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Garay J, Piazuelo MB, Majumdar S, Li L, Trillo-Tinoco J, Del Valle L, Schneider BG, Delgado AG, Wilson KT, Correa P, Zabaleta J. The homing receptor CD44 is involved in the progression of precancerous gastric lesions in patients infected with Helicobacter pylori and in development of mucous metaplasia in mice. Cancer Lett 2016; 371:90-8. [PMID: 26639196 PMCID: PMC4714604 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2015.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Revised: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) leads to inflammatory events that can promote gastric cancer development. Immune cells transition from the circulation into the infected mucosa through the interaction of their receptors and ligands in the endothelial compartment. CD44 expression is increased in advanced gastric lesions. However, the association of this molecule with the progression of these lesions over time has not been investigated. In addition, there is a lack of understanding of the CD44-dependent cellular processes that lead to gastritis, and possibly to gastric cancer. Here we studied H. pylori-positive subjects with gastric lesions that ranged from multifocal atrophic gastritis to dysplasia to determine gene expression changes associated with disease progression over a period of 6 years. We report that CD44 expression is significantly increased in individuals whose gastric lesions progressed along the gastric precancerous cascade. We also show that CD44-/- mice develop less severe and less extensive H. pylori-induced metaplasia, and show fewer infiltrating Gr1+ cells compared to wild type mice. We present data suggesting that CD44 is associated with disease progression. Mechanisms associated with these effects include induction of interferon gamma responses.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Ly/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte
- Disease Models, Animal
- Disease Progression
- Female
- Gastric Mucosa/immunology
- Gastric Mucosa/metabolism
- Gastric Mucosa/microbiology
- Gastric Mucosa/pathology
- Gastritis, Atrophic/diagnosis
- Gastritis, Atrophic/genetics
- Gastritis, Atrophic/immunology
- Gastritis, Atrophic/metabolism
- Gastritis, Atrophic/microbiology
- Helicobacter Infections/diagnosis
- Helicobacter Infections/genetics
- Helicobacter Infections/immunology
- Helicobacter Infections/metabolism
- Helicobacter Infections/microbiology
- Helicobacter pylori/immunology
- Helicobacter pylori/pathogenicity
- Humans
- Hyaluronan Receptors/genetics
- Hyaluronan Receptors/immunology
- Hyaluronan Receptors/metabolism
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/immunology
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/metabolism
- Mice, Knockout
- Neutrophil Infiltration
- Neutrophils/immunology
- Neutrophils/metabolism
- Precancerous Conditions/diagnosis
- Precancerous Conditions/genetics
- Precancerous Conditions/immunology
- Precancerous Conditions/metabolism
- Precancerous Conditions/microbiology
- Signal Transduction
- Stomach Neoplasms/diagnosis
- Stomach Neoplasms/genetics
- Stomach Neoplasms/immunology
- Stomach Neoplasms/metabolism
- Stomach Neoplasms/microbiology
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Jone Garay
- Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, LSUHSC, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - M Blanca Piazuelo
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Sumana Majumdar
- Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, LSUHSC, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Li Li
- Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, LSUHSC, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | | | - Luis Del Valle
- Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, LSUHSC, New Orleans, LA, USA; Department of Pathology, LSUHSC, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Barbara G Schneider
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Alberto G Delgado
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Keith T Wilson
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Pelayo Correa
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jovanny Zabaleta
- Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, LSUHSC, New Orleans, LA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, LSUHSC New Orleans, LA, USA.
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Qu B, Han X, Ren G, Jia Y, Liu Y, Su J, Wang Z, Wang Y, Wang H, Pan J, Liu LL, Hu WJ. Influence of H. pylori CagA Coupled with Alcohol Consumption on Cytokine Profiles in Men. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95:e2721. [PMID: 26844515 PMCID: PMC4748932 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000002721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of Helicobacter pylori (H pylori) cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA) coupled with chronic alcohol ingestion on cytokine profiles.A total of 215 male subjects were divided into the following 4 groups: 130 alcohol H pylori CagA-negative consumers (CagA-) (group A), 50 alcohol H pylori CagA-positive consumers (CagA+) (group B), 24 nonalcohol H pylori CagA-negative consumers (group C), and 11 nonalcohol H pylori CagA-positive consumers (group D). The serum CagA, C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, E-selectin, adiponectin (ADP), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels were measured through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs).After adjusting for age and mean alcohol drinking history, a multivariable linear regression analysis revealed that the mean daily alcohol consumption, IL-6, TNF-α, and ADP levels were significantly increased with increases in the serum CagA concentrations (P = 0.008, P = 0.000, P = 0.000, and P = 0.006, respectively). The serum IL-6 and IL-10 levels of group A were significantly lower than those of group B (all P = 0.000). Furthermore, the serum IL-6 and IL-10 levels of groups A and C were significantly lower than those of group D (all P = 0.000), and the serum IL-6 and IL-10 levels of group C were significantly lower than those of group B (all P = 0.000). The serum ADP and E-selectin levels of groups B and D were significantly higher than those of group A (P = 0.000). The serum ADP levels of group B were significantly higher than those of group C (P = 0.000), and the serum ADP and E-selectin levels of group C were significantly lower than those of group D (P = 0.000 and P = 0.005, respectively). Finally, the serum TNF-α levels of groups B, C, and D were significantly higher than those of group A (all P = 0.000), and the serum TNF-α levels of group C were significantly higher than those of group D (P = 0.005).In conclusion, H pylori CagA may result in significantly higher levels of several inflammatory markers in both alcohol consumers and nonalcohol consumers. However, chronic alcohol ingestion coupled with H pylori CagA positivity does not result in significant changes in cytokine profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoge Qu
- From the Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong, PR China; and Taishan Medical College, Taian, Shandong, PR China
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Qu B, Su J, Wang Z, Wang Y, Han X, Wang H, Liu Y, Jia Y, Pan J, Ren G. Effect of H. pylori Infection on Cytokine Profiles and Oxidative Balance in Subjects with Chronic Alcohol Ingestion. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129352. [PMID: 26087062 PMCID: PMC4472927 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Different amounts of ingested alcohol can have distinct effects on the human body. However, there is limited research on chronic alcohol consumption with Helicobacter pylori infection. We sought to investigate the relationship between the cytokine profile, oxidative balance and H. pylori infection in subjects with chronic alcohol consumption. A total of 142 subjects were divided into three groups: 59 subjects with chronic alcohol ingestion and H. pylori infection (group A); 53 subjects with chronic alcohol ingestion without H. pylori infection (group B); and 30 control subjects (group C). The serum levels of CagA, interleukin (IL)-10, E-selectin, TNF-α, malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We found that the ages and serum H. pylori CagA levels among the three groups, as well as both the mean drinking age and the mean daily alcohol consumption between groups A and B, were matched and comparable. Comparing the BMIs among the three groups, the BMI differences were found to be statistically significant (F=3.921, P<0.05). Compared with group C, the BMIs in groups A and B were significantly higher (P<0.001 and P<0.01, respectively); however, the BMI differences between group A and group B were not statistically significant (P>0.05). Additionally, no differences in the serum CagA levels were found in comparisons among the groups (all P>0.05). The serum IL-10 and E-selectin levels in group A were significantly lower than those in group B (serum IL-10: P<0.05; E-selectin: P<0.05). The serum IL-10 in group A was significantly higher than that in group C (P<0.01); the serum E-selectin levels in group A did not significantly differ compared with those in group C (P>0.05). Furthermore, the serum IL-10 and E-selectin levels in group B were significantly higher than those in group C (serum IL-10: P<0.001; E-selectin: P<0.05); however, the serum TNF-α levels did not differ among groups (all P>0.05). Although the serum levels of MDA and SOD in groups A and B were slightly lower than those in group C, there were no significant differences among groups (all P>0.05). In conclusion, we believe that H. pylori infection might cause a significant inhibition of certain cytokine profiles in subjects with chronic alcohol ingestion. Moreover, chronically ingested alcohol may exert an adjusted inflammatory effect, but there was no association between H. pylori infection, chronic alcohol consumption and oxidative balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoge Qu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
| | - Jiliang Su
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
| | - Zhongdong Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
| | - Yafei Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
| | - Xinghai Han
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
- Taishan Medical College, Taian, Shandong, 271000, P. R. China
| | - Yuanxun Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
- Taishan Medical College, Taian, Shandong, 271000, P. R. China
| | - Yiguo Jia
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
- Taishan Medical College, Taian, Shandong, 271000, P. R. China
| | - Jindun Pan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
| | - Guangying Ren
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taishan Hospital, Taian, Shandong 271000, P. R. China
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Busch B, Weimer R, Woischke C, Fischer W, Haas R. Helicobacter pylori interferes with leukocyte migration via the outer membrane protein HopQ and via CagA translocation. Int J Med Microbiol 2015; 305:355-64. [PMID: 25736449 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2015.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori is a paradigm for chronic bacterial infections. Persistent colonization of the stomach mucosa is facilitated by several mechanisms of immune evasion and immune modulation, such as avoidance of Toll-like receptor recognition or skewing of effector T cell responses. Interactions of H. pylori with different immune cells have been described with respect to immune cell activation, cytokine release, or oxidative burst induction. We show here that H. pylori infection of human granulocytes, or of HL-60 cells differentiated to a granulocyte-like phenotype (dHL-60 cells) results in inhibition of cell migration under different conditions. Migration of dHL-60 cells in a three-dimensional collagen gel was found to be inhibited independently of the cag pathogenicity island, whereas migration inhibition in an under agarose assay was dependent on the cag pathogenicity island, on its effector protein CagA, and on the outer membrane protein HopQ. CagA translocation into leukocytes is accompanied by its tyrosine phosphorylation and by proteolytic processing into an N-terminal 100 kDa and a C-terminal 35 kDa fragment at a distinct cleavage site. By using complemented H. pylori strains producing either phosphorylation-resistant or cleavage-resistant CagA variants, we show that CagA tyrosine phosphorylation is required for migration inhibition, but CagA processing is not. Our results suggest that direct contact of H. pylori with immune cells subverts not only their activation characteristics, but also their migratory behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Busch
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany
| | - Ramona Weimer
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany
| | - Christine Woischke
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Fischer
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany.
| | - Rainer Haas
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site München, München, Germany
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Oktay B, Ozgur YA, Metin K, Naim A, Zeliha A, Mehmet Y, Ayse K, Sebahat B, Bora A, Yasar N. Serum hsCRP and procalcitonin levels in dyspeptic patients infected with CagA-positive Helicobacter pylori. J Clin Lab Anal 2014; 29:469-73. [PMID: 25132401 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.21795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bulur Oktay
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Internal Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | | | - Kucukazman Metin
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Gastroenterology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ata Naim
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Internal Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Asilturk Zeliha
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Internal Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Yıldız Mehmet
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Internal Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Kefeli Ayse
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Gastroenterology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Basyigit Sebahat
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Gastroenterology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Aktas Bora
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Gastroenterology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Nazlıgul Yasar
- Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Department of Gastroenterology, Ankara, Turkey
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Chmiela M, Miszczyk E, Rudnicka K. Structural modifications of Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide: An idea for how to live in peace. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:9882-9897. [PMID: 25110419 PMCID: PMC4123370 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i29.9882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Revised: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In this review, we discuss the findings and concepts underlying the “persistence mechanisms” of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), a spiral-shaped, Gram-negative rod bacterium that was discovered as a gastric pathogen by Marshall and Warren in 1984. H. pylori colonizes the gastric mucosa of nearly half of the human population. Infections appear in early childhood and, if not treated, persist for life. The presence or absence of symptoms and their severity depend on multiple bacterial components, host susceptibility and environmental factors, which allow H. pylori to switch between pathogenicity and commensalism. Many studies have shown that H. pylori components may facilitate the colonization process and the immune response of the host during the course of H. pylori infection. These H. pylori-driven interactions might result from positive or negative modulation. Among the negative immunomodulators, a prominent position is occupied by a vacuolating toxin A (VacA) and cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA) protein. However, in light of the recent studies that are presented in this review, it is necessary to enrich this panel with H. pylori lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Together with CagA and VacA, LPS suppresses the elimination of H. pylori bacteria from the gastric mucosa by interfering with the activity of innate and adaptive immune cells, diminishing the inflammatory response, and affecting the adaptive T lymphocyte response, thus facilitating the development of chronic infections. The complex strategy of H. pylori bacteria for survival in the gastric mucosa of the host involves both structural modifications of LPS lipid A to diminish its endotoxic properties and the expression and variation of Lewis determinants, arranged in O-specific chains of H. pylori LPS. By mimicking host components, this phenomenon leaves these bacteria “invisible” to immune cells. Together, these mechanisms allow H. pylori to survive and live for many years within their hosts.
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Iwaszkiewicz KS, Schneider JJ, Hua S. Targeting peripheral opioid receptors to promote analgesic and anti-inflammatory actions. Front Pharmacol 2013; 4:132. [PMID: 24167491 PMCID: PMC3807052 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2013.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms of endogenous pain control are significant. Increasing studies have clearly produced evidence for the clinical usefulness of opioids in peripheral analgesia. The immune system uses mechanisms of cell migration not only to fight pathogens but also to control pain and inflammation within injured tissue. It has been demonstrated that peripheral inflammatory pain can be effectively controlled by an interaction of immune cell-derived opioid peptides with opioid receptors on peripheral sensory nerve terminals. Experimental and clinical studies have clearly shown that activation of peripheral opioid receptors with exogenous opioid agonists and endogenous opioid peptides are able to produce significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, without central opioid mediated side effects (e.g., respiratory depression, sedation, tolerance, dependence). This article will focus on the role of opioids in peripheral inflammatory conditions and the clinical implications of targeting peripheral opioid receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina S Iwaszkiewicz
- The School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia
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Jafarzadeh A, Nemati M, Rezayati MT, Khoramdel H, Nabizadeh M, Hassanshahi G, Abdollahi H. Lower circulating levels of chemokine CXCL10 in Helicobacter pylori-infected patients with peptic ulcer: Influence of the bacterial virulence factor CagA. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY 2013; 5:28-35. [PMID: 23467184 PMCID: PMC3577565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Alterations in CXCL10 (a Th1 chemokine) expression have been associated with various diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the serum CXCL10 levels in H. pylori-infected patients with peptic ulcer (PU), H. pylori-infected asymptomatic (AS) subjects and healthy H. pylori-negative subjects, and also to determine its association with bacterial virulence factor cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA). MATERIALS AND METHODS Serum samples from 90 H. pylori infected patients with PU (70 were anti-CagA(+), 20 were anti-CagA(-)), 65 AS carriers (40 were anti-CagA(+), 25 were anti-CagA(-)) and 30 healthy H. pylori-negative subjects (as a control group) were tested for concentrations of CXCL10 by using the ELISA method. RESULTS The mean serum levels of CXCL10 in PU patients (96.64 ± 20.85 pg/mL) were significantly lower than those observed in AS subjects (162.16 ± 53.31 pg/mL, P < 0.01) and the control group (193.93 ± 42.14 pg/mL, P < 0.02). In the PU group, the serum levels of CXCL10 in anti-CagA(+) subjects was significantly higher in comparison to anti-CagA(-) patients (P < 0.04). CONCLUSION These results showed that the mean concentrations of CXCL10 in H. pylori-infected-PU patients was lower than AS carriers and control group. In the PU group, the serum levels of CXCL10 were associated with bacterial factor CagA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdollah Jafarzadeh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran,Immunology Research Center, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran,Molecular Medicine Research Center, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran, Corresponding author: Abdollah Jafarzadeh, Address: Department of Immunology, Medical School, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran. Tel: +98-391-5234003. Fax: +98-391-522 5209. E-mail:
| | - Maryam Nemati
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Taghi Rezayati
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran
| | - Hossain Khoramdel
- Immunology Research Center, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran
| | - Mansooreh Nabizadeh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran
| | | | - Hamid Abdollahi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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Selectins and Associated Adhesion Proteins in Inflammatory disorders. ANIMAL LECTINS: FORM, FUNCTION AND CLINICAL APPLICATIONS 2012. [PMCID: PMC7121831 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-1065-2_44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is defined as the normal response of living tissue to injury or infection. It is important to emphasize two components of this definition. First, that inflammation is a normal response and, as such, is expected to occur when tissue is damaged. Infact, if injured tissue does not exhibit signs of inflammation this would be considered abnormal and wounds and infections would never heal without inflammation. Secondly, inflammation occurs in living tissue, hence there is need for an adequate blood supply to the tissues in order to exhibit an inflammatory response. The inflammatory response may be triggered by mechanical injury, chemical toxins, and invasion by microorganisms, and hypersensitivity reactions. Three major events occur during the inflammatory response: the blood supply to the affected area is increased substantially, capillary permeability is increased, and leucocytes migrate from the capillary vessels into the surrounding interstitial spaces to the site of inflammation or injury. The inflammatory response represents a complex biological and biochemical process involving cells of the immune system and a plethora of biological mediators. Cell-to-cell communication molecules such as cytokines play an extremely important role in mediating the process of inflammation. Inflammation and platelet activation are critical phenomena in the setting of acute coronary syndromes. An extensive exposition of this complex phenomenon is beyond the scope of this article (Rankin 2004).
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10
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Sun J, Wu Y, Su Z, Liu Z, Su B, Liu Z, Liu W, Zhao H, Tana, Bateer, Eshita Y, Chi B, Zhao L, Fang X, Hao W, Wu S, Bian J, Chen J, Ouyang X. The role of small molecular weight compounds to increase vacuolation induced by VacA toxin in vitro. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 24:1373-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2009] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 04/13/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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