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Sarkar R, Adhikary K, Banerjee A, Ganguly K, Sarkar R, Mohanty S, Dhua R, Bhattacharya K, Ahuja D, Pal S, Maiti R. Novel targets and improved immunotherapeutic techniques with an emphasis on antimycosal drug resistance for the treatment and management of mycosis. Heliyon 2024; 10:e35835. [PMID: 39224344 PMCID: PMC11367498 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2024] [Revised: 08/04/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Infections due to pathogenic fungi are endemic in particular area with increased morbidity and mortality. More than a thousand people are infected per year and the way of treatment is of high demand having a significant impact on the population health. Medical practitioners confront various troublesome analytic and therapeutical challenges in the administration of immunosuppressed sufferer at high danger of expanding fungal infections. An upgraded antimycosal treatment is fundamental for a fruitful result while treating intrusive mycoses. A collection of antimycosal drugs keeps on developing with their specific antifungal targets including cell membrane, mitochondria, cell wall, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)/ribonucleic acid (RNA) or protein biosynthesis. Some fundamental classes of ordinarily directed medications are the polyenes, amphotericin B, syringomycin, allylamines, honokiol, azoles, flucytosine, echinocandins etc. However, few immunotherapy processes and vaccinations are being developed to mark this need, although one presently can't seem to arrive at the conclusion. In this review article, there has been a trial to give details upgradation about the current immune therapeutic techniques and vaccination strategies against prevention or treatment of mycosis as well as the difficulties related with their turn of events. There has been also a visualization in the mentioned review paper about the various assorted drugs and their specific target analysis along with therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riya Sarkar
- Department of Medical Lab Technology and Biotechnology, Paramedical College Durgapur, West Bengal, 713212, India
| | - Krishnendu Adhikary
- Department of Medical Lab Technology and Biotechnology, Paramedical College Durgapur, West Bengal, 713212, India
| | - Arundhati Banerjee
- Department of Medical Lab Technology and Biotechnology, Paramedical College Durgapur, West Bengal, 713212, India
| | - Krishnendu Ganguly
- Department of Medical Lab Technology and Biotechnology, Paramedical College Durgapur, West Bengal, 713212, India
| | - Riya Sarkar
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Dr. B. C. Roy Academy of Professional Courses, Durgapur, West Bengal, 713206, India
| | - Satyajit Mohanty
- Department of Advanced Pharmacology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, 835215, India
| | - Rumpa Dhua
- Department of Nutrition, Bankura Sammilani College, Kenduadihi, Bankura, West Bengal, 722102, India
| | - Koushik Bhattacharya
- School of Paramedics and Allied Health Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Jatni, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 752050, India
| | - Deepika Ahuja
- School of Paramedics and Allied Health Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Jatni, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 752050, India
| | - Suchandra Pal
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, 713209, India
| | - Rajkumar Maiti
- Department of Physiology, Bankura Christian College, Bankura, West Bengal, 722101, India
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2
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Conn BN, Wozniak KL. Innate Pulmonary Phagocytes and Their Interactions with Pathogenic Cryptococcus Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:617. [PMID: 37367553 PMCID: PMC10299524 DOI: 10.3390/jof9060617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes over 180,000 annual deaths in HIV/AIDS patients. Innate phagocytes in the lungs, such as dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages, are the first cells to interact with the pathogen. Neutrophils, another innate phagocyte, are recruited to the lungs during cryptococcal infection. These innate cells are involved in early detection of C. neoformans, as well as the removal and clearance of cryptococcal infections. However, C. neoformans has developed ways to interfere with these processes, allowing for the evasion of the host's innate immune system. Additionally, the innate immune cells have the ability to aid in cryptococcal pathogenesis. This review discusses recent literature on the interactions of innate pulmonary phagocytes with C. neoformans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karen L. Wozniak
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, 307 Life Science East, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA;
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Holcomb ZE, Steinbrink JM, Zaas AK, Betancourt M, Tenor JL, Toffaletti DL, Alspaugh JA, Perfect JR, McClain MT. Transcriptional Profiles Elucidate Differential Host Responses to Infection with Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8050430. [PMID: 35628686 PMCID: PMC9143552 DOI: 10.3390/jof8050430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Many aspects of the host response to invasive cryptococcal infections remain poorly understood. In order to explore the pathobiology of infection with common clinical strains, we infected BALB/cJ mice with Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii, or sham control, and assayed host transcriptomic responses in peripheral blood. Infection with C. neoformans resulted in markedly greater fungal burden in the CNS than C. gattii, as well as slightly higher fungal burden in the lungs. A total of 389 genes were significantly differentially expressed in response to C. neoformans infection, which mainly clustered into pathways driving immune function, including complement activation and TH2-skewed immune responses. C. neoformans infection demonstrated dramatic up-regulation of complement-driven genes and greater up-regulation of alternatively activated macrophage activity than seen with C gattii. A 27-gene classifier was built, capable of distinguishing cryptococcal infection from animals with bacterial infection due to Staphylococcus aureus with 94% sensitivity and 89% specificity. Top genes from the murine classifiers were also differentially expressed in human PBMCs following infection, suggesting cross-species relevance of these findings. The host response, as manifested in transcriptional profiles, informs our understanding of the pathophysiology of cryptococcal infection and demonstrates promise for contributing to development of novel diagnostic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary E. Holcomb
- Harvard Combined Dermatology Residency Program, Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA;
| | - Julie M. Steinbrink
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (A.K.Z.); (M.B.); (J.L.T.); (D.L.T.); (J.A.A.); (J.R.P.); (M.T.M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Aimee K. Zaas
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (A.K.Z.); (M.B.); (J.L.T.); (D.L.T.); (J.A.A.); (J.R.P.); (M.T.M.)
| | - Marisol Betancourt
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (A.K.Z.); (M.B.); (J.L.T.); (D.L.T.); (J.A.A.); (J.R.P.); (M.T.M.)
| | - Jennifer L. Tenor
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (A.K.Z.); (M.B.); (J.L.T.); (D.L.T.); (J.A.A.); (J.R.P.); (M.T.M.)
| | - Dena L. Toffaletti
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (A.K.Z.); (M.B.); (J.L.T.); (D.L.T.); (J.A.A.); (J.R.P.); (M.T.M.)
| | - J. Andrew Alspaugh
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (A.K.Z.); (M.B.); (J.L.T.); (D.L.T.); (J.A.A.); (J.R.P.); (M.T.M.)
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - John R. Perfect
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (A.K.Z.); (M.B.); (J.L.T.); (D.L.T.); (J.A.A.); (J.R.P.); (M.T.M.)
| | - Micah T. McClain
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (A.K.Z.); (M.B.); (J.L.T.); (D.L.T.); (J.A.A.); (J.R.P.); (M.T.M.)
- Infectious Diseases Section, Medical Service, Durham Veteran’s Affairs Medical Center, Durham, NC 27705, USA
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4
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Trinks N, Reinhard S, Drobny M, Heilig L, Löffler J, Sauer M, Terpitz U. Subdiffraction-resolution fluorescence imaging of immunological synapse formation between NK cells and A. fumigatus by expansion microscopy. Commun Biol 2021; 4:1151. [PMID: 34608260 PMCID: PMC8490467 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02669-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Expansion microscopy (ExM) enables super-resolution fluorescence imaging on standard microscopes by physical expansion of the sample. However, the investigation of interactions between different organisms such as mammalian and fungal cells by ExM remains challenging because different cell types require different expansion protocols to ensure identical, ideally isotropic expansion of both partners. Here, we introduce an ExM method that enables super-resolved visualization of the interaction between NK cells and Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae. 4-fold expansion in combination with confocal fluorescence imaging allows us to resolve details of cytoskeleton rearrangement as well as NK cells' lytic granules triggered by contact with an RFP-expressing A. fumigatus strain. In particular, subdiffraction-resolution images show polarized degranulation upon contact formation and the presence of LAMP1 surrounding perforin at the NK cell-surface post degranulation. Our data demonstrate that optimized ExM protocols enable the investigation of immunological synapse formation between two different species with so far unmatched spatial resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Trinks
- Department of Biotechnology and Biophysics, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Reinhard
- Department of Biotechnology and Biophysics, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Drobny
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Linda Heilig
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Löffler
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Markus Sauer
- Department of Biotechnology and Biophysics, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ulrich Terpitz
- Department of Biotechnology and Biophysics, Theodor-Boveri-Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University, Würzburg, Germany.
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5
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Mok AC, Mody CH, Li SS. Immune Cell Degranulation in Fungal Host Defence. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:484. [PMID: 34208679 PMCID: PMC8234259 DOI: 10.3390/jof7060484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans have developed complex immune systems that defend against invading microbes, including fungal pathogens. Many highly specialized cells of the immune system share the ability to store antimicrobial compounds in membrane bound organelles that can be immediately deployed to eradicate or inhibit growth of invading pathogens. These membrane-bound organelles consist of secretory vesicles or granules, which move to the surface of the cell, where they fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents in the process of degranulation. Lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils all degranulate in fungal host defence. While anti-microbial secretory vesicles are shared among different immune cell types, information about each cell type has emerged independently leading to an uncoordinated and confusing classification of granules and incomplete description of the mechanism by which they are deployed. While there are important differences, there are many similarities in granule morphology, granule content, stimulus for degranulation, granule trafficking, and release of granules against fungal pathogens. In this review, we describe the similarities and differences in an attempt to translate knowledge from one immune cell to another that may facilitate further studies in the context of fungal host defence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adley Ch Mok
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Christopher H Mody
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Shu Shun Li
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
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6
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Theresine M, Patil ND, Zimmer J. Airway Natural Killer Cells and Bacteria in Health and Disease. Front Immunol 2020; 11:585048. [PMID: 33101315 PMCID: PMC7546320 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.585048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphoid cells at the interface between innate and adaptive immunity and mostly studied for their important roles in viral infections and malignant tumors. They can kill diseased cells and produce cytokines and chemokines, thereby shaping the adaptive immune response. Nowadays, NK cells are considered as a strong weapon for cancer immunotherapy and can for example be transduced to express tumor-specific chimeric antigen receptors or harnessed with therapeutic antibodies such as the so-called NK engagers. Whereas a large body of literature exists about the antiviral and antitumoral properties of NK cells, their potential role in bacterial infections is not that well delineated. Furthermore, NK cells are much more heterogeneous than previously thought and have tissue-characteristic features and phenotypes. This review gives an overview of airway NK cells and their position within the immunological army dressed against bacterial infections in the upper and predominantly the lower respiratory tracts. Whereas it appears that in several infections, NK cells play a non-redundant and protective role, they can likewise act as rather detrimental. The use of mouse models and the difficulty of access to human airway tissues for ethical reasons might partly explain the divergent results. However, new methods are appearing that are likely to reduce the heterogeneity between studies and to give a more coherent picture in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Theresine
- CG I Group, Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Neha D Patil
- CG I Group, Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Jacques Zimmer
- CG I Group, Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
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7
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Li SS, Saleh M, Xiang RF, Ogbomo H, Stack D, Huston SH, Mody CH. Natural killer cells kill Burkholderia cepacia complex via a contact-dependent and cytolytic mechanism. Int Immunol 2020; 31:385-396. [PMID: 31051036 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxz016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc), which includes B. cenocepacia and B. multivorans, pose a life-threatening risk to patients with cystic fibrosis. Eradication of Bcc is difficult due to the high level of intrinsic resistance to antibiotics, and failure of many innate immune cells to control the infection. Because of the pathogenesis of Bcc infections, we wondered if a novel mechanism of microbial host defense involving direct antibacterial activity by natural killer (NK) cells might play a role in the control of Bcc. We demonstrate that NK cells bound Burkholderia, resulting in Src family kinase activation as measured by protein tyrosine phosphorylation, granule release of effector proteins such as perforin and contact-dependent killing of the bacteria. These studies provide a means by which NK cells could play a role in host defense against Bcc infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Shun Li
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Alberta, Canada.,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Alberta, Canada
| | - Marwah Saleh
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Alberta, Canada
| | - Richard F Xiang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Alberta, Canada.,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Alberta, Canada
| | - Henry Ogbomo
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Alberta, Canada.,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Alberta, Canada
| | - Danuta Stack
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Alberta, Canada.,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Alberta, Canada
| | - Shaunna H Huston
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Alberta, Canada
| | - Christopher H Mody
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Alberta, Canada.,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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8
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Ogbomo H, Timm-McCann M, Barnes T, Xiang RF, Jamil K, Ganguly A, Stack D, Huston SM, Li SS, Colarusso P, Mody CH. Granule-Dependent NK Cell Killing of Cryptococcus Requires Kinesin to Reposition the Cytolytic Machinery for Directed Cytotoxicity. Cell Rep 2019; 24:3017-3032. [PMID: 30208325 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus is the most important cause of fungal meningitis in immunocompromised individuals. Host defense against Cryptococcus involves direct killing by NK cells. That NK cells from HIV-infected patients fail to polarize perforin to the microbial synapse and kill C. neoformans led us to explore the mechanisms used to reposition and polarize the cytolytic granules to the synapse. Using live-cell imaging, we observed microtubule and granule movements in response to Cryptococcus that revealed a kinesin-dependent event. Eg5-kinesin bound to perforin-containing granules and was required for association with the microtubules. Inhibition of Eg5-kinesin abrogated dynein-dependent granule convergence to the MTOC and granule and MTOC polarization to the synapse and suppressed NK cell killing of Cryptococcus. In contrast, Eg5-kinesin was dispensable for tumor killing. This reveals an alternative mechanism of MTOC repositioning and granule polarization, not used in tumor cytotoxicity, in which Eg5-kinesin is required to initiate granule movement, leading to microbial killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Ogbomo
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Martina Timm-McCann
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Tavish Barnes
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Richard F Xiang
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Khusraw Jamil
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Anutosh Ganguly
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Danuta Stack
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Shaunna M Huston
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Shu Shun Li
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Pina Colarusso
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Christopher H Mody
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada.
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Mody CH, Ogbomo H, Xiang RF, Kyei SK, Feehan D, Islam A, Li SS. Microbial killing by NK cells. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 105:1285-1296. [PMID: 30821868 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.mr0718-298r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
It is now evident that NK cells kill bacteria, fungi, and parasites in addition to tumor and virus-infected cells. In addition to a number of recent publications that have identified the receptors and ligands, and mechanisms of cytotoxicity, new insights are reflected in the reports from researchers all over the world at the 17th Meeting of the Society for Natural Immunity held in San Antonio, TX, USA from May 28 through June 1, 2018. We will provide an overview of the field and discuss how the presentations at the meeting might shape our knowledge and future directions in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher H Mody
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Henry Ogbomo
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Richard F Xiang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Stephen K Kyei
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - David Feehan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Anowara Islam
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Shu Shun Li
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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10
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Marischen L, Englert A, Schmitt AL, Einsele H, Loeffler J. Human NK cells adapt their immune response towards increasing multiplicities of infection of Aspergillus fumigatus. BMC Immunol 2018; 19:39. [PMID: 30563459 PMCID: PMC6299526 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-018-0276-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The saprophytic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus reproduces by generation of conidia, which are spread by airflow throughout nature. Since humans are inhaling certain amounts of spores every day, the (innate) immune system is constantly challenged. Even though macrophages and neutrophils carry the main burden, also NK cells are regarded to contribute to the antifungal immune response. While NK cells reveal a low frequency, expression and release of immunomodulatory molecules seem to be a natural way of their involvement. RESULTS In this study we show, that NK cells secrete chemokines such as CCL3/MIP-1α, CCL4/MIP-1β and CCL5/RANTES early on after stimulation with Aspergillus fumigatus and, in addition, adjust the concentration of chemokines released to the multiplicity of infection of Aspergillus fumigatus. CONCLUSIONS These results further corroborate the relevance of NK cells within the antifungal immune response, which is regarded to be more and more important in the development and outcome of invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Additionally, the correlation between the multiplicity of infection and the expression and release of chemokines shown here may be useful in further studies for the quantification and/or surveillance of the NK cell involvement in antifungal immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lothar Marischen
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Anne Englert
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Anna-Lena Schmitt
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Hermann Einsele
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Juergen Loeffler
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
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11
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Dutra FF, Albuquerque PC, Rodrigues ML, Fonseca FL. Warfare and defense: The host response to Cryptococcus infection. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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12
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Li SS, Ogbomo H, Mansour MK, Xiang RF, Szabo L, Munro F, Mukherjee P, Mariuzza RA, Amrein M, Vyas JM, Robbins SM, Mody CH. Identification of the fungal ligand triggering cytotoxic PRR-mediated NK cell killing of Cryptococcus and Candida. Nat Commun 2018; 9:751. [PMID: 29467448 PMCID: PMC5821813 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03014-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells use the activating receptor NKp30 as a microbial pattern-recognition receptor to recognize, activate cytolytic pathways, and directly kill the fungi Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida albicans. However, the fungal pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) that triggers NKp30-mediated killing remains to be identified. Here we show that β-1,3-glucan, a component of the fungal cell wall, binds to NKp30. We further demonstrate that β-1,3-glucan stimulates granule convergence and polarization, as shown by live cell imaging. Through Src Family Kinase signaling, β-1,3-glucan increases expression and clustering of NKp30 at the microbial and NK cell synapse to induce perforin release for fungal cytotoxicity. Rather than blocking the interaction between fungi and NK cells, soluble β-1,3-glucan enhances fungal killing and restores defective cryptococcal killing by NK cells from HIV-positive individuals, implicating β-1,3-glucan to be both an activating ligand and a soluble PAMP that shapes NK cell host immunity. Natural killer (NK) cells has been show to mediate fungi killing via the activating receptor NKp30, but the fungal target for NKp30 is still unclear. Here the authors show, using atomic force microscopy and live cell imaging, that β-1,3-glucan is expressed by Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida albicans and responsible for NKp30-mediated NK killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Shun Li
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada.,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Henry Ogbomo
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada.,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Michael K Mansour
- Department of Medicine Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Richard F Xiang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada.,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Lian Szabo
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Fay Munro
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Priyanka Mukherjee
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Roy A Mariuzza
- Department of Cell Biology & Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Matthias Amrein
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Jatin M Vyas
- Department of Medicine Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Stephen M Robbins
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada.,Southern Alberta Cancer Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Christopher H Mody
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada. .,The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada. .,Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Canada.
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13
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Host response to pulmonary fungal infections: A highlight on cell-driven immunity to Cryptococcus species and Aspergillus fumigatus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 3:335-345. [PMID: 29430385 DOI: 10.1007/s40495-017-0111-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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14
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Schmidt S, Tramsen L, Lehrnbecher T. Natural Killer Cells in Antifungal Immunity. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1623. [PMID: 29213274 PMCID: PMC5702641 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Invasive fungal infections are still an important cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients such as patients suffering from hematological malignancies or patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantion. In addition, other populations such as human immunodeficiency virus-patients are at higher risk for invasive fungal infection. Despite the availability of new antifungal compounds and better supportive care measures, the fatality rate of invasive fungal infection remained unacceptably high. It is therefore of major interest to improve our understanding of the host-pathogen interaction to develop new therapeutic approaches such as adoptive immunotherapy. As experimental methodologies have improved and we now better understand the complex network of the immune system, the insight in the interaction of the host with the fungus has significantly increased. It has become clear that host resistance to fungal infections is not only associated with strong innate immunity but that adaptive immunity (e.g., T cells) also plays an important role. The antifungal activity of natural killer (NK) cells has been underestimated for a long time. In vitro studies demonstrated that NK cells from murine and human origin are able to attack fungi of different genera and species. NK cells exhibit not only a direct antifungal activity via cytotoxic molecules but also an indirect antifungal activity via cytokines. However, it has been show that fungi exert immunosuppressive effects on NK cells. Whereas clinical data are scarce, animal models have clearly demonstrated that NK cells play an important role in the host response against invasive fungal infections. In this review, we summarize clinical data as well as results from in vitro and animal studies on the impact of NK cells on fungal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislaw Schmidt
- Division for Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Hospital for Children and Adolescents, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Lars Tramsen
- Division for Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Hospital for Children and Adolescents, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Thomas Lehrnbecher
- Division for Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Hospital for Children and Adolescents, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
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15
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Yang CL, Wang J, Zou LL. Innate immune evasion strategies against Cryptococcal meningitis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans. Exp Ther Med 2017; 14:5243-5250. [PMID: 29285049 PMCID: PMC5740712 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.5220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
As an infectious fungus that affects the respiratory tract, Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans) commonly causes asymptomatic pulmonary infection. C. neoformans may target the brain instead of the lungs and cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the early phase of infection; however, this is dependent on successful evasion of the host innate immune system. During the initial stage of fungal infection, a complex network of innate immune factors are activated. C. neoformans utilizes a number of strategies to overcome the anti-fungal mechanisms of the host innate immune system and cross the BBB. In the present review, the defensive mechanisms of C. neoformans against the innate immune system and its ability to cross the BBB were discussed, with an emphasis on recent insights into the activities of anti-phagocytotic and anti-oxidative factors in C. neoformans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Liang Yang
- Translational Neuroscience and Neural Regeneration and Repair Institute, The First Hospital of Yichang, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei 443002, P.R. China.,Institute of Cell Therapy, The First Hospital of Yichang, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei 443002, P.R. China
| | - Jun Wang
- Translational Neuroscience and Neural Regeneration and Repair Institute, The First Hospital of Yichang, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei 443002, P.R. China.,Institute of Cell Therapy, The First Hospital of Yichang, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei 443002, P.R. China
| | - Li-Li Zou
- Translational Neuroscience and Neural Regeneration and Repair Institute, The First Hospital of Yichang, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei 443002, P.R. China.,Institute of Cell Therapy, The First Hospital of Yichang, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei 443002, P.R. China.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei 443002, P.R. China
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16
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NK Cells and Their Role in Invasive Mold Infection. J Fungi (Basel) 2017; 3:jof3020025. [PMID: 29371543 PMCID: PMC5715926 DOI: 10.3390/jof3020025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that Natural Killer (NK) cells exhibit in vitro activity against both Aspergillus and non-Aspergillus molds. Cytotoxic molecules such as NK cell-derived perforin seem to play an important role in the antifungal activity. In addition, NK cells release a number of cytokines upon stimulation by fungi, which modulate both innate and adaptive host immune responses. Whereas the in vitro data of the antifungal activity of NK cells are supported by animal studies, clinical data are scarce to date.
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Ogbomo H, Mody CH. Granule-Dependent Natural Killer Cell Cytotoxicity to Fungal Pathogens. Front Immunol 2017; 7:692. [PMID: 28123389 PMCID: PMC5225108 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells kill or inhibit the growth of a number of fungi including Cryptococcus, Candida, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, and Paracoccidioides. Although many fungi are not dangerous, invasive fungal pathogens, such as Cryptococcus neoformans, cause life-threatening disease in individuals with impaired cell-mediated immunity. While there are similarities to cell-mediated killing of tumor cells, there are also important differences. Similar to tumor killing, NK cells directly kill fungi in a receptor-mediated and cytotoxic granule-dependent manner. Unlike tumor cell killing where multiple NK cell-activating receptors cooperate and signal events that mediate cytotoxicity, only the NKp30 receptor has been described to mediate signaling events that trigger the NK cell to mobilize its cytolytic payload to the site of interaction with C. neoformans and Candida albicans, subsequently leading to granule exocytosis and fungal killing. More recently, the NKp46 receptor was reported to bind Candida glabrata adhesins Epa1, 6, and 7 and directly mediate fungal clearance. A number of unanswered questions remain. For example, is only one NK cell-activating receptor sufficient for signaling leading to fungal killing? Are the signaling pathways activated by fungi similar to those activated by tumor cells during NK cell killing? How do the cytolytic granules traffic to the site of interaction with fungi, and how does this process compare with tumor killing? Recent insights into receptor use, intracellular signaling and cytolytic granule trafficking during NK cell-mediated fungal killing will be compared to tumor killing, and the implications for therapeutic approaches will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Ogbomo
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Christopher H Mody
- The Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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18
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Almishri W, Santodomingo-Garzon T, Le T, Stack D, Mody CH, Swain MG. TNFα Augments Cytokine-Induced NK Cell IFNγ Production through TNFR2. J Innate Immun 2016; 8:617-629. [PMID: 27560480 DOI: 10.1159/000448077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
NK cells play a central role in innate immunity, acting directly through cell-mediated cytotoxicity and by secreting cytokines. TNFα activation of TNFR2 enhances NK cell cytotoxicity, but its effects on the other essential function of NK cells - cytokine production, for which IFNγ is paramount - are poorly defined. We identify the expression of both TNFα receptors on human peripheral blood NK cells (TNFR2 > TNFR1) and show that TNFα significantly augments IFNγ production from IL-2-/IL-12-treated NK cells in vitro, an effect mimicked by a TNFR2 agonistic antibody. TNFα also enhanced murine NK cell IFNγ production via TNFR2 in vitro. In a mouse model characterized by the hepatic recruitment and activation of NK cells, TNFR2 also regulated NK cell IFNγ production in vivo. Specifically, in this model, after activation of an innate immune response, hepatic numbers of TNFR2-expressing and IFNγ-producing NK cells were both significantly increased; however, the frequency of IFNγ-producing hepatic NK cells was significantly reduced in TNFR2-deficient mice. We delineate an important role for TNFα, acting through TNFR2, in augmenting cytokine-induced NK cell IFNγ production in vivo and in vitro, an effect with significant potential implications for the regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wagdi Almishri
- Immunology Research Group, Snyder Institute, Liver Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alta., Canada
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Mechanisms by Which Interleukin-12 Corrects Defective NK Cell Anticryptococcal Activity in HIV-Infected Patients. mBio 2016; 7:mBio.00878-16. [PMID: 27555306 PMCID: PMC4999542 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00878-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is a pathogenic yeast and a leading cause of life-threatening meningitis in AIDS patients. Natural killer (NK) cells are important immune effector cells that directly recognize and kill C. neoformans via a perforin-dependent cytotoxic mechanism. We previously showed that NK cells from HIV-infected patients have aberrant anticryptococcal killing and that interleukin-12 (IL-12) restores the activity at least partially through restoration of NKp30. However, the mechanisms causing this defect or how IL-12 restores the function was unknown. By examining the sequential steps in NK cell killing of Cryptococcus, we found that NK cells from HIV-infected patients had defective binding of NK cells to C. neoformans. Moreover, those NK cells that bound to C. neoformans failed to polarize perforin-containing granules to the microbial synapse compared to healthy controls, suggesting that binding was insufficient to restore a defect in perforin polarization. We also identified lower expression of intracellular perforin and defective perforin release from NK cells of HIV-infected patients in response to C. neoformans. Importantly, treatment of NK cells from HIV-infected patients with IL-12 reversed the multiple defects in binding, granule polarization, perforin content, and perforin release and restored anticryptococcal activity. Thus, there are multiple defects in the cytolytic machinery of NK cells from HIV-infected patients, which cumulatively result in defective NK cell anticryptococcal activity, and each of these defects can be reversed with IL-12. The mechanisms by which NK cells bind directly to pathogens and deploy their deadly cytolytic machinery during microbial host defense are only beginning to be elucidated. With the goal of understanding this process, we used NK cells from HIV-infected patients, which were known to have a defect in killing of Cryptococcus neoformans. Taking advantage of previous studies that had shown that IL-12 restored killing, we used the cytokine as a gain-of-function approach to define the relevance of multiple steps in the recognition and cytolytic pathway. We demonstrated that NK cells from HIV-infected patients failed to kill Cryptococcus due to defects in perforin expression, granule polarization, and release of perforin. Additionally, IL-12 restored recognition of C. neoformans through binding of the NK-activating receptor NKp30. These observations identify important mechanisms used by NK cells to kill microbes and determine that defects in NK cells from HIV-infected patients are reversible.
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20
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Grebenciucova E, Reder AT, Bernard JT. Immunologic mechanisms of fingolimod and the role of immunosenescence in the risk of cryptococcal infection: A case report and review of literature. Mult Scler Relat Disord 2016; 9:158-62. [PMID: 27645366 DOI: 10.1016/j.msard.2016.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Revised: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fingolimod is a disease-modifying agent used in the treatment of relapsing/remitting multiple sclerosis. In MS clinical studies, the overall rate of infections in fingolimod group was overall similar to placebo, except for slightly more common lower respiratory tract infections and to a lesser extent HSV. Recently, an increasing number of cryptococcal infections associated with a long-term use of this medication have been reported. METHODS We reviewed literature for cases of cryptococcal infection associated with the use of fingolimod and reported a case at our institution, as well as carefully evaluated the established immune mechanisms of the medication and discussed new insights into its short-term and long-term immunologic effects that may become important in the context of risk of infection. RESULTS Unique characteristics of cryptococcal pathogen, its immune escape mechanisms, its ability to establish a latent infection with a potential for later reactivation, fingolimod's effects on many lines of immune system, both quantitatively and qualitatively, duration of therapy, and long-term effects of fingolimod, not previously described, in conjunction with effects of natural immunosenescence of the patient population, that appears to be most at risk, may be meaningful in further understanding the risk of infection with long-term use of fingolimod in people of older age.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony T Reder
- University of Chicago, Department of Neurology, Chicago, IL, United States
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21
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Innate host defenses against Cryptococcus neoformans. J Microbiol 2016; 54:202-11. [PMID: 26920880 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-016-5625-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans, the predominant etiological agent of cryptococcosis, can cause life-threatening infections of the central nervous system in immunocompromised and immunocompetent individuals. Cryptococcal meningoencephalitis is the most common disseminated fungal infection in AIDS patients, and remains the third most common invasive fungal infection among organ transplant recipients. The administration of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has resulted in a decrease in the number of cases of AIDS-related cryptococcosis in developed countries, but in developing countries where HAART is not readily available, Cryptococcus is still a major concern. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of novel therapies and/or vaccines to combat cryptococcosis. Understanding the protective immune responses against Cryptococcus is critical for development of vaccines and immunotherapies to combat cryptococcosis. Consequently, this review focuses on our current knowledge of protective immune responses to C. neoformans, with an emphasis on innate immune responses.
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Abstract
Cryptococcosis is caused by the fungal genus Cryptococcus. Cryptococcosis, predominantly meningoencephalitis, emerged with the HIV pandemic, primarily afflicting HIV-infected patients with profound T-cell deficiency. Where in use, combination antiretroviral therapy has markedly reduced the incidence of and risk for disease, but cryptococcosis continues to afflict those without access to therapy, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. However, cryptococcosis also occurs in solid organ transplant recipients and patients with other immunodeficiencies as well as those with no known immunodeficiency. This article reviews innate and adaptive immune responses to C. neoformans, with an emphasis on recent studies on the role of B cells, natural IgM and Fc gamma receptor polymorphisms in resistance to cryptococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soma Rohatgi
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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Duggan S, Leonhardt I, Hünniger K, Kurzai O. Host response to Candida albicans bloodstream infection and sepsis. Virulence 2015; 6:316-26. [PMID: 25785541 PMCID: PMC4601378 DOI: 10.4161/21505594.2014.988096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans is a major cause of bloodstream infection which may present as sepsis and septic shock - major causes of morbidity and mortality world-wide. After invasion of the pathogen, innate mechanisms govern the early response. Here, we outline the models used to study these mechanisms and summarize our current understanding of innate immune responses during Candida bloodstream infection. This includes protective immunity as well as harmful responses resulting in Candida induced sepsis. Neutrophilic granulocytes are considered principal effector cells conferring protection and recognize C. albicans mainly via complement receptor 3. They possess a range of effector mechanisms, contributing to elimination of the pathogen. Neutrophil activation is closely linked to complement and modulated by activated mononuclear cells. A thorough understanding of these mechanisms will help in creating an individualized approach to patients suffering from systemic candidiasis and aid in optimizing clinical management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seána Duggan
- a Septomics Research Center ; Friedrich-Schiller-University and Leibniz-Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knoell-Institute ; Jena , Germany
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Gibson JF, Johnston SA. Immunity to Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii during cryptococcosis. Fungal Genet Biol 2014; 78:76-86. [PMID: 25498576 PMCID: PMC4503824 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2014.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2014] [Revised: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 11/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The vast majority of infection with cryptococcal species occurs with Cryptococcus neoformans in the severely immunocompromised. A significant exception to this is the infections of those with apparently normal immune systems by Cryptococcus gattii. Susceptibility to cryptococcosis can be broadly categorised as a defect in adaptive immune responses, especially in T cell immunity. However, innate immune cells such as macrophages play a key role and are likely the primary effector cell in the killing and ultimate clearance of cryptococcal infection. In this review we discuss the current state of our understanding of how the immune system responds to cryptococcal infection in health and disease, with reference to the work communicated at the 9th International Conference on Cryptococcus and Cryptococcosis (ICCC9). We have focussed on cell mediated responses, particularly early in infection, but with the aim of presenting a broad overview of our understanding of immunity to cryptococcal infection, highlighting some recent advances and offering some perspectives on future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josie F Gibson
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Medical School, University of Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK; Bateson Centre, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Simon A Johnston
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Medical School, University of Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK; Bateson Centre, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.
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Lu CC, Wu TS, Hsu YJ, Chang CJ, Lin CS, Chia JH, Wu TL, Huang TT, Martel J, Ojcius DM, Young JD, Lai HC. NK cells kill mycobacteria directly by releasing perforin and granulysin. J Leukoc Biol 2014; 96:1119-29. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.4a0713-363rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
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26
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Compartmentalization of innate immune responses in the central nervous system during cryptococcal meningitis/HIV coinfection. AIDS 2014; 28:657-66. [PMID: 24451162 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000000200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The role of innate immunity in the pathogenesis of cryptococcal meningitis is unclear. We hypothesized that natural killer (NK) cell and monocyte responses show central nervous system (CNS) compartment-specific profiles, and are altered by antifungal therapy and combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) during cryptococcal meningitis/HIV coinfection. DESIGN Substudy of a prospective cohort study of adults with cryptococcal meningitis/HIV coinfection in Durban, South Africa. METHODS We used multiparametric flow cytometry to study compartmentalization of subsets, CD69 (a marker of activation), CXCR3 and CX3CR1 expression, and cytokine secretion of NK cells and monocytes in freshly collected blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) at diagnosis (n = 23), completion of antifungal therapy induction (n = 19), and after a further 4 weeks of cART (n = 9). RESULTS Relative to blood, CSF was enriched with CD56(bright) (immunoregulatory) NK cells (P = 0.0004). At enrolment, CXCR3 expression was more frequent among blood CD56(bright) than either blood CD56(dim) (P < 0.0001) or CSF CD56(bright) (P = 0.0002) NK cells. Antifungal therapy diminished blood (P < 0.05), but not CSF CXCR3(pos) NK-cell proportions nor CX3CR1(pos) NK-cell proportions. CD56(bright) and CD56(dim) NK cells were more activated in CSF than blood (P < 0.0001). Antifungal therapy induction reduced CD56(dim) NK-cell activation in CSF (P = 0.02). Activation of blood CD56(bright) and CD56(dim) NK cells was diminished following cART commencement (P < 0.0001, P = 0.03). Immunoregulatory NK cells in CSF tended to secrete higher levels of CXCL10 (P = 0.06) and lower levels of tumor necrosis factor α (P = 0.06) than blood immunoregulatory NK cells. CSF was enriched with nonclassical monocytes (P = 0.001), but antifungal therapy restored proportions of classical monocytes (P = 0.007). CONCLUSION These results highlight CNS activation, trafficking, and function of NK cells and monocytes in cryptococcal meningitis/HIV and implicate immunoregulatory NK cells and proinflammatory monocytes as potential modulators of cryptococcal meningitis pathogenesis during HIV coinfection.
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Bär E, Whitney PG, Moor K, Reis e Sousa C, LeibundGut-Landmann S. IL-17 regulates systemic fungal immunity by controlling the functional competence of NK cells. Immunity 2014; 40:117-27. [PMID: 24412614 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin 17 (IL-17)-mediated immunity plays a key role in protection from fungal infections in mice and man. Here, we confirmed that mice deficient in the IL-17 receptor or lacking the ability to secrete IL-17 are highly susceptible to systemic candidiasis, but we found that temporary blockade of the IL-17 pathway during infection in wild-type mice did not impact fungal control. Rather, mice lacking IL-17 receptor signaling had a cell-intrinsic impairment in the development of functional NK cells, which accounted for the susceptibility of these mice to systemic fungal infection. NK cells promoted antifungal immunity by secreting GM-CSF, necessary for the fungicidal activity of neutrophils. These data reveal that NK cells are crucial for antifungal defense and indicate a role for IL-17 family cytokines in NK cell development. The IL-17-NK cell axis may impact immunity against not only fungi but also bacteria, viruses, and tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Bär
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Paul G Whitney
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, Lincoln's Inn Fields Laboratories, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3LY, UK
| | - Kathrin Moor
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Caetano Reis e Sousa
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, Lincoln's Inn Fields Laboratories, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3LY, UK
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Voigt J, Hünniger K, Bouzani M, Jacobsen ID, Barz D, Hube B, Löffler J, Kurzai O. Human natural killer cells acting as phagocytes against Candida albicans and mounting an inflammatory response that modulates neutrophil antifungal activity. J Infect Dis 2013; 209:616-26. [PMID: 24163416 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes with potent cytotoxic activity. Whereas activity of NK cells has been demonstrated against the fungal pathogens Aspergillus fumigatus and Cryptococcus neoformans, little was known about their interaction with Candida albicans. METHODS Primary human NK cells were isolated from buffy coats, primed with a cytokine cocktail and used for confrontation assays with C. albicans. Interaction was monitored and quantified using live cell imaging, confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS Human NK cells actively recognized C. albicans, resulting in degranulation and secretion of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interferon γ, and tumor necrosis factor α . Uniquely, activation of NK cells was triggered by actin-dependent phagocytosis. Antifungal activity of NK cells against C. albicans could be detected and mainly attributed to secreted perforin. However, NK cells were unable to inhibit filamentation of C. albicans. Human polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) counteracted the proinflammatory reaction of NK cells by preventing direct contact between NK cells and the fungal pathogen. Activation of PMNs was enhanced in the presence of NK cells, resulting in increased fungicidal activity. CONCLUSIONS Our results show a unique pattern of NK cell interaction with C. albicans, which involves direct proinflammatory activation and modulation of PMN activity. For the first time, phagocytosis of a pathogen is shown to contribute to NK cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Voigt
- Septomics Research Centre, Friedrich Schiller University and Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knoell Institute
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Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is one of the most common causes of fungal disease in HIV-infected persons, but not all of those who are infected develop cryptococcal disease (CD). Although CD4+ T cell deficiency is a risk factor for HIV-associated CD, polymorphisms of phagocytic Fc gamma receptors (FCGRs) have been linked to CD risk in HIV-uninfected persons. To investigate associations between FCGR2A 131 H/R and FCGR3A 158 F/V polymorphisms and CD risk in HIV-infected persons, we performed PCR-based genotyping on banked samples from 164 men enrolled in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS): 55 who were HIV infected and developed CD and a matched control group of 54 who were HIV infected and 55 who were HIV uninfected. Using additive and allelic statistical models for analysis, the high-affinity FCGR3A 158V allele was significantly associated with CD status after adjusting for race/ethnicity (odds ratio [OR], 2.1; P = 0.005), as was the FCGR3A 158 VV homozygous genotype after adjusting for race/ethnicity, rate of CD4+ T cell decline, and nadir CD4+ T cell count (OR, 21; P = 0.005). No associations between CD and FCGR2A 131 H/R polymorphism were identified. In binding studies, human IgG (hIgG)-C. neoformans complexes exhibited more binding to CHO-K1 cells expressing FCGR3A 158V than to those expressing FCGR3A 158F, and in cytotoxicity assays, natural killer (NK) cells expressing FCGR3A 158V induced more C. neoformans-infected monocyte cytotoxicity than those expressing FCGR3A 158F. Together, these results show an association between the FCGR3A 158V allele and risk for HIV-associated CD and suggest that this polymorphism could promote C. neoformans pathogenesis via increased binding of C. neoformans immune complexes, resulting in increased phagocyte cargo and/or immune activation. HIV-associated CD4+ T cell deficiency is a sine qua non for HIV-associated cryptococcal disease (CD), but not all patients with CD4+ T cell deficiency develop CD despite serological evidence of previous infection. At present, there are no biomarkers that predict HIV-associated CD risk. The goal of our study was to understand whether Fc gamma receptor (FCGR) polymorphisms that have been shown to portend CD risk in HIV-uninfected people are associated with CD risk in HIV-infected people. Such biomarkers could identify those who would benefit most from targeted prophylaxis and/or earlier treatment, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where there are nearly a million cases of HIV-associated CD annually. A biomarker of risk could also identify potential candidates for immunization, should there be a vaccine for Cryptococcus neoformans.
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Islam A, Li SS, Oykhman P, Timm-McCann M, Huston SM, Stack D, Xiang RF, Kelly MM, Mody CH. An acidic microenvironment increases NK cell killing of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii by enhancing perforin degranulation. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003439. [PMID: 23853583 PMCID: PMC3708852 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans are encapsulated yeasts that can produce a solid tumor-like mass or cryptococcoma. Analogous to malignant tumors, the microenvironment deep within a cryptococcoma is acidic, which presents unique challenges to host defense. Analogous to malignant cells, NK cells kill Cryptococcus. Thus, as in tumor defense, NK cells must kill yeast cells across a gradient from physiologic pH to less than 6 in the center of the cryptococcoma. As acidic pH inhibits anti-tumor activities of NK cells, we sought to determine if there was a similar reduction in the anticryptococcal activity of NK cells. Surprisingly, we found that both primary human NK cells and the human NK cell line, YT, have preserved or even enhanced killing of Cryptococcus in acidic, compared to physiological, pH. Studies to explore the mechanism of enhanced killing revealed that acidic pH does not increase the effector to target ratio, binding of cytolytic cells to Cryptococcus, or the active perforin content in effector cells. By contrast, perforin degranulation was greater at acidic pH, and increased degranulation was preceded by enhanced ERK1/2 phosphorylation, which is essential for killing. Moreover, using a replication defective ras1 knockout strain of Cryptococcus increased degranulation occurred during more rapid replication of the organisms. Finally, NK cells were found intimately associated with C. gattii within the cryptococcoma of a fatal infection. These results suggest that NK cells have amplified signaling, degranulation, and greater killing at low pH and when the organisms are replicating quickly, which would help maintain microbicidal host defense despite an acidic microenvironment. Immune responses that protect from infection must occur in a variety of unique and potentially hostile environments. Within these environments, acidosis causes profound affects on protective responses. Low pH can occur in focal tumor-like infections, such as in a cryptococcoma produced by the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus. Similarly, low pH occurs in focal malignant tumors. It follows that Cryptococcus and malignant cells can both be killed by NK cells, which provide an important mechanism of host defense. Thus, we asked whether low pH, which impairs tumor killing, might also affect NK cell killing of Cryptococcus. Surprisingly, despite impaired tumor killing, NK cells possess enhanced killing of Cryptococcus at low pH. The mechanism involved a gain in intracellular signal transduction that led to enhanced perforin degranulation. This led us to examine NK cells in persistent cryptococcoma of a fatal brain infection and lung. We found that NK cells associate with Cryptococcus within the cryptococcoma, but perforin is reduced. These studies suggest NK cell cytotoxicity need not be impaired at low pH, and that enhanced signal transduction and degranulation at low pH might be used to enhance host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anowara Islam
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Shu Shun Li
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Paul Oykhman
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Martina Timm-McCann
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Shaunna M. Huston
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Danuta Stack
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Richard F. Xiang
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Margaret M. Kelly
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Christopher H. Mody
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- * E-mail:
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31
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Schmidt S, Zimmermann SY, Tramsen L, Koehl U, Lehrnbecher T. Natural killer cells and antifungal host response. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2013; 20:452-8. [PMID: 23365210 PMCID: PMC3623417 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00606-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
As a result of improved experimental methodologies and a better understanding of the immune system, there is increasing insight into the antifungal activity of natural killer (NK) cells. Murine and human NK cells are able to damage fungi of different genera and species in vitro, and they exert both direct and indirect antifungal activity through cytotoxic molecules such as perforin and through cytokines and interferons, respectively. On the other hand, recent data suggest that fungi exhibit immunosuppressive effects on NK cells. Whereas clear in vivo data are lacking in humans, the importance of NK cells in the host response against fungi has been demonstrated in animal models. Further knowledge of the interaction of NK cells with fungi might help to better understand the pathogenesis of invasive fungal infections and to improve treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislaw Schmidt
- Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | | | - Lars Tramsen
- Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Ulrike Koehl
- Institute of Cellular Therapeutics, GMP Development Unit, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas Lehrnbecher
- Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
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32
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Muntasell A, Costa-Garcia M, Vera A, Marina-Garcia N, Kirschning CJ, López-Botet M. Priming of NK cell anti-viral effector mechanisms by direct recognition of human cytomegalovirus. Front Immunol 2013; 4:40. [PMID: 23440148 PMCID: PMC3578278 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells play an important role in the defense against viral infections. Activation of resting NK cells is tightly controlled by the balance of surface inhibitory and activating receptors and aided by cytokines released by accessory cells along the anti-viral response. On the other hand, NK cells express functional pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) whose function has been mostly addressed by the use of synthetic agonists. The present study was undertaken to investigate whether NK cells could directly recognize a complex pathogen such as Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Exposure of primary human NK cells to HCMV (TB40/E strain) induced the expression of CD69, promoted IFNγ secretion, and increased their cytotoxic activity against HCMV-infected autologous monocyte-derived dendritic cells. The divergent response induced by infective and UV-inactivated virions indicated the involvement of different NK cell sensors in the recognition of HCMV. The fact that NK cell activation could be partially prevented by blocking mAb specific for IFNAR and TLR2, together with the induction of IFNβ mRNA, supported the involvement of IFNβ and TLR2 in the response to HCMV. Thus, our data indicate that simultaneous activation of several PRRs leads to the autonomous priming of NK cell effector functions and could be a previously unappreciated mechanism presumably contributing to the control of HCMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aura Muntasell
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute Barcelona, Spain
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Kelly MN, Zheng M, Ruan S, Kolls J, D'Souza A, Shellito JE. Memory CD4+ T cells are required for optimal NK cell effector functions against the opportunistic fungal pathogen Pneumocystis murina. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012. [PMID: 23203926 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the role of NK cells or their interplay with other immune cells during opportunistic infections. Using our murine model of Pneumocystis pneumonia, we found that loss of NK cells during immunosuppression results in substantial Pneumocystis lung burden. During early infection of C57B/6 CD4(+) T cell-depleted mice, there were significantly fewer NK cells in the lung tissue compared with CD4(+) T cell-intact animals, and the NK cells present demonstrated decreased upregulation of the activation marker NKp46 and production of the effector cytokine, IFN-γ. Furthermore, coincubation studies revealed a significant increase in fungal killing when NK cells were combined with CD4(+) T cells compared with either cell alone, which was coincident with a significant increase in perforin production by NK cells. Finally, however, we found through adoptive transfer that memory CD4(+) T cells are required for significant NK cell upregulation of the activation marker NK group 2D and production of IFN-γ, granzyme B, and perforin during Pneumocystis infection. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to demonstrate a role for NK cells in immunity to Pneumocystis pneumonia, as well as to establish a functional relationship between CD4(+) T cells and NK cells in the host response to an opportunistic fungal pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle N Kelly
- Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
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Schmidt S, Tramsen L, Perkhofer S, Lass-Flörl C, Hanisch M, Röger F, Klingebiel T, Koehl U, Lehrnbecher T. Rhizopus oryzae hyphae are damaged by human natural killer (NK) cells, but suppress NK cell mediated immunity. Immunobiology 2012. [PMID: 23201314 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2012.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mucormycosis has a high mortality and is increasingly diagnosed in hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients. In this setting, there is a growing interest to restore host defense to combat infections by adoptively transferring donor-derived immunocompetent cells. Natural killer (NK) cells exhibit antitumor and antiinfective activity, but the interaction with Mucormycetes is unknown. Our data demonstrate that both unstimulated and IL-2 prestimulated human NK cells damage Rhizopus oryzae hyphae, but do not affect resting conidia. The damage of the fungus is mediated, at least in part, by perforin. R. oryzae hyphae decrease the secretion of immunoregulatory molecules by NK cells, such as IFN-γ and RANTES, indicating an immunosuppressive effect of the fungus. Our data indicate that NK cells exhibit activity against Mucormycetes and future research should evaluate NK cells as a potential tool for adoptive immunotherapy in HSCT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislaw Schmidt
- Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
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35
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Leishmania-infected macrophages are targets of NK cell-derived cytokines but not of NK cell cytotoxicity. Infect Immun 2011; 79:2699-708. [PMID: 21518784 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00079-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are important components of a protective immune response against intracellular pathogens such as Leishmania parasites, which reside within myeloid cells. Previous in vivo studies in murine cutaneous or visceral leishmaniasis showed that NK cells are activated by conventional dendritic cells in a Toll-like receptor 9-, interleukin-12 (IL-12)-, and IL-18-dependent manner during the early phase of infection and help to restrict the tissue parasite burden by unknown mechanisms. Here, we tested whether NK cells contribute to the control of Leishmania infections by lysing or by activating infected host cells. Coculture experiments revealed that activated NK cells from poly(I:C)-treated mice readily killed tumor target cells, whereas Leishmania infantum- or L. major-infected macrophages or dendritic cells remained viable. Infection with Leishmania did not significantly alter the expression of NK cell-activating molecules (retinoic acid early transcript alpha [Rae-1α], mouse UL16-binding protein-like transcript 1 [MULT-1], CD48) or inhibitory molecules (major histocompatibility complex [MHC] class I, nonclassical MHC class 1b molecule Qa-1) on the surface of myeloid cells, which offers an explanation for their protection from NK cell cytotoxicity. Consistent with these in vitro data, in vivo cytotoxicity assays revealed poor cytolytic activity of NK cells against adoptively transferred infected wild-type macrophages, whereas MHC class I-deficient macrophages were efficiently eliminated. NK cells activated by IL-12 and IL-18 stimulated macrophages to kill intracellular Leishmania in a cell contact-independent but gamma interferon-, tumor necrosis factor-, and inducible nitric oxide synthase-dependent manner. We conclude that Leishmania parasites, unlike viruses, do not render infected myeloid cells susceptible to the cytotoxicity of NK cells. Instead, soluble products of NK cells trigger the leishmanicidal activity of macrophages.
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36
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Protective immunity against experimental pulmonary cryptococcosis in T cell-depleted mice. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2011; 18:717-23. [PMID: 21450975 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00036-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with defects in T cell-mediated immunity (CMI) are highly susceptible to infection with Cryptococcus neoformans. The purpose of these studies was to determine if protection against experimental pulmonary cryptococcosis can be generated in T cell-deficient hosts. BALB/c mice were depleted of CD4⁺and/or CD8⁺ T cells or given an isotype control antibody prior to vaccination with a C. neoformans strain, designated H99γ, previously shown to induce protection against C. neoformans infection in immunocompetent mice. Mice depleted of CD4⁺ or CD8⁺ T cells, but not both subsets, survived an acute pulmonary infection with C. neoformans strain H99γ and a subsequent second challenge with wild-type C. neoformans strain H99. We observed a significant increase in the percentage of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells expressing the activation marker CD69 in the lungs of mice immunized with C. neoformans strain H99γ prior to a secondary challenge with wild-type cryptococci. CD4⁺ T cells within the lungs of immunized mice also appeared to acquire a predominantly activated effector memory cell phenotype (CD69⁺ CD44⁺ CCR7⁻ CD45RB⁻ CD62L⁻) following a second pulmonary challenge with wild-type C. neoformans, compared to CD4⁺ T cells from naïve mice. Lastly, immunization of immunocompetent mice with C. neoformans strain H99γ prior to depletion of CD4⁺ and/or CD8⁺ T cells resulted in significant protection against a second challenge with wild-type C. neoformans. Our studies demonstrate that protective immunity against pulmonary cryptococcosis can be generated in immunosuppressed hosts, thus supporting the development of cryptococcal vaccines.
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A murine model for study of anticryptococcal activity mediated by cytotoxic immune cells: Role in immunization and human vaccine strategies. ACTA VET-BEOGRAD 2011. [DOI: 10.2298/avb1103109a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Schmidt S, Tramsen L, Hanisch M, Latgé JP, Huenecke S, Koehl U, Lehrnbecher T. Human natural killer cells exhibit direct activity against Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae, but not against resting conidia. J Infect Dis 2010; 203:430-5. [PMID: 21208932 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiq062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Because natural killer (NK) cells kill tumor cells and combat infections, there is growing interest in adoptively transferring NK cells to hematopoietic stem cell recipients. Unfortunately, in humans, the activity of NK cells against Aspergillus species, the major cause of invasive fungal infection in stem cell recipients, are poorly characterized. Our results show that unstimulated and interleukin-2 prestimulated human NK cells kill Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae but do not affect resting conidia. Killing is also induced by the supernatant of prestimulated NK cells and human perforin. The high levels of interferon-γ and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor produced by prestimulated NK cells are significantly reduced by Aspergillus, indicating an immunosuppressive effect of the fungus. Whereas Aspergillus hyphae activate NK cells, resting, and germinating, conidia and conidia of ΔrodA mutants lacking the hydrophobic surface layer do not. Our results suggest that adoptively transferred human NK cells may be a potential antifungal tool in the transplantation context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislaw Schmidt
- Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
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39
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Olszewski MA, Zhang Y, Huffnagle GB. Mechanisms of cryptococcal virulence and persistence. Future Microbiol 2010; 5:1269-88. [PMID: 20722603 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.10.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is an environmental yeast that is a leading cause of fatal mycosis in AIDS patients and a major cause of meningoencephalitis and CNS-related mortality around the globe. Although C. neoformans infection is mostly a manifestation of immune deficiency, up to 25% of cases reported in the USA occur in patients without recognizable immune defects, indicating that C. neoformans can develop mechanisms that allow it to evade immune defenses and persist in noncompromised hosts. This article discusses mechanisms and routes of infection and the most important elements of host response as well as the mechanisms that promote cryptococcal survival within the host. Metabolic adaptation to physiological host conditions and the mechanisms limiting immune recognition, interfering with phagocytosis and extending intracellular survival of C. neoformans are highlighted. We describe the mechanisms by which C. neoformans can alter adaptive host responses, especially cell-mediated immunity, which is required for clearance of this microbe. We also review cryptococcal strategies of survival in the CNS and briefly discuss adaptations developing in response to medical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal A Olszewski
- Ann Arbor Veterans Administration Health System (11R), 2215 Fuller Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA.
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40
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Petković L, Arsenijević VA, Skvarc M, Kopitar A, Kotnik V, Simicic S, Wraber B, Matos T, Ihan A. Anticryptococcal cytotoxicity of murine nonadherent cells is perforin and nonperforin mediated. Mycologia 2010; 102:552-9. [PMID: 20524588 DOI: 10.3852/09-039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The encapsulated fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans is a significant agent of life-threatening infections, particularly in people with suppressed cell-mediated immunity. The cellular cytotoxicity against C. neoformans infection is mainly mediated by NK and T cells, but effector mechanisms are not well understood. The objective of this study was (i) to determine whether prior exposure to the cryptococcal antigens enhances anticryptococcal activity of cytotoxic cells in mice and (ii) the contribution of perforin- and nonperforin-mediated cytotoxicity of NK and T cells in growth inhibition of C. neoformans. Our data showed that in vitro exposure of nonadherent (NA) spleen mononuclear cells from nonimmunized mice to heat-killed C. neoformans strain Cap67 unencapsulated mutant of B3501 (Ag1) or its supernatant (Ag2) demonstrated higher anticryptococcal activity. This effector mechanism can be enhanced further after immunization with either Ag1 or Ag2. There is a synergistic effect of immunization and in vitro incubation of the NA cells with the same antigens. Concanamycin A (CMA) and strontium chloride (SrCl2) inhibition assays were performed to clarify the contribution of perforin- and nonperforin-mediated anticryptococcal cytotoxicity of NA cells in these events. Treatment with these inhibitors demonstrated that anticryptococcal cytotoxicity of nonprimed NA cells was primarily perforin mediated. Anticryptococcal activity of the NA cells obtained from immunized mice after in vitro incubation with cryptococcal antigens was both perforin and nonperforin mediated. Taken together these data demonstrate that in mice a nonperforin-mediated pathway of anticryptococcal cytotoxicity can be induced by immunization. Further research is needed to examine their potential role for human vaccines strategies and/or therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljubica Petković
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotića 1, 11 000 Belgrade, Serbia.
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Direct microbicidal activity of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:249482. [PMID: 20617144 PMCID: PMC2896662 DOI: 10.1155/2010/249482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL) are famous for their ability to kill tumor, allogeneic and virus-infected cells. However, an emerging literature has now demonstrated that CTL also possess the ability to directly recognize and kill bacteria, parasites, and fungi. Here, we review past and recent findings demonstrating the direct microbicidal activity of both CD4+ and CD8+ CTL against various microbial pathogens. Further, this review will outline what is known regarding the mechanisms of direct killing and their underlying signalling pathways.
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Abstract
Opportunistic pathogens have become of increasing medical importance over the last decade due to the AIDS pandemic. Not only is cryptococcosis the fourth-most-common fatal infectious disease in sub-Saharan Africa, but also Cryptococcus is an emerging pathogen of immunocompetent individuals. The interaction between Cryptococcus and the host's immune system is a major determinant for the outcome of disease. Despite initial infection in early childhood with Cryptococcus neoformans and frequent exposure to C. neoformans within the environment, immunocompetent individuals are generally able to contain the fungus or maintain the yeast in a latent state. However, immune deficiencies lead to disseminating infections that are uniformly fatal without rapid clinical intervention. This review will discuss the innate and adaptive immune responses to Cryptococcus and cryptococcal strategies to evade the host's defense mechanisms. It will also address the importance of these strategies in pathogenesis and the potential of immunotherapy in cryptococcosis treatment.
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