N-acyl-L-homoserine lactone quorum sensing controls butanediol fermentation in Serratia plymuthica RVH1 and Serratia marcescens MG1

Construction and characterization of a promoter library with varying strengths to enhance acetoin production from xylose in Serratia marcescens

Serratia marcescens is utilized as a significant enterobacteria in the production of various high-value secondary metabolites. Acetoin serves as a crucial foundational compound of development and finds application in a broad range of fields. Furthermore, S. marcescens HBQA-7 is capable of utilizing xylose as its exclusive carbon source for acetoin production. The objective of this study was to utilize a constitutive promoter screening strategy to enhance both xylose utilization and acetoin production in S. marcescens HBQA-7. By utilizing RNA-seq, we identified the endogenous constitutive promoter P6 that is the most robust, which facilitated the overexpression of the sugar transporter protein GlfL445I, α-acetyl lactate synthase, and α-acetyl lactate decarboxylase, respectively. The resultant recombinant strains exhibited enhanced xylose utilization rates and acetoin yields. Subsequently, a recombinant plasmid, denoted as pBBR1MCS-P6-glfL445IalsSalsD, was constructed, simultaneously expressing the aforementioned three genes. The resulting recombinant strain, designated as S3, demonstrated a 1.89-fold boost in xylose consumption rate compared with the original strain during shake flask fermentation. resulting in the accumulation of 7.14 g/L acetoin in the final fermentation medium. Subsequently, in a 5 L fermenter setup, the acetoin yield reached 48.75 g/L, corresponding to a xylose-to-acetoin conversion yield of 0.375 g/g.

2,3-Butanediol synthesis from glucose supplies NADH for elimination of toxic acetate produced during overflow metabolism

Overflow metabolism-caused acetate accumulation is a major problem that restricts industrial applications of various bacteria. 2,3-Butanediol (2,3-BD) synthesis in microorganisms is an ancient metabolic process with unidentified functions. We demonstrate here that acetate increases and then decreases during the growth of a bacterium Enterobacter cloacae subsp. dissolvens SDM. Both bifunctional acetaldehyde/ethanol dehydrogenase AdhE-catalyzed ethanol production and acetate-induced 2,3-BD biosynthesis are indispensable for the elimination of acetate generated during overflow metabolism. 2,3-BD biosynthesis from glucose supplies NADH required for acetate elimination via AdhE-catalyzed ethanol production. The coupling strategy involving 2,3-BD biosynthesis and ethanol production is widely distributed in bacteria and is important for toxic acetate elimination. Finally, we realized the co-production of ethanol and acetoin from chitin, the second most abundant natural biopolymer whose catabolism involves inevitable acetate production through the coupling acetate elimination strategy. The synthesis of a non-toxic chemical such as 2,3-BD may be viewed as a unique overflow metabolism with desirable metabolic functions.

C4 Bacterial Volatiles Improve Plant Health

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) associated with plant roots can trigger plant growth promotion and induced systemic resistance. Several bacterial determinants including cell-wall components and secreted compounds have been identified to date. Here, we review a group of low-molecular-weight volatile compounds released by PGPR, which improve plant health, mostly by protecting plants against pathogen attack under greenhouse and field conditions. We particularly focus on C4 bacterial volatile compounds (BVCs), such as 2,3-butanediol and acetoin, which have been shown to activate the plant immune response and to promote plant growth at the molecular level as well as in large-scale field applications. We also disc/ uss the potential applications, metabolic engineering, and large-scale fermentation of C4 BVCs. The C4 bacterial volatiles act as airborne signals and therefore represent a new type of biocontrol agent. Further advances in the encapsulation procedure, together with the development of standards and guidelines, will promote the application of C4 volatiles in the field.

Citral and its derivatives inhibit quorum sensing and biofilm formation in Chromobacterium violaceum

With an upsurge in multidrug resistant bacteria backed by biofilm defence armours, there is a desperate need of new antibiotics with a non-traditional mechanism of action. Targeting bacteria by misguiding them or halting their communication is a new approach that could offer a new way to combat the multidrug resistance problem. Quorum sensing is considered to be the achilles heel of bacteria that has a lot to offer. Since, both quorum sensing and biofilm formation have been related to drug resistance and pathogenicity, in this study we synthesised new derivatives of citral with antiquorum sensing and biofilm disrupting properties. We previously reported antimicrobial and antiquorum sensing activity of citral and herein we report the synthesis and evaluation of citral and its derivatives (CD1-CD3) for antibacterial, antibiofilm and antiquorum sensing potential against Chromobacterium violaceum using standard methods. Preliminary results revealed that CD1 is the most active of all the derivatives. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of antiquorum sensing activity at sub-inhibitory concentrations of these compounds also revealed high activity for CD1 followed by CD2, CD3 and citral. These compounds also inhibit biofilm formation at subinhibitory concentrations without causing any bacterial growth inhibition. These results were replicated by RT-qPCR with down regulation of the quorum sensing genes when C. violaceum was treated with these test compounds. Overall, the results are quite encouraging, revealing that biofilm and quorum sensing are interrelated processes and also indicating the potential of these derivatives to impede bacterial communication and biofilm formation.

Quorum Sensing System Affects the Plant Growth Promotion Traits of Serratia fonticola GS2

Quorum sensing (QS) enables bacteria to organize gene expression programs, thereby coordinating collective behaviors. It involves the production, release, and population-wide detection of extracellular signaling molecules. The cellular processes regulated by QS in bacteria are diverse and may be used in mutualistic coordination or in response to changing environmental conditions. Here, we focused on the influence of the QS-dependent genes of our model bacterial strain Serratia fonticola GS2 on potential plant growth promoting (PGP) activities including indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase activity, and biofilm formation. Based on genomic and phenotypic experimental data we identified and investigated the function of QS genes in the genome of the model strain. Our gene deletion study confirmed the biological functionality of the QS auto-inducer (gloI) and receptor (gloR) on potential PGP activities of GS2. A transcriptomic approach was also undertaken to understand the role of QS genes in regulation of genes primarily involved in PGP activities (IAA, ACC deaminase activity, and biofilm formation). Both transcriptomic and phenotypic data revealed that the QS-deletion mutants had considerably less PGP activities, as compared to the wild type. In addition, in vivo plant experiments showed that plants treated with GS2 had significantly higher growth rates than plants treated with the QS-deletion mutants. Overall, our results showed how QS-dependent genes regulate the potential PGP activities of GS2. This information may be helpful in understanding the relationship between QS-dependent genes and the PGP activity of bacteria, which aid in the production of practical bio-fertilizers for plant growth promotion.

Hexanal as a QS inhibitor of extracellular enzyme activity of Erwinia carotovora and Pseudomonas fluorescens and its application in vegetables

To prevent the postharvest disease of Chinese cabbage and lettuce, hexanal was used as a control measure to inhibit N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) production and extracellular enzymes regulated by quorum-sensing (QS) in their main spoilage strains of Erwinia carotovora and Pseudomonas fluorescens. Firstly, the QS inhibition of hexanal was verified by significantly inhibiting violacein production (p < 0.05) in Chromobacterium violaceum CV026 at sub-MICs. β-Galactosidase activities which reflected AHL production, were significantly inhibited by hexanal, its inhibitory effect was concentration-dependent under minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) (p < 0.05). The detected extracellular enzymes activities decreased with the increase of hexanal concentration (p < 0.05), including cellulase, xylanase, pectate lyase, polygalacturonase, and protease. Chinese cabbage soft rot and lettuce leaf scorch could be significantly inhibited by hexanal (p < 0.05) without any phytotoxicity effect, the 1/2 MIC of hexanal showed the best inhibitory effect. And all the above effects showed a dose-dependent. A novel preservation technique in reducing the loss of vegetables due to spoilage based on the QS inhibitor was developed.

Vanillic acid from Actinidia deliciosa impedes virulence in Serratia marcescens by affecting S-layer, flagellin and fatty acid biosynthesis proteins

Serratia marcescens is one of the important nosocomial pathogens which rely on quorum sensing (QS) to regulate the production of biofilm and several virulence factors. Hence, blocking of QS has become a promising approach to quench the virulence of S. marcescens. For the first time, QS inhibitory (QSI) and antibiofilm potential of Actinidia deliciosa have been explored against S. marcescens clinical isolate (CI). A. deliciosa pulp extract significantly inhibited the virulence and biofilm production without any deleterious effect on the growth. Vanillic acid was identified as an active lead responsible for the QSI activity. Addition of vanillic acid to the growth medium significantly affected the QS regulated production of biofilm and virulence factors in a concentration dependent mode in S. marcescens CI, ATCC 14756 and MG1. Furthermore vanillic acid increased the survival of Caenorhabditis elegans upon S. marcescens infection. Proteomic analysis and mass spectrometric identification of differentially expressed proteins revealed the ability of vanillic acid to modulate the expression of proteins involved in S-layers, histidine, flagellin and fatty acid production. QSI potential of the vanillic acid observed in the current study paves the way for exploring it as a potential therapeutic candidate to treat S. marcescens infections.

The metabolic flux regulation of Klebsiella pneumoniae based on quorum sensing system

Quorum-sensing (QS) systems exist universally in bacteria to regulate multiple biological functions. Klebsiella pneumoniae, an industrially important bacterium that produces bio-based chemicals such as 2,3-butanediol and acetoin, can secrete a furanosyl borate diester (AI-2) as the signalling molecule mediating a QS system, which plays a key regulatory role in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. In this study, the molecular regulation and metabolic functions of a QS system in K. pneumoniae were investigated. The results showed that after the disruption of AI-2-mediated QS by the knockout of luxS, the production of acetoin, ethanol and acetic acid were relatively lower in the K. pneumoniae mutant than in the wild type bacteria. However, 2,3-butanediol production was increased by 23.8% and reached 54.93 g/L. The observed enhancement may be attributed to the improvement of the catalytic activity of 2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase (BDH) in transforming acetoin to 2,3-butanediol. This possibility is consistent with the RT-PCR-verified increase in the transcriptional level of budC, which encodes BDH. These results also demonstrated that the physiological metabolism of K. pneumoniae was adversely affected by a QS system. This effect was reversed through the addition of synthetic AI-2. This study provides the basis for a QS-modulated metabolic engineering study of K. pneumoniae.

Characterization of volatile metabolites associated with confinement odour during the shelf-life of vacuum packed lamb meat under different storage conditions

Confinement odour was investigated. Volatiles were extracted directly from the pack, using solid phase microextraction and analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Sensory evaluation and microbiological analysis of the meat surface were also performed. Commercial samples of vacuum packed lamb legs (n=85), from two meat processing plants, were kept for 7weeks at -1.5°C then at different regimes of temperature (-1.5 to +4°C) until 11, 12 or 13weeks. Persistent odour was observed in 66% of samples, confinement odour in 24% and no odour in 11%. Volatiles associated with confinement odour (3-methyl-butanal, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone and sulphur dioxide) corresponded with end/sub products of glucose fermentation and catabolism of amino acids by bacteria (all bacteria naturally found in meat and do not represent a risk to health). Confinement odour could indicate a stage at which the environment for bacteria growth is becoming favourable for the production of volatiles with strong odours that are noticed by the consumer.

The dependence of quorum sensing in Serratia marcescens JG on the transcription of luxS gene

Bacteria communicate with one another using chemical signal molecules. This phenomenon termed quorum sensing enables the bacteria to monitor the environment for other bacteria and to alter behavior on a population-wide scale in response to cell density. Serratia marcescens JG, a quorum sensing bacterium, can secrete a furanosyl borate diester autoinducer (AI-2) in the exponential phase of growth. In this study, to further investigate the regulation of AI-2 production in S. marcescens JG, the pfs and luxS promoter fusions to an operon luxCDABE reporter were constructed in a low-copy-number vector pBR322K, which allows an examination of transcription of the genes in the pathway for signal synthesis. The results show that the luxS expression is constitutive, and the transcription of luxS is tightly correlated with AI-2 production in S. marcescens JG because the peaks of AI-2 production and transcriptional level of luxS appear at the same time point. The close relation of the profiles of luxS transcription and AI-2 production was also confirmed with real-time PCR technology. These results support the hypothesis that the quorum sensing in S. marcescens JG is luxS dependent.

Core principles of bacterial autoinducer systems

SUMMARY

Autoinduction (AI), the response to self-produced chemical signals, is widespread in the bacterial world. This process controls vastly different target functions, such as luminescence, nutrient acquisition, and biofilm formation, in different ways and integrates additional environmental and physiological cues. This diversity raises questions about unifying principles that underlie all AI systems. Here, we suggest that such core principles exist. We argue that the general purpose of AI systems is the homeostatic control of costly cooperative behaviors, including, but not limited to, secreted public goods. First, costly behaviors require preassessment of their efficiency by cheaper AI signals, which we encapsulate in a hybrid "push-pull" model. The "push" factors cell density, diffusion, and spatial clustering determine when a behavior becomes effective. The relative importance of each factor depends on each species' individual ecological context and life history. In turn, "pull" factors, often stress cues that reduce the activation threshold, determine the cellular demand for the target behavior. Second, control is homeostatic because AI systems, either themselves or through accessory mechanisms, not only initiate but also maintain the efficiency of target behaviors. Third, AI-controlled behaviors, even seemingly noncooperative ones, are generally cooperative in nature, when interpreted in the appropriate ecological context. The escape of individual cells from biofilms, for example, may be viewed as an altruistic behavior that increases the fitness of the resident population by reducing starvation stress. The framework proposed here helps appropriately categorize AI-controlled behaviors and allows for a deeper understanding of their ecological and evolutionary functions.

Formate hydrogen lyase mediates stationary-phase deacidification and increases survival during sugar fermentation in acetoin-producing enterobacteria

Two fermentation types exist in the Enterobacteriaceae family. Mixed-acid fermenters produce substantial amounts of lactate, formate, acetate, and succinate, resulting in lethal medium acidification. On the other hand, 2,3-butanediol fermenters switch to the production of the neutral compounds acetoin and 2,3-butanediol and even deacidify the environment after an initial acidification phase, thereby avoiding cell death. We equipped three mixed-acid fermenters (Salmonella Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis and Shigella flexneri) with the acetoin pathway from Serratia plymuthica to investigate the mechanisms of deacidification. Acetoin production caused attenuated acidification during exponential growth in all three bacteria, but stationary-phase deacidification was only observed in Escherichia coli and Salmonella, suggesting that it was not due to the consumption of protons accompanying acetoin production. To identify the mechanism, 34 transposon mutants of acetoin-producing E. coli that no longer deacidified the culture medium were isolated. The mutations mapped to 16 genes, all involved in formate metabolism. Formate is an end product of mixed-acid fermentation that can be converted to H₂ and CO₂ by the formate hydrogen lyase (FHL) complex, a reaction that consumes protons and thus can explain medium deacidification. When hycE, encoding the large subunit of hydrogenase 3 that is part of the FHL complex, was deleted in acetoin-producing E. coli, deacidification capacity was lost. Metabolite analysis in E. coli showed that introduction of the acetoin pathway reduced lactate and acetate production, but increased glucose consumption and formate and ethanol production. Analysis of a hycE mutant in S. plymuthica confirmed that medium deacidification in this organism is also mediated by FHL. These findings improve our understanding of the physiology and function of fermentation pathways in Enterobacteriaceae.

Acetoin synthesis acquisition favors Escherichia coli growth at low pH

Some members of the family Enterobacteriaceae ferment sugars via the mixed-acid fermentation pathway. This yields large amounts of acids, causing strong and sometimes even lethal acidification of the environment. Other family members employ the 2,3-butanediol fermentation pathway, which generates comparatively less acidic and more neutral end products, such as acetoin and 2,3-butanediol. In this work, we equipped Escherichia coli MG1655 with the budAB operon, encoding the acetoin pathway, from Serratia plymuthica RVH1 and investigated how this affected the ability of E. coli to cope with acid stress during growth. Acetoin fermentation prevented lethal medium acidification by E. coli in lysogeny broth (LB) supplemented with glucose. It also supported growth and higher stationary-phase cell densities in acidified LB broth with glucose (pH 4.10 to 4.50) and in tomato juice (pH 4.40 to 5.00) and reduced the minimal pH at which growth could be initiated. On the other hand, the acetoin-producing strain was outcompeted by the nonproducer in a mixed-culture experiment at low pH, suggesting a fitness cost associated with acetoin production. Finally, we showed that acetoin production profoundly changes the appearance of E. coli on several diagnostic culture media. Natural E. coli strains that have laterally acquired budAB genes may therefore have escaped detection thus far. This study demonstrates the potential importance of acetoin fermentation in the ecology of E. coli in the food chain and contributes to a better understanding of the microbiological stability and safety of acidic foods.

Characterization of acetoin production in a budC gene disrupted mutant of Serratia marcescens G12

The 2,3-butanediol (2,3-BD) dehydrogenase gene budC of Serratia marcescens G12 was disrupted to construct the acetoin (AC) producing strain G12M. In shake-flask cultures, AC production was enhanced by increased concentrations of glucose or sodium acetate in G12M. In fed-batch fermentation, G12M produced 47.5 g/L AC along with 9.8 g/L 2,3-BD. The expression of the key enzymes for AC synthesis was further investigated. Alpha-acetolactate synthase gene budB decreased its expression significantly in G12M compared with G12. This probably explained the moderate AC production in G12M cultures. Additionally, overexpression of budB gene and α-acetolactate decarboxylase gene budA was conducted in G12M and no significant increase of AC was observed. The results suggested that intracellular AC accumulation might inhibit the expression of budB and budA gene and induce budC gene expression in G12M. Our analyses offered the bases for further genetic manipulations in improving AC production in microbial fermentations.

Volatiles produced by soil-borne endophytic bacteria increase plant pathogen resistance and affect tritrophic interactions

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by soil microorganisms influence plant growth and pathogen resistance. Yet, very little is known about their influence on herbivores and higher trophic levels. We studied the origin and role of a major bacterial VOC, 2,3-butanediol (2,3-BD), on plant growth, pathogen and herbivore resistance, and the attraction of natural enemies in maize. One of the major contributors to 2,3-BD in the headspace of soil-grown maize seedlings was identified as Enterobacter aerogenes, an endophytic bacterium that colonizes the plants. The production of 2,3-BD by E. aerogenes rendered maize plants more resistant against the Northern corn leaf blight fungus Setosphaeria turcica. On the contrary, E. aerogenes-inoculated plants were less resistant against the caterpillar Spodoptera littoralis. The effect of 2,3-BD on the attraction of the parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris was more variable: 2,3-BD application to the headspace of the plants had no effect on the parasitoids, but application to the soil increased parasitoid attraction. Furthermore, inoculation of seeds with E. aerogenes decreased plant attractiveness, whereas inoculation of soil with a total extract of soil microbes increased parasitoid attraction, suggesting that the effect of 2,3-BD on the parasitoid is indirect and depends on the composition of the microbial community.

Genome Sequence of Serratia plymuthica RVH1, Isolated from a Raw Vegetable-Processing Line

We announce the genome sequence of Serratia plymuthica strain RVH1, a psychroloterant strain that was isolated from a raw vegetable-processing line and that regulates the production of primary metabolites (acetoin and butanediol), antibiotics, and extracellular enzymes through quorum sensing.

Modulation of Quorum Sensing in Acylhomoserine Lactone-Producing or -Degrading Tobacco Plants Leads to Alteration of Induced Systemic Resistance Elicited by the Rhizobacterium Serratia marcescens 90-166

Numerous root-associated bacteria (rhizobacteria) are known to elicit induced systemic resistance (ISR) in plants. Bacterial cell-density-dependent quorum sensing (QS) is thought to be important for ISR. Here, we investigated the role of QS in the ISR elicited by the rhizobacterium, Serratia marcescens strain 90-166, in tobacco. Since S. marcescens 90-166 produces at least three QS signals, QS-mediated ISR in strain 90-166 has been difficult to understand. Therefore, we investigated the ISR capacity of two transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants that contained either bacterial acylhomoserine lactone-producing (AHL) or -degrading (AiiA) genes in conjunction with S. marcescens 90-166 to induce resistance against bacterial and viral pathogens. Root application of S. marcescens 90-166 increased ISR to the bacterial pathogens, Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum and Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci, in AHL plants and decreased ISR in AiiA plants. In contrast, ISR to Cucumber mosaic virus was reduced in AHL plants treated with S. marcescens 90-166 but enhanced in AiiA plants. Taken together, these data indicate that QS-dependent ISR is elicited by S. marcescens 90-166 in a pathogen-dependent manner. This study provides insight into QS-dependent ISR in tobacco elicited by S. marcescens 90-166.

A PKS/NRPS/FAS hybrid gene cluster from Serratia plymuthica RVH1 encoding the biosynthesis of three broad spectrum, zeamine-related antibiotics

Serratia plymuthica strain RVH1, initially isolated from an industrial food processing environment, displays potent antimicrobial activity towards a broad spectrum of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. Isolation and subsequent structure determination of bioactive molecules led to the identification of two polyamino antibiotics with the same molecular structure as zeamine and zeamine II as well as a third, closely related analogue, designated zeamine I. The gene cluster encoding the biosynthesis of the zeamine antibiotics was cloned and sequenced and shown to encode FAS, PKS as well as NRPS related enzymes in addition to putative tailoring and export enzymes. Interestingly, several genes show strong homology to the pfa cluster of genes involved in the biosynthesis of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in marine bacteria. We postulate that a mixed FAS/PKS and a hybrid NRPS/PKS assembly line each synthesize parts of the backbone that are linked together post-assembly in the case of zeamine and zeamine I. This interaction reflects a unique interplay between secondary lipid and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Most likely, the zeamine antibiotics are produced as prodrugs that undergo activation in which a nonribosomal peptide sequence is cleaved off.

Assessment of anti-quorum sensing activity for some ornamental and medicinal plants native to egypt

This study investigated the effects of some plant extracts on the bacterial communication system, expressed as quorum sensing (QS) activity. Quorum sensing has a directly proportional effect on the amount of certain compounds, such as pigments, produced by the bacteria. Alcohol extracts of 23 ornamental and medicinal plants were tested for anti-QS activity by the Chromobacterium violaceum assay using the agar cup diffusion method. The screening revealed the anti-QS activity of six plants; namely the leaves of Adhatoda vasica Nees, Bauhinia purpurea L., Lantana camara L., Myoporum laetum G. Forst.; the fruits of Piper longum L.; and the aerial parts of Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.

Marine Microorganisms: perspectives for getting involved in cellulosic ethanol

The production of ethanol has been considered as an alternative to replace part of the petroleum derivate. Brazil and the US are the leading producers, but more environmentally friendly alternatives are needed. Lignocellulose has an enormous potential but technology has to be still improve in order to economically produce ethanol. The present paper reviews the potential and problems of this technology and proposes the study of a group of microorganisms with the largest genetic pool, marine microorganism.

Quorum sensing in the context of food microbiology

Food spoilage may be defined as a process that renders a product undesirable or unacceptable for consumption and is the outcome of the biochemical activity of a microbial community that eventually dominates according to the prevailing ecological determinants. Although limited information are reported, this activity has been attributed to quorum sensing (QS). Consequently, the potential role of cell-to-cell communication in food spoilage and food safety should be more extensively elucidated. Such information would be helpful in designing approaches for manipulating these communication systems, thereby reducing or preventing, for instance, spoilage reactions or even controlling the expression of virulence factors. Due to the many reports in the literature on the fundamental features of QS, e.g., chemistry and definitions of QS compounds, in this minireview, we only allude to the types and chemistry of QS signaling molecules per se and to the (bioassay-based) methods of their detection and quantification, avoiding extensive documentation. Conversely, we attempt to provide insights into (i) the role of QS in food spoilage, (ii) the factors that may quench the activity of QS in foods and review the potential QS inhibitors that might "mislead" the bacterial coordination of spoilage activities and thus may be used as biopreservatives, and (iii) the future experimental approaches that need to be undertaken in order to explore the "gray" or "black" areas of QS, increase our understanding of how QS affects microbial behavior in foods, and assist in finding answers as to how we can exploit QS for the benefit of food preservation and food safety.

Impacts of quorum sensing on microbial metabolism and human health

Bacteria were considered to be lonely 'mutes' for hundreds of years. However, recently it was found that bacteria usually coordinate their behaviors at the population level by producing (speaking), sensing (listening), and responding to small signal molecules. This so-called quorum sensing (QS) regulation enables bacteria to live in a 'society' with cell-cell communication and controls many important bacterial behaviors. In this chapter, QS systems and their signal molecules for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria are introduced. Most interestingly, QS regulates the important bacterial behaviors such as metabolism and pathogenesis. QS-regulated microbial metabolism includes antibiotic synthesis, pollutant biodegradation, and bioenergy production, which are very relevant to human health. QS is also well-known for its involvement in bacterial pathogenesis, such as iin nfections by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Novel disease diagnosis strategies and antimicrobial agents have also been developed based on QS regulation on bacterial infections. In addition, to meet the requirements for the detection/quantification of QS signaling molecules for research and application, different biosensors have been constructed, which will also be reviewed here. QS regulation is essential to bacterial survival and important to human health. A better understanding of QS could lead better control/manipulation of bacteria, thus making them more helpful to people.

Characterization and regulation of the 2,3-butanediol pathway in Serratia marcescens

Serratia marcescens has been proved to be a potential strain for industrial 2,3-butanediol production for its high yield, productivity, and other advantages. In this study, the genes slaA, slaB, slaC, and slaR were successfully cloned which were further confirmed to be encoding acetolactate decarboxylase, acetolactate synthase, 2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase, and a LysR-like regulator, respectively. Unlike in Klebsiella sp. or Klebsiella pneumonie and Vibrio sp. or Vibrio cholerae, the gene slaC is separated from other genes. Then it showed that two regulators, SwrR and SlaR, are in charge of this process by exerting effect on the transcription of genes slaA and slaB. By contrast, the expression of gene slaC is unaffected by the two regulators. It means that these two regulators affect the production of 2,3-butanediol by regulating the production of acetoin. Based on these findings, we successfully accelerated the 2,3-butanediol production by inactivation of gene swrR. The obtained results and further investigations should lead to a more suitable fermentation strategy and strain improvement which would be applicable to the industrial production of 2,3-butanediol.

A luxS-dependent transcript profile of cell-to-cell communication in Klebsiella pneumoniae

Bacterial cells communicate with one another using chemical signaling molecules. The phenomenon is termed quorum sensing. The quorum sensing bacterium Klebsiella pneumoniae secretes a non-homoserine lactone autoinducer in the exponential phase of growth as detected by a Vibrio harveyi reporter assay for autoinducer 2 (AI-2). To further investigate regulation of AI-2 production in K. pneumoniae, the pfs and luxS promoter fusions to an operon luxCDABE reporter were constructed in a low copy number vector, which is derived from pBR322 and pET28a((+)) and allows an examination of transcription of the genes in the pathway for signal synthesis. In this study, comparisons were performed on the cell densities of wild-type and recombinant K. pneumoniae, on the transcription activity of pfs and luxS promoters, and on the synthesis of AI-2 as a function of culture time. The results show that luxS expression is constitutive and the transcription of luxS is tightly correlated to AI-2 production in K. pneumoniae because the peaks of AI-2 production and transcriptional level of luxS appear at the same time point. The close relation of the profiles of luxS transcription and AI-2 production was also confirmed with quantitative reverse transcription-PCR technology. These facts support the idea that the quorum sensing in K. pneumoniae is luxS dependent.

The response of type 2 quorum sensing in Klebsiella pneumoniae to a fluctuating culture environment

Bacterial cells communicate with one another using chemical signaling molecules. This phenomenon is termed quorum sensing (QS). QS in Klebsiella pneumoniae is mediated by the synthesis of interspecies autoinducer 2 (AI-2), a furanosyl borate diester molecule. The response of Type 2 QS to environmental cues such as carbon sources, the initial pH of the medium, and boracic acid was investigated in the present study using a Vibrio harveyi BB170 reporter assay and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis. The results show that glucose can affect AI-2 synthesis to the greatest extent, and 3.0% glucose can stimulate K. pneumoniae to produce more AI-2, with a four times increase in activity compared with that of the control culture. According to our previous research, Type 2 QS in K. pneumoniae is luxS dependent. Therefore, the close relationship between glucose concentration and luxS transcription level was confirmed with qRT-PCR technology. The results show that the response of QS to a fluctuating glucose concentration was observed as a change in the amount of luxS RNA transcripts. A maximum of luxS transcription appeared during the exponential growth phase when the glucose concentration was 30.0 g/L. At the same time, AI-2 production was also slightly impacted by the low initial pH. It is noteworthy that the addition of boracic acid at microdosage (0.1 g/L) can also induce AI-2 synthesis. Presumably, in K. pneumoniae, the 4,5-dihydroxy-2,3-pentanedione cyclizes by the addition of borate and loss of water, is hydrated, and is converted to the final AI-2 signaling molecule.

Integrated regulation of acetoin fermentation by quorum sensing and pH in Serratia plymuthica RVH1

During fermentation of sugars, a number of bacterial species are able to switch from mixed acid production to acetoin and 2,3-butanediol production in order to avoid lethal acidification of their environment, although the regulation of this switch is only poorly understood. In this study, we report the identification of the budAB structural operon, involved in acetoin production in Serratia plymuthica RVH1, and its activation by a LysR-type regulator encoded by budR, immediately upstream of this operon. In addition, the regulation of budR transcription was elucidated and found to be subject to negative control by BudR itself and to positive control by external stimuli such as N-(3-oxohexanoyl)-L-homoserine lactone (OHHL) quorum sensing signaling molecules and acetate. Interestingly, however, we observed that induction of budR transcription by OHHL or acetate did not require BudR, indicating the involvement of additional regulatory factors in relaying these environmental signals to the budR promoter.

Biofilm formation and the food industry, a focus on the bacterial outer surface

The ability of many bacteria to adhere to surfaces and to form biofilms has major implications in a variety of industries including the food industry, where biofilms create a persistent source of contamination. The formation of a biofilm is determined not only by the nature of the attachment surface, but also by the characteristics of the bacterial cell and by environmental factors. This review focuses on the features of the bacterial cell surface such as flagella, surface appendages and polysaccharides that play a role in this process, in particular for bacteria linked to food-processing environments. In addition, some aspects of the attachment surface, biofilm control and eradication will be highlighted.

Microbial production of 2,3-butanediol by a mutagenized strain of Serratia marcescens H30

The production of 2,3-butanediol (2,3-BD) by Serratia marcescens H30 from sucrose was studied. Medium composition for 2,3-BD production by S. marcescens H30 was optimized in shake flask fermentations using Plackett-Burman design (PB) and response surface methodology (RSM). Results indicated that yeast extract and sodium acetate had significant effects on the 2,3-BD production. And their optimal concentrations were determined by RSM. The optimal medium was used to perform fermentation experiments by S. marcescens H30 in a 3.7l bioreactor. Several feeding strategies including interim feeding, exponential feeding and constant residual sucrose concentration feeding were compared for improving 2,3-BD production. Ultimately, a suitable control strategy which combined the respiratory quotient (RQ) control with the constant residual sucrose concentration fed-batch was developed. Using this strategy, the maximum 2,3-BD concentration of 139.92 g/l with the diol (AC+BD) productivity of 3.49 g/lh and the yield of 94.67% was obtained.

Influence of the Pseudomonas quinolone signal on denitrification in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Denitrification is a well-studied respiratory system that is also important in the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle. Environmental signals such as oxygen and N-oxides have been demonstrated to regulate denitrification, though how denitrification is regulated in a bacterial community remains obscure. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous bacterium that controls numerous genes through cell-to-cell signals. The bacterium possesses at least two N-acyl-L-homoserine lactone (AHL) signals. In our previous study, these quorum-sensing signals controlled denitrification in P. aeruginosa. In addition to the AHL signals, a third cell-to-cell communication signal, 2-heptyl-3-hydroxy-4-quinolone, referred to as the Pseudomonas quinolone signal (PQS), has been characterized. In this study, we examined the effect of PQS on denitrification to obtain more insight into the respiratory regulation in a bacterial community. Denitrification in P. aeruginosa was repressed by PQS, which was partially mediated by PqsR and PqsE. Measuring the denitrifying enzyme activities indicated that nitrite reductase activity was increased by PQS, whereas PQS inhibited nitric oxide reductase and the nitrate-respiratory chain activities. This is the first report to demonstrate that PQS influences enzyme activities, suggesting this effect is not specific to P. aeruginosa. Furthermore, when iron was supplied to the PQS-added medium, denitrifying activity was almost restored, indicating that the iron chelating property of PQS affected denitrification. Thus, our data indicate that PQS regulates denitrification primarily through iron chelation. The PQS effect on denitrification was relevant in a condition where oxygen was limited and denitrification was induced, suggesting its role in controlling denitrification where oxygen is present.

Insights into the role of quorum sensing in food spoilage

Food spoilage is a consequence of the degrading enzymatic activity of some food-associated bacteria. Several proteolytic, lipolytic, chitinolytic, and pectinolytic activities associated with the deterioration of goods are regulated by quorum sensing, suggesting a potential role of such cell-to-cell communication in food spoilage. Here we review quorum sensing signaling molecules and methods of their detection and quantification, and we provide insights into the role of quorum sensing in food spoilage and address potential quorum sensing inhibitors that might be used as biopreservatives.

Acetoin metabolism in bacteria

Acetoin is an important physiological metabolite excreted by many microorganisms. The excretion of acetoin, which can be diagnosed by the Voges Proskauer test and serves as a microbial classification marker, has its vital physiological meanings to these microbes mainly including avoiding acification, participating in the regulation of NAD/NADH ratio, and storaging carbon. The well-known anabolism of acetoin involves alpha-acetolactat synthase and alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase; yet its catabolism still contains some differing views, although much attention has been focused on it and great advances have been achieved. Current findings in catabolite control protein A (CcpA) mediated carbon catabolite repression may provide a fuller understanding of the control mechanism in bacteria. In this review, we first examine the acetoin synthesis pathways and its physiological meanings and relevancies; then we discuss the relationship between the two conflicting acetoin cleavage pathways, the enzymes of the acetoin dehydrogenase enzyme system, major genes involved in acetoin degradation, and the CcpA mediated acetoin catabolite repression pathway; in the end we discuss the genetic engineering progresses concerning applications. To date, this is the first integrated review on acetoin metabolism in bacteria, especially with regard to catabolic aspects. The apperception of the generation and dissimilation of acetoin in bacteria will help provide a better understanding of microbial strategies in the struggle for resources, which will consequently better serve the utilization of these microbes.

Quorum sensing in Serratia

Many bacteria use cell-cell communication to monitor their population density, synchronize their behaviour and socially interact. This communication results in a coordinated gene regulation and is generally called quorum sensing. In gram-negative bacteria, the most common quorum signal molecules are acylated homoserine lactones (AHLs), although other low-molecular-mass signalling molecules have been described such as Autoinducer-2 (AI-2). The phenotypes that are regulated in Serratia species by means of AHLs are remarkably diverse and of profound biological and ecological significance, and often interconnected with other global regulators. Furthermore, AHL- and AI-2-mediated systems (less profoundly studied) are continuously being discovered and explored in Serratia spp., many having interesting twists on the basic theme. Therefore, this review will highlight the current known quorum sensing systems in Serratia spp., including the important nosocomial pathogen Serratia marcescens.

Quorum sensing regulates denitrification in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1

Anaerobic growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 was affected by quorum sensing. Deletion of genes that produce N-acyl-l-homoserine lactone signals resulted in an increase in denitrification activity, which was repressed by exogenous signal molecules. The effect of the las quorum-sensing system was dependent on the rhl quorum-sensing system in regulating denitrification.

Quorum-sensing-dependent switch to butanediol fermentation prevents lethal medium acidification in Aeromonas hydrophila AH-1N

Aeromonas hydrophila AH-1N shows biphasic growth in glucose containing broth at 30 degrees C. The first phase is characterized by strong acidification, while the second phase is accompanied by an increase in medium pH. Disruption of AHL production by knockout of ahyI did not affect the first growth phase, but resulted in further acidification which completely blocked the second growth phase and even caused cell death. The block could be relieved by addition of 5 microM (or less) synthetic N-butanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (C4-HSL), the major AHL produced by A. hydrophila AH-1N. Further analysis revealed that, as shown previously for Serratia plymuthica, butanediol fermentation is regulated by AHL-mediated quorum sensing in A. hydrophila AH-1N. These results indicate that A. hydrophila switches to butanediol fermentation to reduce medium acidification under certain conditions and to allow further growth if nutrient resources are not yet exhausted.

Characterization of a luxI/luxR-type quorum sensing system and N-acyl-homoserine lactone-dependent regulation of exo-enzyme and antibacterial component production in Serratia plymuthica RVH1

Quorum sensing by means of N-acyl-l-homoserine lactones (AHLs) is widespread in Gram-negative bacteria, where diverse AHLs influence a wide variety of functions, even in a single genus such as Serratia. Here we report the identification and characterization of the quorum sensing system of Serratia plymuthica strain RVH1. This strain isolated from a raw vegetable processing line produces at least three AHLs which were identified as N-butanoyl- (C4-HSL), N-hexanoyl- (C6-HSL) and N-(3-oxo-hexanoyl)-homoserine lactone (3-oxo-C6-HSL). The identified LuxI homolog SplI synthesizes 3-oxo-C6-HSL, and influences the production of C4-HSL and C6-HSL, as splI gene inactivation resulted in loss of 3-oxo-C6-HSL production and smaller amounts of C4-HSL and C6-HSL produced. SplI-dependent quorum sensing controls 2,3-butanediol fermentation (previously reported) and the production of an extracellular chitinase, nuclease, protease and antibacterial compound. The identity of the latter is not yet elucidated, but appears to be different from the known antibacterial compounds produced by Serratia strains. SplR, the homolog of the LuxR regulator, appears to act as a repressor of synthesis of extracellular enzymes and antibacterial compound and to autorepress its own expression, probably by binding to a 21bp lux box sequence.

Isolation and functional analysis of luxS in Serratia plymuthica RVH1

Autoinducer-2 (AI-2) is a signalling molecule proposed to act as a 'universal' signal for interspecies communication, regulating niche-specific genes with diverse functions in various bacteria. We have previously reported the production of AI-2 in strains from different Serratia species and recently, the luxS gene of two Serratia strains was isolated and shown to affect distinct phenotypes. In the current work, we have identified the luxS gene of Serratia plymuthica RVH1, and studied its effect on the N-acyl-L-homoserine lactone-regulated 2,3-butanediol fermentation, production of extracellular protease, chitinase, nuclease and antibacterial compound, and on biofilm formation. None of these phenotypes was affected by luxS knockout. However, overexpression of the luxS gene in RVH1, which was accompanied by an increased production of AI-2, resulted in a slower growth. This growth retardation was also observed when RVH1 was grown in spent culture medium from the AI-2-overproducing strain, but not in spent culture medium from the luxS knockout strain. These results suggest that luxS primarily fulfils a metabolic role and may not regulate a coordinated behaviour controlled by cell-to-cell signalling in S. plymuthica RVH1.

Role of quorum sensing and antimicrobial component production by Serratia plymuthica in formation of biofilms, including mixed biofilms with Escherichia coli

We have previously characterized the N-acyl-l-homoserine lactone-based quorum-sensing system of the biofilm isolate Serratia plymuthica RVH1. Here we investigated the role of quorum sensing and of quorum-sensing-dependent production of an antimicrobial compound (AC) on biofilm formation by RVH1 and on the cocultivation of RVH1 and Escherichia coli in planktonic cultures or in biofilms. Biofilm formation of S. plymuthica was not affected by the knockout of splI or splR, the S. plymuthica homologs of the luxI or luxR quorum-sensing gene, respectively, or by the knockout of AC production. E. coli grew well in mixed broth culture with RVH1 until the latter reached 8.5 to 9.5 log CFU/ml, after which the E. coli colony counts steeply declined. In comparison, only a very small decline occurred in cocultures with the S. plymuthica AC-deficient and splI mutants. Complementation with exogenous N-hexanoyl-l-homoserine lactone rescued the wild-type phenotype of the splI mutant. The splR knockout mutant also induced a steep decline of E. coli, consistent with its proposed function as a repressor of quorum-sensing-regulated genes. The numbers of E. coli in 3-day-old mixed biofilms followed a similar pattern, being higher with S. plymuthica deficient in SplI or AC production than with wild-type S. plymuthica, the splR mutant, or the splI mutant in the presence of N-hexanoyl-l-homoserine lactone. Confocal laser scanning microscopic analysis of mixed biofilms established with strains producing different fluorescent proteins showed that E. coli microcolonies were less developed in the presence of RVH1 than in the presence of the AC-deficient mutant.