCB as a potential therapeutic target against UPEC strains resistant to conventional antimicrobial agents.

Cross-talk between QseBC and PmrAB two-component systems is crucial for regulation of motility and colistin resistance in Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli

The quorum sensing two-component system (TCS) QseBC has been linked to virulence, motility and metabolism regulation in multiple Gram-negative pathogens, including Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) and Salmonella enterica. In EHEC, the sensor histidine kinase (HK) QseC detects the quorum sensing signalling molecule AI-3 and also acts as an adrenergic sensor binding host epinephrine and norepinephrine. Downstream changes in gene expression are mediated by phosphorylation of its cognate response regulator (RR) QseB, and 'cross-talks' with non-cognate regulators KdpE and QseF to activate motility and virulence. In UPEC, cross-talk between QseBC and TCS PmrAB is crucial in the regulation and phosphorylation of QseB RR that acts as a repressor of multiple pathways, including motility. Here, we investigated QseBC regulation of motility in the atypical Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) strain O125ac:H6, causative agent of persistent diarrhoea in children, and its possible cross-talk with the KdpDE and PmrAB TCS. We showed that in EPEC QseB acts as a repressor of genes involved in motility, virulence and stress response, and in absence of QseC HK, QseB is likely activated by the non-cognate PmrB HK, similarly to UPEC. We show that in absence of QseC, phosphorylated QseB activates its own expression, and is responsible for the low motility phenotypes seen in a QseC deletion mutant. Furthermore, we showed that KdpD HK regulates motility in an independent manner to QseBC and through a third unidentified party different to its own response regulator KdpE. We showed that PmrAB has a role in iron adaptation independent to QseBC. Finally, we showed that QseB is the responsible for activation of colistin and polymyxin B resistance genes while PmrA RR acts by preventing QseB activation of these resistance genes.

Screening of antigenic epitopes related to the adhesion of the avian Escherichia coli Type 1 Fimbrial Agglutinin Domain

BACKGROUND

Avian Escherichia coli (E.coli) type 1 fimbriae adhere to avian tracheal epithelial cells through the FimH protein. However, the adhesion-related antigen is still unknown. The purpose of this study was to analyze the antigenicity of the type 1 fimbrial FimH protein of wild-type avian E. coli, screen antigen epitopes, and prepare monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that can block the adhesion of avian E. coli.

RESULTS

In this study, the nucleic acid homologies of MG2 (O11), TS12 (O18), and YR5 (O78) with K12 were 97.7%, 99.6%, and 97.7%, respectively, and the amino acid sequence similarity reached 98.7%, 99.3%, and 98.0%, respectively. The epitopes and hydrophilicities of the FimH proteins of these three strains were similar. The more obvious lectin domain epitopes were located at FimH protein positions 111-124 and 154-162. The mAbs 7C2 and 7D8 against these two epitopes were prepared. An adhesion inhibition test showed that 7C2 and 7D8 blocked bacterial adhesion to avian tracheal epithelial cells. The mAb 7C2 against the 111-124 epitope inhibited O78 strain adhesion by 93%, and the mAb 7D8 against the 154-162 epitope inhibited O78 strain adhesion by 49%, indicating that these two epitopes are closely related to the adhesion of type 1 fimbriae. However, only the 111-124 epitope-recognizing mAb 7C2 inhibited bacterial agglutination of erythrocytes, indicating that host cell receptor binding and erythrocyte agglutination are not mediated by the same spatial locations within the FimH protein.

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrate that the mAbs 7C2 and 7D8 against FimH protein positions 111-124 and 154-162 could inhibit the adhesion of E.coli to the chicken trachea.

The PapB/FocB family protein TosR acts as a positive regulator of flagellar expression and is required for optimal virulence of uropathogenic Escherichia coli

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is a major causative agent of urinary tract infections. The bacteria internalize into the uroepithelial cells, where aggregate and form microcolonies. UPEC fimbriae and flagella are important for the formation of microcolonies in uroepithelial cells. PapB/FocB family proteins are small DNA-binding transcriptional regulators consisting of approximately 100 amino acids that have been reported to regulate the expression of various fimbriae, including P, F1C, and type 1 fimbriae, and adhesins. In this study, we show that TosR, a member of the PapB/FocB family is the activator of flagellar expression. The tosR mutant had similar expression levels of type 1, P and F1C fimbriae as the parent strain, but flagellar production was markedly lower than in the parent strain. Flagellin is a major component of flagella. The gene encoding flagellin, fliC, is transcriptionally activated by the sigma factor FliA. The fliA expression is induced by the flagellar master regulator FlhDC. The flhD and flhC genes form an operon. The promoter activity of fliC, fliA and flhD in the tosR mutant was significantly lower than in the parent strain. The purified recombinant TosR does not bind to fliC and fliA but to the upstream region of the flhD gene. TosR is known to bind to an AT-rich DNA sequence consisting of 29 nucleotides. The characteristic AT-rich sequence exists 550-578 bases upstream of the flhD gene. The DNA fragment lacking this sequence did not bind TosR. Furthermore, loss of the tosR gene reduced motility and the aggregation ability of UPEC in urothelial cells. These results indicate that TosR is a transcriptional activator that increases expression of the flhDC operon genes, contributing to flagellar expression and optimal virulence.

Inactivation of ackA and pta Genes Reduces GlpT Expression and Susceptibility to Fosfomycin in Escherichia coli

Fosfomycin is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including urinary tract infections caused by Escherichia coli. In recent years, quinolone-resistant and extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria have been increasing. Because fosfomycin is effective against many of these drug-resistant bacteria, the clinical importance of fosfomycin is increasing. Against this background, information on the mechanisms of resistance and the antimicrobial activity of this drug is desired to enhance the usefulness of fosfomycin therapy. In this study, we aimed to explore novel factors affecting the antimicrobial activity of fosfomycin. Here, we found that ackA and pta contribute to fosfomycin activity against E. coli. ackA and pta mutant E. coli had reduced fosfomycin uptake capacity and became less sensitive to this drug. In addition, ackA and pta mutants had decreased expression of glpT that encodes one of the fosfomycin transporters. Expression of glpT is enhanced by a nucleoid-associated protein, Fis. We found that mutations in ackA and pta also caused a decrease in fis expression. Thus, we interpret the decrease in glpT expression in ackA and pta defective strains to be due to a decrease in Fis levels in these mutants. Furthermore, ackA and pta are conserved in multidrug-resistant E. coli isolated from patients with pyelonephritis and enterohemorrhagic E. coli, and deletion of ackA and pta from these strains resulted in decreased susceptibility to fosfomycin. These results suggest that ackA and pta in E. coli contribute to fosfomycin activity and that mutation of these genes may pose a risk of reducing the effect of fosfomycin. IMPORTANCE The spread of drug-resistant bacteria is a major threat in the field of medicine. Although fosfomycin is an old type of antimicrobial agent, it has recently come back into the limelight because of its effectiveness against many drug-resistant bacteria, including quinolone-resistant and ESBL-producing bacteria. Since fosfomycin is taken up into the bacteria by GlpT and UhpT transporters, its antimicrobial activity fluctuates with changes in GlpT and UhpT function and expression. In this study, we found that inactivation of the ackA and pta genes responsible for the acetic acid metabolism system reduced GlpT expression and fosfomycin activity. In other words, this study shows a new genetic mutation that leads to fosfomycin resistance in bacteria. The results of this study will lead to further understanding of the mechanism of fosfomycin resistance and the creation of new ideas to enhance fosfomycin therapy.

Unusual Relationship between Iron Deprivation and Organophosphate Hydrolase Expression

Organophosphate hydrolases (OPH), hitherto known to hydrolyze the third ester bond of organophosphate (OP) insecticides and nerve agents, have recently been shown to interact with outer membrane transport components, namely, TonB and ExbB/ExbD. In an OPH negative background, Sphingopyxis wildii cells failed to transport ferric enterobactin and showed retarded growth under iron-limiting conditions. We now show the OPH-encoding organophosphate degradation (opd) gene from Sphingobium fuliginis ATCC 27551 to be part of the iron regulon. A fur-box motif found to be overlapping with the transcription start site (TSS) of the opd gene coordinates with an iron responsive element (IRE) RNA motif identified in the 5' coding region of the opd mRNA to tightly regulate opd gene expression. The fur-box motif serves as a target for the Fur repressor in the presence of iron. A decrease in iron concentration leads to the derepression of opd. IRE RNA inhibits the translation of opd mRNA and serves as a target for apo-aconitase (IRP). The IRP recruited by the IRE RNA abrogates IRE-mediated translational inhibition. Our findings establish a novel, multilayered, iron-responsive regulation that is crucial for OPH function in the transport of siderophore-mediated iron uptake. IMPORTANCE Sphingobium fuliginis, a soil-dwelling microbe isolated from agricultural soils, was shown to degrade a variety of insecticides and pesticides. These synthetic chemicals function as potent neurotoxins, and they belong to a class of chemicals termed organophosphates. S. fuliginis codes for OPH, an enzyme that has been shown to be involved in the metabolism of several organophosphates and their derivatives. Interestingly, OPH has also been shown to facilitate siderophore-mediated iron uptake in S. fuliginis and in another Sphingomonad, namely, Sphingopyxis wildii, implying that this organophosphate-metabolizing protein has a role in iron homeostasis, as well. Our research dissects the underlying molecular mechanisms linking iron to the expression of OPH, prompting a reconsideration of the role of OPH in Sphingomonads and a reevaluation of the evolutionary origins of the OPH proteins from soil bacteria.

Revisiting Fur Regulon Leads to a Comprehensive Understanding of Iron and Fur Regulation

Iron is an essential element because it functions as a cofactor of many enzymes, but excess iron causes cell damage. Iron hemostasis in Escherichia coli was transcriptionally maintained by the ferric uptake regulator (Fur). Despite having been studied extensively, the comprehensive physiological roles and mechanisms of Fur-coordinated iron metabolism still remain obscure. In this work, by integrating a high-resolution transcriptomic study of the Fur wild-type and knockout Escherichia coli K-12 strains in the presence or absence of iron with high-throughput ChIP-seq assay and physiological studies, we revisited the regulatory roles of iron and Fur systematically and discovered several intriguing features of Fur regulation. The size of the Fur regulon was expanded greatly, and significant discrepancies were observed to exist between the regulations of Fur on the genes under its direct repression and activation. Fur showed stronger binding strength to the genes under its repression, and genes that were repressed by Fur were more sensitive to Fur and iron regulation as compared to the genes that were activated by Fur. Finally, we found that Fur linked iron metabolism to many essential processes, and the systemic regulations of Fur on carbon metabolism, respiration, and motility were further validated or discussed. These results highlight how Fur and Fur-controlled iron metabolism affect many cellular processes in a systematic way.

Adaptive strategies of uropathogenic Escherichia coli CFT073: from growth in lab media to virulence during host cell adhesion

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a major concern in public health. The prevalent uropathogenic bacterium in healthcare settings is Escherichia coli. The increasing rate of antibiotic-resistant strains demands studies to understand E. coli pathogenesis to drive the development of new therapeutic approaches. This study compared the gene expression profile of selected target genes in the prototype uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) strain CFT073 grown in Luria Bertani (LB), artificial urine (AU), and during adhesion to host bladder cells by semi-quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR) assays. AU effectively supported the growth of strain CFT073 as well as other E. coli strains with different lifestyles, thereby confirming the appropriateness of this medium for in vitro models. Unexpectedly, gene expression of strain CFT073 in LB and AU was quite similar; conversely, during the adhesion assay, adhesins and porins were upregulated, while key global regulators were downregulated with respect to lab media. Interestingly, fimH and papGII genes were significantly expressed in all tested conditions. Taken together, these results provide for the first time insights of the metabolic and pathogenic profile of strain CFT073 during the essential phase of host cell adhesion.

What Flips the Switch? Signals and Stress Regulating Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli Type 1 Fimbriae (Pili)

Pathogens are exposed to a multitude of harmful conditions imposed by the environment of the host. Bacterial responses against these stresses are pivotal for successful host colonization and pathogenesis. In the case of many E. coli strains, type 1 fimbriae (pili) are an important colonization factor that can contribute to diseases such as urinary tract infections and neonatal meningitis. Production of type 1 fimbriae in E. coli is dependent on an invertible promoter element, fimS, which serves as a phase variation switch determining whether or not a bacterial cell will produce type 1 fimbriae. In this review, we present aspects of signaling and stress involved in mediating regulation of type 1 fimbriae in extraintestinal E. coli; in particular, how certain regulatory mechanisms, some of which are linked to stress response, can influence production of fimbriae and influence bacterial colonization and infection. We suggest that regulation of type 1 fimbriae is potentially linked to environmental stress responses, providing a perspective for how environmental cues in the host and bacterial stress response during infection both play an important role in regulating extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli colonization and virulence.

Roles of OmpX, an Outer Membrane Protein, on Virulence and Flagellar Expression in Uropathogenic Escherichia coli

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is a major pathogen that causes urinary tract infection (UTI). This bacterium adheres to and internalizes within urinary tract cells, where it aggregates and subsequently forms biofilm-like multicellular colonies that protect UPEC from antimicrobial agents and the host's immune system. Here, we show that OmpX, an outer membrane protein, plays a role in the pathogenesis of UPEC in renal cells. Deletion of ompX decreased bacterial internalization and aggregation within kidney epithelial cells and also impaired the colonization of mouse urinary tracts, but the ompX mutant still adhered to the epithelial cells at a level similar to that of the parent strain. FlhD, the master regulator of flagellum-related genes, had a low expression level in the ompX mutant compared to the parent strain, and the ompX mutant exhibited defective motility due to lower flagellar production than the parent strain. The fliC mutant, which lacks flagella, exhibited lower levels of bacterial internalization and aggregation than the parent strain. Additional deletion of ompX in the fliC mutant did not further decrease bacterial internalization. These combined results suggest that OmpX contributes to flagellar production in UPEC and then sustains UPEC virulence associated with bacterial internalization and aggregation within urinary tract cells and colonization in the urinary tract.

Functional characterization of Fur in iron metabolism, oxidative stress resistance and virulence of Riemerella anatipestifer

Iron is essential for most bacteria to survive, but excessive iron leads to damage by the Fenton reaction. Therefore, the concentration of intracellular free iron must be strictly controlled in bacteria. Riemerella anatipestifer (R. anatipestifer), a Gram-negative bacterium, encodes the iron uptake system. However, the iron homeostasis mechanism remains largely unknown. In this study, it was shown that compared with the wild type R. anatipestifer CH-1, R. anatipestifer CH-1Δfur was more sensitive to streptonigrin, and this effect was alleviated when the bacteria were cultured in iron-depleted medium, suggesting that the fur mutant led to excess iron accumulation inside cells. Similarly, compared with R. anatipestifer CH-1∆recA, R. anatipestifer CH-1∆recAΔfur was more sensitive to H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress when the bacteria were grown in iron-rich medium rather than iron-depleted medium. Accordingly, it was shown that R. anatipestifer CH-1∆recAΔfur produced more intracellular ROS than R. anatipestifer CH-1∆recA in iron-rich medium. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that R. anatipestifer CH-1 Fur suppressed the transcription of putative iron uptake genes through binding to their promoter regions. Finally, it was shown that compared with the wild type, R. anatipestifer CH-1Δfur was significantly attenuated in ducklings and that the colonization ability of R. anatipestifer CH-1Δfur in various tissues or organs was decreased. All these results suggested that Fur is important for iron homeostasis in R. anatipestifer and its pathogenic mechanism.

Effect of sub-minimal inhibitory concentration ceftazidime on the pathogenicity of uropathogenic Escherichia coli

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the most prevalent causative agent of urinary tract infections (UTIs). The pathogenicity of UPEC relies on the expression of virulence factors which could be regulated by intercellular signal molecules. Our previous study found that sub-minimal inhibitory concentration ceftazidime (sub-MIC CAZ) could inhibit the biofilm formation of E. coli by luxS/AI-2 or indole. Therefore, we speculated that sub-MIC CAZ might affect the pathogenic capacity of UPEC. In this study, the results showed that sub-MIC CAZ could significantly inhibit the adhesion ability, biofilm formation and swimming and swarming motilities of UPEC isolated from recurrent UTI patient. Meanwhile, obvious decreased hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity were observed in CAZ-pretreated UPEC. Furthermore, qRT-PCR results confirmed the downregulating ability of CAZ on the expression of adhesion genes, motility genes, toxin gene and signal molecule synthesis genes, which are important for virulence and biofilm formation of UPEC. Pre-treatment of UPEC with sub-MIC CAZ resulted in the reduced adhesion to human bladder epithelial cell 5637 and the decreased numbers of intracellular bacterial communities in cells. Consistent with the results in vitro, the pretreatment of CAZ resulted in the reduction of UPEC load in the bladder and the less severity of UPEC-induced inflammation compared with control group. The present study results indicated that sub-MIC CAZ could decrease the pathogenicity of UPEC and might be served as an effective antimicrobial agent to combat recurrent UTI caused by UPEC.

Ferric Uptake Regulator Fur Coordinates Siderophore Production and Defense against Iron Toxicity and Oxidative Stress and Contributes to Virulence in Chromobacterium violaceum

Iron is a highly reactive metal that participates in several processes in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Hosts and pathogens compete for iron in the context of infection. Chromobacterium violaceum, an environmental Gram-negative bacterial pathogen, relies on siderophores to overcome iron limitation in the host. In this work, we studied the role of the ferric uptake regulator Fur in the physiology and virulence of C. violaceum A Δfur mutant strain showed decreased growth and fitness under regular in vitro growth conditions and presented high sensitivity to iron and oxidative stresses. Furthermore, the absence of fur caused derepression of siderophore production and reduction in swimming motility and biofilm formation. Consistent with these results, the C. violaceum Δfur mutant was highly attenuated for virulence and liver colonization in mice. In contrast, a manganese-selected spontaneous fur mutant showed only siderophore overproduction and sensitivity to oxidative stress, indicating that Fur remained partially functional in this strain. We found that mutations in genes related to siderophore biosynthesis and a putative CRISPR-Cas locus rescued the Δfur mutant growth defects, indicating that multiple Fur-regulated processes contribute to maintaining bacterial cell fitness. Overall, our data indicated that Fur is conditionally essential in C. violaceum mainly by protecting cells from iron overload and oxidative damage. The requirement of Fur for virulence highlights the importance of iron in the pathogenesis of C. violaceum IMPORTANCE Maintenance of iron homeostasis, i.e., avoiding both deficiency and toxicity of this metal, is vital to bacteria and their hosts. Iron sequestration by host proteins is a crucial strategy to combat bacterial infections. In bacteria, the ferric uptake regulator Fur coordinates the expression of several iron-related genes. Sometimes, Fur can also regulate several other processes. In this work, we performed an in-depth phenotypic characterization of fur mutants in the human opportunistic pathogen Chromobacterium violaceum We determined that fur is a conditionally essential gene necessary for proper growth under regular conditions and is fully required for survival under iron and oxidative stresses. Fur also controlled several virulence-associated traits, such as swimming motility, biofilm formation, and siderophore production. Consistent with these results, a C. violaceum fur null mutant showed attenuation of virulence. Therefore, our data established Fur as a major player required for C. violaceum to manage iron, including during infection in the host.

YdiV regulates Escherichia coli ferric uptake by manipulating the DNA-binding ability of Fur in a SlyD-dependent manner

Iron is essential for all bacteria. In most bacteria, intracellular iron homeostasis is tightly regulated by the ferric uptake regulator Fur. However, how Fur activates the iron-uptake system during iron deficiency is not fully elucidated. In this study, we found that YdiV, the flagella gene inhibitor, is involved in iron homeostasis in Escherichia coli. Iron deficiency triggers overexpression of YdiV. High levels of YdiV then transforms Fur into a novel form which does not bind DNA in a peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase SlyD dependent manner. Thus, the cooperation of YdiV, SlyD and Fur activates the gene expression of iron-uptake systems under conditions of iron deficiency. Bacterial invasion assays also demonstrated that both ydiV and slyD are necessary for the survival and growth of uropathogenic E. coli in bladder epithelial cells. This reveals a mechanism where YdiV not only represses flagella expression to make E. coli invisible to the host immune system, but it also promotes iron acquisition to help E. coli overcome host nutritional immunity.

Tailoring a Global Iron Regulon to a Uropathogen

Host iron restriction is a common mechanism for limiting the growth of pathogens. We compared the regulatory network controlled by Fur in uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) to that of nonpathogenic E. coli K-12 to uncover strategies that pathogenic bacteria use to overcome iron limitation. Although iron homeostasis functions were regulated by Fur in the uropathogen as expected, a surprising finding was the activation of the stringent and general stress responses in the uropathogen fur mutant, which was rescued by amino acid addition. This coordinated global response could be important in controlling growth and survival under nutrient-limiting conditions and during transitions from the nutrient-rich environment of the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract to the more restrictive environment of the urinary tract. The coupling of the response of iron limitation to increased demand for amino acids could be a critical attribute that sets UPEC apart from other E. coli pathotypes.

Pathogenicity islands and plasmids bear genes for pathogenesis of various Escherichia coli pathotypes. Although there is a basic understanding of the contribution of these virulence factors to disease, less is known about variation in regulatory networks in determining disease phenotypes. Here, we dissected a regulatory network directed by the conserved iron homeostasis regulator, ferric uptake regulator (Fur), in uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) strain CFT073. Comparing anaerobic genome-scale Fur DNA binding with Fur-dependent transcript expression and protein levels of the uropathogen to that of commensal E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 showed that the Fur regulon of the core genome is conserved but also includes genes within the pathogenicity/genetic islands. Unexpectedly, regulons indicative of amino acid limitation and the general stress response were also indirectly activated in the uropathogen fur mutant, suggesting that induction of the Fur regulon increases amino acid demand. Using RpoS levels as a proxy, addition of amino acids mitigated the stress. In addition, iron chelation increased RpoS to the same levels as in the fur mutant. The increased amino acid demand of the fur mutant or iron chelated cells was exacerbated by aerobic conditions, which could be partly explained by the O₂-dependent synthesis of the siderophore aerobactin, encoded by an operon within a pathogenicity island. Taken together, these data suggest that in the iron-poor environment of the urinary tract, amino acid availability could play a role in the proliferation of this uropathogen, particularly if there is sufficient O₂ to produce aerobactin.

Insights into irr and rirA gene regulation on the virulence of Brucella melitensis M5-90

Iron is a fundamental element required by most organisms, including Brucella. Several researchers have suggested that the iron response regulator (irr) and rhizobial iron regulator (rirA) genes regulate iron acquisition by Brucella abortus, influencing heme synthesis by and virulence of this pathogen. However, little is known about another Brucella species, Brucella melitensis. In this research, we successfully constructed two mutants: M5-90Δirr and M5-90ΔrirA. The adhesion, invasion, and intracellular survivability of these two mutants were evaluated in RAW264.7 cells infected with 1 × 10⁶ CFU of M5-90Δirr, M5-90ΔrirA, or M5-90. We also tested the sensitivity of cells to hydrogen peroxide and their ability to grow. In addition, the virulence of these two mutants was evaluated in BALB/c mice. The results showed that the ability of these two mutants to invade and adhere inside the murine macrophages RAW264.7 was attenuated but their ability to replicate intracellularly was strengthened, enhancing the resistance to hydrogen peroxide. The M5-90Δirr mutant showed stronger growth ability than the parental strain under iron-limiting conditions. No differences were observed in the number of bacteria in spleen between M5-90 and M5-90Δirr at 7 or 15 days postinfection. However, the number of M5-90ΔrirA in spleen reduced significantly at 15 days postinfection. The splenic index of the M5-90Δirr group is evidently lower than that of M5-90. This is the first report that irr and rirA genes of B. melitensis are associated not only with virulence but also with growth ability. Together, our data suggest that M5-90Δirr is a promising Brucella vaccine candidate.

Roles of CytR, an anti-activator of cyclic-AMP receptor protein (CRP) on flagellar expression and virulence in uropathogenic Escherichia coli

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is a major pathogen that causes urinary tract infection (UTI), a common bacterial infectious disease. This bacterium invades the urinary tract cells, where it aggregates, and subsequently forms multicellular colonies termed intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs). The motility of the bacteria plays a key role in the mechanism of virulence in the host bladder. Here, we show that CytR is a modulator of bacterial internalization and aggregation within the bladder epithelial cells sustained by CRP in UPEC. Mutational analyses and gel-shift assays indicated that CytR represses the expression of flhD, thereby encoding a master regulator for flagellar expression that is responsible for bacterial motility when CRP is present, whereas CRP is an activator of flhD expression. Thus, elevated flagellar expression was involved in promoted virulence in the cytR mutant. These combined observations suggest another regulatory layer of flagellar expression and the role of CytR in UPEC virulence.

The Tol-Pal System of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Is Responsible for Optimal Internalization Into and Aggregation Within Bladder Epithelial Cells, Colonization of the Urinary Tract of Mice, and Bacterial Motility

Urinary tracts infection (UTI) caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is a common infectious disease. With the shortage of new antimicrobial agents, the increase in UPEC resistance to commonly used drugs, such as fluoroquinolones and β-lactams including carbapenems is a critical issue. UPEC invades urinary tract cells, where it aggregates, and subsequently, forms biofilm-like multicellular colonies termed intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs). This process allows the bacteria to establish infections and so may be a good potential target for new drugs to treat infections. Here, we show that deletion of the tolB gene, encoding a protein of the Tol-Pal system that was originally characterized as a protein complex for colicin uptake and maintenance of the outer membrane, decreases the level of bacterial internalization into and aggregation within cultured bladder epithelial cells and also inhibits the colonization of mice urinary tracts. The tolB mutant also exhibited defective motility because of impaired flagellum syntheses. The fliC and motA mutants, which are non-motile strains, also exhibited lower levels of bacterial internalization and aggregation than their wild-type parent. Additional deletion of tolB in the fliC mutant did not further decrease these, suggesting that the attenuated virulence of the tolB mutant is a result of defective motility. The tolA, tolQ, tolR, and pal mutants that lack other members of the Tol-Pal system also exhibited lower levels of motility and aggregation within bladder epithelial cells compared to their wild-type parent. These combined results suggest another role of the Tol-Pal system, i.e., that it is responsible for optimal internalization, aggregation followed by IBC formation within urinary tract cells, and bacterial motility.

Regulation of Iron Storage by CsrA Supports Exponential Growth of Escherichia coli

The global regulatory protein CsrA coordinates gene expression in response to physiological cues reflecting cellular stress and nutrition. CsrA binding to the 5' segments of mRNA targets affects their translation, RNA stability, and/or transcript elongation. Recent studies identified probable mRNA targets of CsrA that are involved in iron uptake and storage in Escherichia coli, suggesting an unexplored role for CsrA in regulating iron homeostasis. Here, we assessed the impact of CsrA on iron-related gene expression, cellular iron, and growth under various iron levels. We investigated five new targets of CsrA regulation, including the genes for 4 ferritin or ferritin-like iron storage proteins (ISPs) and the stress-inducible Fe-S repair protein, SufA. CsrA bound with high affinity and specificity to ftnB, bfr, and dps mRNAs and inhibited their translation, while it modestly activated ftnA expression. Furthermore, CsrA was found to regulate cellular iron levels and support growth by repressing the expression of genes for ISPs, most importantly, ferritin B (FtnB) and bacterioferritin (Bfr). Iron starvation did not substantially affect cellular levels of CsrA or its small RNA (sRNA) antagonists, CsrB and CsrC. csrA disruption led to increased resistance to the lethal effects of H₂O₂ during exponential growth, consistent with a regulatory role in oxidative stress resistance. We propose that during exponential growth and under minimal stress, CsrA represses the deleterious expression of the ISPs that function under oxidative stress and stationary-phase conditions (FtnB, Bfr, and Dps), thus ensuring that cellular iron is available to processes that are required for growth.IMPORTANCE Iron is an essential micronutrient for nearly all living organisms but is toxic in excess. Consequently, the maintenance of iron homeostasis is a critical biological process, and the genes involved in this function are tightly regulated. Here, we explored a new role for the bacterial RNA binding protein CsrA in the regulation of iron homeostasis. CsrA was shown to be a key regulator of iron storage genes in Escherichia coli, with consequential effects on cellular iron levels and growth. Our findings establish a model in which robust CsrA activity during the exponential phase of growth leads to repression of genes whose products sequester iron or divert it to unnecessary stress response processes. In so doing, CsrA supports E. coli growth under iron-limiting laboratory conditions and may promote fitness in the competitive iron-limited environment of the host large intestine.

The Edwardsiella piscicida Type III Effector EseJ Suppresses Expression of Type 1 Fimbriae, Leading to Decreased Bacterial Adherence to Host Cells

The type III secretion system (T3SS) of Edwardsiella piscicida plays a crucial role in its pathogenesis. Our previous study indicated that the T3SS effector protein EseJ inhibits the bacterium's adhesion to epithelioma papillosum cyprini (EPC) cells, while the mechanism of the inhibition remains elusive. In this study, we revealed that EseJ negatively regulates the fimA gene, as demonstrated by comparative transcription analysis of ΔeseJ and wild-type (WT) strains. As well, the dramatically increased production of FimA was detected in the absence of EseJ compared to that by the WT strain. The adherence of the ΔeseJ strain decreased far below that of the WT strain in the absence of FimA, demonstrating that FimA plays a pivotal role in the hyperadhesion of the ΔeseJ strain. Adherence analysis with a strain with truncated eseJ demonstrated that the C-terminal region of EseJ (Gly1191 to Ile1359) is necessary to inhibit the transcription of the type 1 fimbrial operon. Binding between the EseJ fragment from amino acid residues 1191 to 1359 and the DNA fragment upstream of fimA was not detected, indicating that EseJ might indirectly regulate the type 1 fimbrial operon. Our study reveals that EseJ controls E. piscicida adherence to EPC cells by negatively regulating the type 1 fimbrial operon.

The high-pathogenicity island (HPI) promotes flagellum-mediated motility in extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli

The key of success of extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) to colonize niches outside the intestinal tract and to establish infection is the coordinated action of numerous virulence and fitness factors. The so-called high-pathogenicity island (HPI), responsible for synthesis, secretion and uptake of the siderophore yersiniabactin, proved to be an important virulence determinant. In this study we investigated the interaction of the flagellum-mediated motility and the HPI. The impairment of yersiniabactin production by deletion of irp2 or ybtA affected significantly motility. The gain of yersiniabactin production improved motility in both pathogenic and non-pathogenic E. coli strains. The loss of flagella expression had no adverse effect on the HPI. Strikingly, external iron abundance was not able to suppress activation of the HPI during motility. The HPI activity of swarming bacteria was comparable to iron deplete conditions, and could even be maximized by supplementing excessive iron. This fact is the first description of a regulatory mechanism, which does not follow the known hierarchical regulation of siderophore systems. Transcriptional reporter fusions of the ybtA promoter demonstrated that the entire promoter region with all YbtA binding sites is necessary for complete induction in both HPI-positive and HPI-negative strains. Altogether, these results suggest that the HPI is part of a complex regulatory network, which orchestrates various virulence mechanisms to optimize the overall fitness of ExPEC.

Involvement of Two-Component Signaling on Bacterial Motility and Biofilm Development

Two-component signaling is a specialized mechanism that bacteria use to respond to changes in their environment. Nonpathogenic strains of Escherichia coli K-12 harbor 30 histidine kinases and 32 response regulators, which form a network of regulation that integrates many other global regulators that do not follow the two-component signaling mechanism, as well as signals from central metabolism. The output of this network is a multitude of phenotypic changes in response to changes in the environment. Among these phenotypic changes, many two-component systems control motility and/or the formation of biofilm, sessile communities of bacteria that form on surfaces. Motility is the first reversible attachment phase of biofilm development, followed by a so-called swim or stick switch toward surface organelles that aid in the subsequent phases. In the mature biofilm, motility heterogeneity is generated by a combination of evolutionary and gene regulatory events.

Inactivation of ferric uptake regulator (Fur) attenuates Helicobacter pylori J99 motility by disturbing the flagellar motor switch and autoinducer-2 production

BACKGROUND

Flagellar motility of Helicobacter pylori has been shown to be important for the bacteria to establish initial colonization. The ferric uptake regulator (Fur) is a global regulator that has been identified in H. pylori which is involved in the processes of iron uptake and establishing colonization. However, the role of Fur in H. pylori motility is still unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Motility of the wild-type, fur mutant, and fur revertant J99 were determined by a soft-agar motility assay and direct video observation. The bacterial shape and flagellar structure were evaluated by transmission electron microscopy. Single bacterial motility and flagellar switching were observed by phase-contrast microscopy. Autoinducer-2 (AI-2) production in bacterial culture supernatant was analyzed by a bioluminescence assay.

RESULTS

The fur mutant showed impaired motility in the soft-agar assay compared with the wild-type J99 and fur revertant. The numbers and lengths of flagellar filaments on the fur mutant cells were similar to those of the wild-type and revertant cells. Phenotypic characterization showed similar swimming speed but reduction in switching rate in the fur mutant. The AI-2 production of the fur mutant was dramatically reduced compared with wild-type J99 in log-phase culture medium.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that Fur positively modulates H. pylori J99 motility through interfering with bacterial flagellar switching.