Evidence for actinlike proteins in an M protein-negative strain of Streptococcus pyogenes

Molecular Mimicry, Autoimmunity, and Infection: The Cross-Reactive Antigens of Group A Streptococci and their Sequelae

The group A streptococci are associated with a group of diseases affecting the heart, brain, and joints that are collectively referred to as acute rheumatic fever. The streptococcal immune-mediated sequelae, including acute rheumatic fever, are due to antibody and cellular immune responses that target antigens in the heart and brain as well as the group A streptococcal cross-reactive antigens as reviewed in this article. The pathogenesis of acute rheumatic fever, rheumatic heart disease, Sydenham chorea, and other autoimmune sequelae is related to autoantibodies that are characteristic of autoimmune diseases and result from the immune responses against group A streptococcal infection by the host. The sharing of host and streptococcal epitopes leads to molecular mimicry between the streptococcal and host antigens that are recognized by the autoantibodies during the host response. This article elaborates on the discoveries that led to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of disease and provides an overview of the history and the most current thought about the immune responses against the host and streptococcal cross-reactive antigens in group A streptococcal sequelae.

Divergent Roles of Antiself Antibodies during Infection

Antiself antibodies are most commonly associated with autoimmune disorders, but a large body of evidence indicates that they are also present in numerous infectious diseases. These autoimmune antibodies appear transiently during infection with a number of viruses, bacteria, and parasites and in some cases have been associated with the development of autoimmune disorders that develop after infection has been cleared. Traditionally these infection-associated autoantibodies are considered an erroneous byproduct of a legitimate immune response, but their possible role in the clearance of microbes and infected cells or inhibition of host-cell invasion suggests that they may be present because of their beneficial protective role against various infections.

Single-cell sequencing provides clues about the host interactions of segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB)

Segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) are host-specific intestinal symbionts that comprise a distinct clade within the Clostridiaceae, designated Candidatus Arthromitus. SFB display a unique life cycle within the host, involving differentiation into multiple cell types. The latter include filaments that attach intimately to intestinal epithelial cells, and from which "holdfasts" and spores develop. SFB induce a multifaceted immune response, leading to host protection from intestinal pathogens. Cultivation resistance has hindered characterization of these enigmatic bacteria. In the present study, we isolated five SFB filaments from a mouse using a microfluidic device equipped with laser tweezers, generated genome sequences from each, and compared these sequences with each other, as well as to recently published SFB genome sequences. Based on the resulting analyses, SFB appear to be dependent on the host for a variety of essential nutrients. SFB have a relatively high abundance of predicted proteins devoted to cell cycle control and to envelope biogenesis, and have a group of SFB-specific autolysins and a dynamin-like protein. Among the five filament genomes, an average of 8.6% of predicted proteins were novel, including a family of secreted SFB-specific proteins. Four ADP-ribosyltransferase (ADPRT) sequence types, and a myosin-cross-reactive antigen (MCRA) protein were discovered; we hypothesize that they are involved in modulation of host responses. The presence of polymorphisms among mouse SFB genomes suggests the evolution of distinct SFB lineages. Overall, our results reveal several aspects of SFB adaptation to the mammalian intestinal tract.

Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections

Group A streptococci are model extracellular gram-positive pathogens responsible for pharyngitis, impetigo, rheumatic fever, and acute glomerulonephritis. A resurgence of invasive streptococcal diseases and rheumatic fever has appeared in outbreaks over the past 10 years, with a predominant M1 serotype as well as others identified with the outbreaks. emm (M protein) gene sequencing has changed serotyping, and new virulence genes and new virulence regulatory networks have been defined. The emm gene superfamily has expanded to include antiphagocytic molecules and immunoglobulin-binding proteins with common structural features. At least nine superantigens have been characterized, all of which may contribute to toxic streptococcal syndrome. An emerging theme is the dichotomy between skin and throat strains in their epidemiology and genetic makeup. Eleven adhesins have been reported, and surface plasmin-binding proteins have been defined. The strong resistance of the group A streptococcus to phagocytosis is related to factor H and fibrinogen binding by M protein and to disarming complement component C5a by the C5a peptidase. Molecular mimicry appears to play a role in autoimmune mechanisms involved in rheumatic fever, while nephritis strain-associated proteins may lead to immune-mediated acute glomerulonephritis. Vaccine strategies have focused on recombinant M protein and C5a peptidase vaccines, and mucosal vaccine delivery systems are under investigation.

Principles of macromolecular organization and cell function in bacteria and archaea

Structural organization of the cytoplasm by compartmentation is a well established fact for the eukaryotic cell. In prokaryotes, compartmentation is less obvious. Most prokaryotes do not need intracytoplasmic membranes to maintain their vital functions. This review, especially dealing with prokaryotes, will point out that compartmentation in prokaryotes is present, but not only achieved by membranes. Besides membranes, the nucleoid, multienzyme complexes and metabolons, storage granules, and cytoskeletal elements are involved in compartmentation. In this respect, the organization of the cytoplasm of prokaryotes is similar to that in the eukaryotic cell. Compartmentation influences properties of water in cells.

Actin-related proteins in Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae and their interactions with actin-binding proteins

A group of prokaryotic actin-related proteins (PARP) with an Mr of 43000 was detected in Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae. These proteins were enriched by a depolymerization/polymerization cycle, under similar conditions to those used to polymerize muscle actin, and purified by affinity chromatography on a DNase I-Sepharose column. Three isoforms of A. pleuropneumoniae PARP (Ap-PARP) with pI values of 5.8, 6.15 and 6.2 were detected. Ap-PARP were recognized by four different anti-actin antibodies (one anti-muscle and three anti-cytoplasmic isoforms). Ap-PARP were also recognized by antibodies against Anabaena variabilis PARP (Av-PARP) and against actin-binding proteins such as alpha-actinin and spectrin, and also by a monoclonal antibody against heat-shock cognate protein 70 (Hsc70). Specific binding of phalloidin to Ap-PARP was detected both in permeabilized cells and in vitro. Purified Ap-PARP can polymerize under similar conditions to those required for skeletal muscle actin polymerization and the filaments formed appear to be decorated with myosin subfragment-1(S1) as observed by transmission electron microscopy. The amino acid composition of Ap-PARP revealed more similarities to muscle gamma-actin and the cytoplasmic beta-actin isoform than to eukaryotic actin-related proteins.

Cloning and sequence analysis of a gene encoding a 67-kilodalton myosin-cross-reactive antigen of Streptococcus pyogenes reveals its similarity with class II major histocompatibility antigens

The group A streptococcal sequela acute rheumatic fever (ARF) has been associated with immunological cross-reactivity between streptococcal and heart proteins. To identify Streptococcus pyogenes genes that encode a myosin cross-reactive antigen(s) recognized by ARF sera, a genomic library from an emm deletion strain (T28/51/4) was screened with a single ARF serum. A positively identified lambda EMBL3 clone (T.2.18) produced a protein which reacted with myosin-specific antibodies affinity purified from individual ARF sera. The recombinant protein was initially estimated to be 60 kDa in size by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; however, upon sequence analysis it had a molecular mass equivalent to 67 kDa. Sera from patients with streptococcal infections, acute glomerulonephritis, and ARF were reactive with the recombinant 67-kDa protein. However, individual sera from healthy persons were negative or demonstrated low levels of reactivity with the 67-kDa antigen. The gene encoding the 67-kDa myosin-cross-reactive antigen was subcloned, and its nucleotide sequence was determined by using a combined strategy of DNA sequencing of the cloned gene and N-terminal amino acid sequencing of the protein expressed in Escherichia coli. The amino-terminal sequence deduced from the nucleotide sequence of an open reading frame was identical to that determined from the 67-kDa protein expressed in E. coli. The gene encoded 590 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of 67,381. No cleavable signal peptide was detected with the 67-kDa protein expressed in E. coli. The deduced amino acid sequence of the 67-kDa protein did not exhibit significant similarity to any known streptococcal proteins. However, it was found to be 19% identical and 62% similar over 151 amino acid residues to the beta chain of mouse major histocompatibility complex class II antigen (I-Au). Similar degrees of homology to the beta chains of other murine and human class II haplotypes were found. Mouse anti-IA sera reacted with the recombinant 67-kDa protein about five times more strongly than normal mouse sera in the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Southern hybridization experiments using a probe for the gene encoding the 67-kDa protein showed that the gene was present and conserved among pathogenic groups A, C, and G of streptococci. These data suggest that the streptococcal protein, which is distinct from the M protein, may have structural features in common with the beta chain of the class II antigens, as well as myosin, and may play an important role in the pathogenesis of streptococcal infections.