Effects of single-strand DNases ExoI, RecJ, ExoVII, and SbcCD on homologous recombination of recBCD+ strains of Escherichia coli and roles of SbcB15 and XonA2 ExoI mutant enzymes

The structure of the archaeal nuclease RecJ2 implicates its catalytic mechanism and inability to interact with GINS

Bacterial RecJ exhibits 5'→3' exonuclease activity that is specific to ssDNA; however, archaeal RecJs show 5' or 3' exonuclease activity. The hyperthermophilic archaea Methanocaldococcus jannaschii encodes the 5'-exonuclease MjRecJ1 and the 3'-exonuclease MjRecJ2. In addition to nuclease activity, archaeal RecJ interacts with GINS, a structural subcomplex of the replicative DNA helicase complex. However, MjRecJ1 and MjRecJ2 do not interact with MjGINS. Here, we report the structural basis for the inability of the MjRecJ2 homologous dimer to interact with MjGINS and its efficient 3' hydrolysis polarity for short dinucleotides. Based on the crystal structure of MjRecJ2, we propose that the interaction surface of the MjRecJ2 dimer overlaps the potential interaction surface for MjGINS and blocks the formation of the MjRecJ2-GINS complex. Exposing the interaction surface of the MjRecJ2 dimer restores its interaction with MjGINS. The cocrystal structures of MjRecJ2 with substrate dideoxynucleotides or product dCMP/CMP show that MjRecJ2 has a short substrate binding patch, which is perpendicular to the longer patch of bacterial RecJ. Our results provide new insights into the function and diversification of archaeal RecJ/Cdc45 proteins.

Differential impacts of DNA repair machinery on fluoroquinolone persisters with different chromosome abundances

DNA repair machinery has been found to be indispensable for fluoroquinolone (FQ) persistence of Escherichia coli. Previously, we found that cells harboring two copies of the chromosome (2Chr) in stationary-phase cultures were more likely to yield FQ persisters than those with one copy of the chromosome (1Chr). Furthermore, we found that RecA and RecB were required to observe that difference, and that loss of either more significantly impacted 2Chr persisters than 1Chr persisters. To better understand the survival mechanisms of persisters with different chromosome abundances, we examined their dependencies on different DNA repair proteins. Here, we show that lexA3 and ∆recN negatively impact the abundances of 2Chr persisters to FQs, without significant impacts on 1Chr persisters. In comparison, ∆xseA, ∆xseB, and ∆uvrD preferentially depress 1Chr persistence to levels that were near the limit of detection. Collectively, these data show that the DNA repair mechanisms used by persisters vary based on chromosome number, and suggest that efforts to eradicate FQ persisters will likely have to take heterogeneity in single-cell chromosome abundance into consideration.

IMPORTANCE

Persisters are rare phenotypic variants in isogenic populations that survive antibiotic treatments that kill the other cells present. Evidence has accumulated that supports a role for persisters in chronic and recurrent infections. Here, we explore how an under-appreciated phenotypic variable, chromosome copy number (#Chr), influences the DNA repair systems persisters use to survive fluoroquinolone treatments. We found that #Chr significantly biases the DNA repair systems used by persisters, which suggests that #Chr heterogeneity should be considered when devising strategies to eradicate these troublesome bacterial variants.

The Streptococcus agalactiae Exonuclease ExoVII Is Required for Resistance to Exogenous DNA-Damaging Agents

Streptococcus agalactiae is a human pathogen responsible for severe invasive infections in newborns. In this bacterium, XseB, a part of the ExoVII exonuclease, was shown to be specifically more abundant in the hypervirulent ST-17 strains. In Escherichia coli, ExoVII is associated either with mismatch repair or with recombinational DNA repair and is redundant with other exonucleases. In this study, the biological role of S. agalactiae ExoVII was examined. The ΔexoVII mutant strain was subjected to different DNA-damaging agents, as well as a large set of mutants impaired either in the mismatch repair pathway or in processes of recombinational DNA repair. Our results clarified the role of this protein in Gram-positive bacteria as we showed that ExoVII is not significantly involved in mismatch repair but is involved in bacterial recovery after exposure to exogenous DNA-damaging agents such as ciprofloxacin, UV irradiation, or hydrogen peroxide. We found that ExoVII is more particularly important for resistance to ciprofloxacin, likely as part of the RecF DNA repair pathway. Depending on the tested agent, ExoVII appeared to be fully redundant or nonredundant with another exonuclease, RecJ. The importance of each exonuclease, ExoVII or RecJ, in the process of DNA repair is thus dependent on the considered DNA lesion. IMPORTANCE This study examined the role of the ExoVII exonuclease of Streptococcus agalactiae within the different DNA repair processes. Our results concluded that ExoVII is involved in bacterial recovery after exposure to different exogenous DNA-damaging agents but not in the mismatch repair pathway. We found that ExoVII is particularly important for resistance to ciprofloxacin, likely as part of the RecF DNA repair pathway.

Role for DNA double strand end-resection activity of RecBCD in control of aberrant chromosomal replication initiation in Escherichia coli

Replication of the circular bacterial chromosome is initiated from a locus oriC with the aid of an essential protein DnaA. One approach to identify factors acting to prevent aberrant oriC-independent replication initiation in Escherichia coli has been that to obtain mutants which survive loss of DnaA. Here, we show that a ΔrecD mutation, associated with attenuation of RecBCD’s DNA double strand end-resection activity, provokes abnormal replication and rescues ΔdnaA lethality in two situations: (i) in absence of 5′-3′ single-strand DNA exonuclease RecJ, or (ii) when multiple two-ended DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) are generated either by I-SceI endonucleolytic cleavages or by radiomimetic agents phleomycin or bleomycin. One-ended DSBs in the ΔrecD mutant did not rescue ΔdnaA lethality. With two-ended DSBs in the ΔrecD strain, ΔdnaA viability was retained even after linearization of the chromosome. Data from genome-wide DNA copy number determinations in ΔdnaA-rescued cells lead us to propose a model that nuclease-mediated DNA resection activity of RecBCD is critical for prevention of a σ-mode of rolling-circle over-replication when convergent replication forks merge and fuse, as may be expected to occur during normal replication at the chromosomal terminus region or during repair of two-ended DSBs following ‘ends-in’ replication.

Development of CRISPR-Cas9 knock-in tools for free fatty acid production using the fast-growing cyanobacterial strain Synechococcus elongatus UTEX 2973

Synechococcus elongatus UTEX 2973 has one of the fastest measured doubling time of cyanobacteria making it an important candidate for metabolic engineering. Traditional genetic engineering methods, which rely on homologous recombination, however, are inefficient, labor-intensive, and time-consuming due to the oligoploidy or polyploidy nature of cyanobacteria and the reliance on unique antibiotic resistance markers. CRISPR-Cas9 has emerged as an effective and versatile editing platform in a wide variety of organisms, but its application for cyanobacterial engineering is limited by the inherent toxicity of Cas9 resulting in poor transformation efficiencies. Here, we demonstrated that a single-plasmid CRISPR-Cas9 system, pCRISPOmyces-2, can effectively knock-in a truncated thioesterase gene from Escherichia coli to generate free fatty acid (FFA) producing mutants of Syn2973. To do so, three parameters were evaluated on the effect of generating recipient colonies after conjugation with pCRISPOmyces-2-based plasmids: 1) a modified conjugation protocol termed streaked conjugation, 2) the deletion of the gene encoding RecJ exonuclease, and 3) single guide RNA (sgRNA) sequence. With the use of the streaked conjugation protocol and a ΔrecJ mutant strain of Syn2973, the conjugation efficiency for the pCRISPomyces-2 plasmid could be improved by 750-fold over the wildtype (WT) for a conjugation efficiency of 2.0 × 10^-6 transconjugants/recipient cell. While deletion of the RecJ exonuclease alone increased the conjugation efficiency by 150-fold over the WT, FFA generation was impaired in FFA-producing mutants with the ΔrecJ background, and the large number of poor FFA-producing isolates indicated the potential increase in spontaneous mutation rates. The sgRNA sequence was found to be critical in achieving the desired CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knock-in mutation as the sgRNA impacts conjugation efficiency, likelihood of homogenous recombinants, and free fatty acid production in engineered strains.

Two mechanisms of chromosome fragility at replication-termination sites in bacteria

Chromosomal fragile sites are implicated in promoting genome instability, which drives cancers and neurological diseases. Yet, the causes and mechanisms of chromosome fragility remain speculative. Here, we identify three spontaneous fragile sites in the Escherichia coli genome and define their DNA damage and repair intermediates at high resolution. We find that all three sites, all in the region of replication termination, display recurrent four-way DNA or Holliday junctions (HJs) and recurrent DNA breaks. Homology-directed double-strand break repair generates the recurrent HJs at all of these sites; however, distinct mechanisms of DNA breakage are implicated: replication fork collapse at natural replication barriers and, unexpectedly, frequent shearing of unsegregated sister chromosomes at cell division. We propose that mechanisms such as both of these may occur ubiquitously, including in humans, and may constitute some of the earliest events that underlie somatic cell mosaicism, cancers, and other diseases of genome instability.

The pathway of recombining short homologous ends in Escherichia coli revealed by the genetic study

The recombination of short homologous ends in Escherichia coli has been known for 30 years, and it is often used for both site-directed mutagenesis and in vivo cloning. For cloning, a plasmid and target DNA fragments were converted into linear DNA fragments with short homologous ends, which are joined via recombination inside E. coli after transformation. Here this mechanism of joining homologous ends in E. coli was determined by a linearized plasmid with short homologous ends. Two 3'-5' exonucleases ExoIII and ExoX with nonprocessive activity digested linear dsDNA to generate 5' single-strand overhangs, which annealed with each other. The polymerase activity of DNA polymerase I (Pol I) was exclusively employed to fill in the gaps. The strand displacement activity and the 5'-3' exonuclease activity of Pol I were also required, likely to generate 5' phosphate termini for subsequent ligation. Ligase A (LigA) joined the nicks to finish the process. The model involving 5' single-stranded overhangs is different from established recombination pathways that all generate 3' single-stranded overhangs. This recombination is likely common in bacteria since the involved enzymes are ubiquitous.

Induction of the SOS response of Escherichia coli in repair-defective strains by several genotoxic agents

DNA is exposed to the attack of several exogenous agents that modify its chemical structure, so cells must repair those changes in order to survive. Alkylating agents introduce methyl or ethyl groups in most of the cyclic or exocyclic nitrogen atoms of the ring and exocyclic oxygen available in DNA bases producing damage that can induce the SOS response in Escherichia coli and many other bacteria. Likewise, ultraviolet light produces mainly cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers that arrest the progression of the replication fork and triggers such response. The need of some enzymes (such as RecO, ExoI and RecJ) in processing injuries produced by gamma radiation prior the induction of the SOS response has been reported before. In the present work, several repair-defective strains of E. coli were treated with methyl methanesulfonate, ethyl methanesulfonate, mitomycin C or ultraviolet light. Both survival and SOS induction (by means of the Chromotest) were tested. Our results indicate that the participation of these genes depends on the type of injury caused by a genotoxin on DNA.

The Roles of Bacterial DNA Double-Strand Break Repair Proteins in Chromosomal DNA Replication

It is well established that DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair is required to underpin chromosomal DNA replication. Because DNA replication forks are prone to breakage, faithful DSB repair and correct replication fork restart are critically important. Cells, where the proteins required for DSB repair are absent or altered, display characteristic disturbances to genome replication. In this review, we analyze how bacterial DNA replication is perturbed in DSB repair mutant strains and explore the consequences of these perturbations for bacterial chromosome segregation and cell viability. Importantly, we look at how DNA replication and DSB repair processes are implicated in the striking recent observations of DNA amplification and DNA loss in the chromosome terminus of various mutant Escherichia coli strains. We also address the mutant conditions required for the remarkable ability to copy the entire E. coli genome, and to maintain cell viability, even in the absence of replication initiation from oriC, the unique origin of DNA replication in wild type cells. Furthermore, we discuss the models that have been proposed to explain these phenomena and assess how these models fit with the observed data, provide new insights and enhance our understanding of chromosomal replication and termination in bacteria.

RecBCD- RecFOR-independent pathway of homologous recombination in Escherichia coli

The RecA protein is a key bacterial recombination enzyme that catalyzes pairing and strand exchange between homologous DNA duplexes. In Escherichia coli, RecA protein assembly on DNA is mediated either by the RecBCD or RecFOR protein complexes. Correspondingly, two recombination pathways, RecBCD and RecF (or RecFOR), are distinguished in E. coli. Inactivation of both pathways in recB(CD) recF(OR) mutants results in severe recombination deficiency. Here we describe a novel, RecBCD- RecFOR-independent (RecBFI) recombination pathway that is active in ΔrecBCD sbcB15 sbcC(D) ΔrecF(OR) mutants of E. coli. In transductional crosses, these mutants show only four-fold decrease of recombination frequency relative to the wild-type strain. At the same time they recombine 40- to 90-fold better than their sbcB⁺ sbcC⁺ and ΔsbcB sbcC counterparts. The RecBFI pathway strongly depends on recA, recJ and recQ gene functions, and moderately depends on recG and lexA functions. Inactivation of dinI, helD, recX, recN, radA, ruvABC and uvrD genes has a slight effect on RecBFI recombination. After exposure to UV and gamma irradiation, the ΔrecBCD sbcB15 sbcC ΔrecF mutants show moderately increased DNA repair proficiency relative to their sbcB⁺ sbcC⁺ and ΔsbcB sbcC counterparts. However, introduction of recA730 allele (encoding RecA protein with enhanced DNA binding properties) completely restores repair proficiency to ΔrecBCD sbcB15 sbcC ΔrecF mutants, but not to their sbcB⁺ sbcC⁺ and ΔsbcB sbcC derivatives. Fluorescence microscopy with UV-irradiated recA-gfp fusion mutants suggests that the kinetics of RecA filament formation might be slowed down in the RecBFI pathway. Inactivation of 3'-5' exonucleases ExoVII, ExoIX and ExoX cannot activate the RecBFI pathway in ΔrecBCD ΔsbcB sbcC ΔrecF mutants. Taken together, our results show that the product of the sbcB15 allele is crucial for RecBFI pathway. Besides protecting 3' overhangs, SbcB15 protein might play an additional, more active role in formation of the RecA filament.

The trimeric Hef-associated nuclease HAN is a 3'→5' exonuclease and is probably involved in DNA repair

Nucleases play important roles in nucleic acid metabolism. Some archaea encode a conserved protein known as Hef-associated nuclease (HAN). In addition to its C-terminal DHH nuclease domain, HAN also has three N-terminal domains, including a DnaJ-Zinc-finger, ribosomal protein S1-like, and oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide-binding fold. To further understand HAN’s function, we biochemically characterized the enzymatic properties of HAN from Pyrococcus furiosus (PfuHAN), solved the crystal structure of its DHH nuclease domain, and examined its role in DNA repair. Our results show that PfuHAN is a Mn²⁺-dependent 3′-exonuclease specific to ssDNA and ssRNA with no activity on blunt and 3′-recessive double-stranded DNA. Domain truncation confirmed that the intrinsic nuclease activity is dependent on the C-terminal DHH nuclease domain. The crystal structure of the DHH nuclease domain adopts a trimeric topology, with each subunit adopting a classical DHH phosphoesterase fold. Yeast two hybrid assay confirmed that the DHH domain interacts with the IDR peptide of Hef nuclease. Knockout of the han gene or its C-terminal DHH nuclease domain in Haloferax volcanii resulted in increased sensitivity to the DNA damage reagent MMS. Our results imply that HAN nuclease might be involved in repairing stalled replication forks in archaea.

The crystal structure of Pyrococcus furiosus RecJ implicates it as an ancestor of eukaryotic Cdc45

RecJ nucleases specifically degrade single-stranded (ss) DNA in the 5′ to 3′ direction. Archaeal RecJ is different from bacterial RecJ in sequence, domain organization, and substrate specificity. The RecJ from archaea Pyrococcus furiosus (PfuRecJ) also hydrolyzes RNA strands in the 3′ to 5′ direction. Like eukaryotic Cdc45 protein, archaeal RecJ forms a complex with MCM helicase and GINS. Here, we report the crystal structures of PfuRecJ and the complex of PfuRecJ and two CMPs. PfuRecJ bind one or two divalent metal ions in its crystal structure. A channel consisting of several positively charged residues is identified in the complex structure, and might be responsible for binding substrate ssDNA and/or releasing single nucleotide products. The deletion of the complex interaction domain (CID) increases the values of k_cat/K_m of 5′ exonuclease activity on ssDNA and 3′ exonuclease activity on ssRNA by 5- and 4-fold, respectively, indicating that the CID functions as a regulator of enzymatic activity. The DHH domain of PfuRecJ interacts with the C-terminal beta-sheet domain of the GINS51 subunit in the tetrameric GINS complex. The relationship of archaeal and bacterial RecJs, as well as eukaryotic Cdc45, is discussed based on biochemical and structural results.

Two Archaeal RecJ Nucleases from Methanocaldococcus jannaschii Show Reverse Hydrolysis Polarity: Implication to Their Unique Function in Archaea

Bacterial nuclease RecJ, which exists in almost all bacterial species, specifically degrades single-stranded (ss) DNA in the 5′ to 3′ direction. Some archaeal phyla, except Crenarchaea, also encode RecJ homologs. Compared with bacterial RecJ, archaeal RecJ exhibits a largely different amino acid sequence and domain organization. Archaeal RecJs from Thermococcus kodakarensis and Pyrococcus furiosus show 5′→3′ exonuclease activity on ssDNA. Interestingly, more than one RecJ exists in some Euryarchaeota classes, such as Methanomicrobia, Methanococci, Methanomicrobia, Methanobacteria, and Archaeoglobi. Here we report the biochemical characterization of two RecJs from Methanocaldococcus jannaschii, the long RecJ1 (MJ0977) and short RecJ2 (MJ0831) to understand their enzymatic properties. RecJ1 is a 5′→3′ exonuclease with a preference to ssDNA; however, RecJ2 is a 3′→5′ exonuclease with a preference to ssRNA. The 5′ terminal phosphate promotes RecJ1 activity, but the 3′ terminal phosphate inhibits RecJ2 nuclease. Go-Ichi-Ni-San (GINS) complex does not interact with two RecJs and does not promote their nuclease activities. Finally, we discuss the diversity, function, and molecular evolution of RecJ in archaeal taxonomy. Our analyses provide insight into the function and evolution of conserved archaeal RecJ/eukaryotic Cdc45 protein.

RICE CRISPR: Rapidly increased cut ends by an exonuclease Cas9 fusion in zebrafish

Application of CRISPR-Cas9 technology in diverse organisms has resulted in an explosion of genome modification efforts. To expand the toolbox of applications, we have created an E. coli Exonuclease I (sbcB)-Cas9 fusion that has altered enzymatic activity in zebrafish embryos. This Cas9 variant has increased mutation efficiency and favors longer deletions relative to wild-type Cas9. We anticipate that this variant will allow for more efficient screening for F0 phenotypes and mutation of a larger spectrum of genomic targets including deletion of regulatory regions and creating loss of function mutations in transcription units with poor sequence conservation such as lncRNAs where larger deletions may be required for loss of function.

Nucleolytic degradation of 3'-ending overhangs is essential for DNA-end resection in RecA-loading deficient recB mutants of Escherichia coli

Degradation of a 5'-ending strand is the hallmark of the universal process of DNA double strand break (DSB) resection, which results in creation of the central recombination intermediate, a 3'-ending overhang. Here we show that in Escherichia coli recB1080/recB1067 mutants, which are devoid of RecBCD's nuclease and RecA loading activities, degradation of the unwound 3' tail is as essential as is degradation of its 5'-ending complement. Namely, a synergistic action of ExoI, ExoVII, SbcCD and ExoX single-strand specific exonucleases (ssExos) of 3'-5' polarity was essential for preserving cell viability, DNA repair and homologous recombination in the recB1080/recB1067 mutants, to the same extent as the redundant action of 5'-tail trimming ssExos RecJ and ExoVII. recB1080 derivatives lacking 3'-5' ssExos also showed a strong induction of the SOS response and greatly increased SOS-dependent mutagenesis. Furthermore, we show that ExoI and ExoVII ssExos act synergistically in suppressing illegitimate recombination in the recB1080 mutant but not in a wt strain, while working in concert with the RecQ helicase. Remarkably, 3'-5' ssExos show synergism with RecQ helicase in the recB1080 mutant in all the assays tested. The effect of inactivation of 3'-5' ssExos in the recB1080/recB1067 mutants was much stronger than in wt, recD, and recB strains. These results demonstrate that the presence of a long, reactive 3' overhang can be as toxic for a cell as its complete absence, i.e. it may prevent DSB repair. Our results indicate that coupling of helicase and RecA-loading activity during dsDNA-end resection is crucial in avoiding the deleterious effects of a long and stabile 3' tail in E. coli.

SSB recruitment of Exonuclease I aborts template-switching in Escherichia coli

Misalignment of a nascent strand and the use of an alternative template during DNA replication, a process termed "template-switching", can give rise to frequent mutations and genetic rearrangements. Mutational hotspots are frequently found associated with imperfect inverted repeats ("quasipalindromes" or "QPs") in many organisms, including bacteriophage, bacteria, yeast and mammals. Evidence suggests that QPs mutate by a replication template-switch whereby one copy of the inverted repeat templates synthesis of the other. To study quasipalindrome-associated mutagenesis ("QPM") more systematically, we have engineered mutational reporters in the lacZ gene of Escherichia coli, that revert to Lac⁺ specifically by QPM. We and others have shown that QPM is more efficient during replication of the leading strand than it is on the lagging strand. We have previously shown that QPM is elevated and that the leading-strand bias is lost in mutants lacking the major 3' ssDNA exonucleases, ExoI and ExoVII. This suggests that one or both of these exonucleases more efficiently abort template-switches on the lagging strand. Here, we show that ExoI is primarily responsible for this bias and that its ability to be recruited by single-strand DNA binding protein plays a critical role in QPM avoidance and strand bias. In addition to these stand-alone exonucleases, loss of the 3' proofreading exonuclease activity of the replicative DNA polymerase III also greatly elevates QPM. This may be because template-switching is initiated by base misincorporation, leading to polymerase dissociation and subsequent nascent strand misalignment; alternatively or additionally, the proofreading exonuclease may scavenge displaced 3' DNA that would otherwise be free to misalign.

Global analysis of double-strand break processing reveals in vivo properties of the helicase-nuclease complex AddAB

In bacteria, double-strand break (DSB) repair via homologous recombination is thought to be initiated through the bi-directional degradation and resection of DNA ends by a helicase-nuclease complex such as AddAB. The activity of AddAB has been well-studied in vitro, with translocation speeds between 400–2000 bp/s on linear DNA suggesting that a large section of DNA around a break site is processed for repair. However, the translocation rate and activity of AddAB in vivo is not known, and how AddAB is regulated to prevent excessive DNA degradation around a break site is unclear. To examine the functions and mechanistic regulation of AddAB inside bacterial cells, we developed a next-generation sequencing-based approach to assay DNA processing after a site-specific DSB was introduced on the chromosome of Caulobacter crescentus. Using this assay we determined the in vivo rates of DSB processing by AddAB and found that putative chi sites attenuate processing in a RecA-dependent manner. This RecA-mediated regulation of AddAB prevents the excessive loss of DNA around a break site, limiting the effects of DSB processing on transcription. In sum, our results, taken together with prior studies, support a mechanism for regulating AddAB that couples two key events of DSB repair–the attenuation of DNA-end processing and the initiation of homology search by RecA–thereby helping to ensure that genomic integrity is maintained during DSB repair.

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are a threat to genome integrity and are faithfully repaired via homologous recombination. The initial processing of DSB ends that prepares them for recombination has been well-studied in vitro, but is less well characterized in vivo. We describe a deep sequencing-based assay for assessing the early steps of DSB processing in bacterial cells by the helicase-nuclease complex AddAB. We find that a combination of chi site recognition and RecA loading is required to attenuate AddAB activity. In the absence of RecA, the chromosome is excessively degraded with a concomitant loss in transcription. Our results, along with prior studies, support a model for how chi recognition and RecA together regulate AddAB to maintain genome integrity and facilitate recombination.

λ Recombination and Recombineering

The bacteriophage λ Red homologous recombination system has been studied over the past 50 years as a model system to define the mechanistic details of how organisms exchange DNA segments that share extended regions of homology. The λ Red system proved useful as a system to study because recombinants could be easily generated by co-infection of genetically marked phages. What emerged from these studies was the recognition that replication of phage DNA was required for substantial Red-promoted recombination in vivo, and the critical role that double-stranded DNA ends play in allowing the Red proteins access to the phage DNA chromosomes. In the past 16 years, however, the λ Red recombination system has gained a new notoriety. When expressed independently of other λ functions, the Red system is able to promote recombination of linear DNA containing limited regions of homology (∼50 bp) with the Escherichia coli chromosome, a process known as recombineering. This review explains how the Red system works during a phage infection, and how it is utilized to make chromosomal modifications of E. coli with such efficiency that it changed the nature and number of genetic manipulations possible, leading to advances in bacterial genomics, metabolic engineering, and eukaryotic genetics.

The DNA Exonucleases of Escherichia coli

DNA exonucleases, enzymes that hydrolyze phosphodiester bonds in DNA from a free end, play important cellular roles in DNA repair, genetic recombination and mutation avoidance in all organisms. This article reviews the structure, biochemistry, and biological functions of the 17 exonucleases currently identified in the bacterium Escherichia coli. These include the exonucleases associated with DNA polymerases I (polA), II (polB), and III (dnaQ/mutD); Exonucleases I (xonA/sbcB), III (xthA), IV, VII (xseAB), IX (xni/xgdG), and X (exoX); the RecBCD, RecJ, and RecE exonucleases; SbcCD endo/exonucleases; the DNA exonuclease activities of RNase T (rnt) and Endonuclease IV (nfo); and TatD. These enzymes are diverse in terms of substrate specificity and biochemical properties and have specialized biological roles. Most of these enzymes fall into structural families with characteristic sequence motifs, and members of many of these families can be found in all domains of life.

Structure and function of TatD exonuclease in DNA repair

TatD is an evolutionarily conserved protein with thousands of homologues in all kingdoms of life. It has been suggested that TatD participates in DNA fragmentation during apoptosis in eukaryotic cells. However, the cellular functions and biochemical properties of TatD in bacterial and non-apoptotic eukaryotic cells remain elusive. Here we show that Escherichia coli TatD is a Mg(2+)-dependent 3'-5' exonuclease that prefers to digest single-stranded DNA and RNA. TatD-knockout cells are less resistant to the DNA damaging agent hydrogen peroxide, and TatD can remove damaged deaminated nucleotides from a DNA chain, suggesting that it may play a role in the H2O2-induced DNA repair. The crystal structure of the apo-form TatD and TatD bound to a single-stranded three-nucleotide DNA was determined by X-ray diffraction methods at a resolution of 2.0 and 2.9 Å, respectively. TatD has a TIM-barrel fold and the single-stranded DNA is bound at the loop region on the top of the barrel. Mutational studies further identify important conserved metal ion-binding and catalytic residues in the TatD active site for DNA hydrolysis. We thus conclude that TatD is a new class of TIM-barrel 3'-5' exonuclease that not only degrades chromosomal DNA during apoptosis but also processes single-stranded DNA during DNA repair.

Structural insights into DNA repair by RNase T--an exonuclease processing 3' end of structured DNA in repair pathways

DNA repair mechanisms are essential for preservation of genome integrity. However, it is not clear how DNA are selected and processed at broken ends by exonucleases during repair pathways. Here we show that the DnaQ-like exonuclease RNase T is critical for Escherichia coli resistance to various DNA-damaging agents and UV radiation. RNase T specifically trims the 3' end of structured DNA, including bulge, bubble, and Y-structured DNA, and it can work with Endonuclease V to restore the deaminated base in an inosine-containing heteroduplex DNA. Crystal structure analyses further reveal how RNase T recognizes the bulge DNA by inserting a phenylalanine into the bulge, and as a result the 3' end of blunt-end bulge DNA can be digested by RNase T. In contrast, the homodimeric RNase T interacts with the Y-structured DNA by a different binding mode via a single protomer so that the 3' overhang of the Y-structured DNA can be trimmed closely to the duplex region. Our data suggest that RNase T likely processes bulge and bubble DNA in the Endonuclease V-dependent DNA repair, whereas it processes Y-structured DNA in UV-induced and various other DNA repair pathways. This study thus provides mechanistic insights for RNase T and thousands of DnaQ-like exonucleases in DNA 3'-end processing.

RecJ-like protein from Pyrococcus furiosus has 3'-5' exonuclease activity on RNA: implications for proofreading of 3'-mismatched RNA primers in DNA replication

Replicative DNA polymerases require an RNA primer for leading and lagging strand DNA synthesis, and primase is responsible for the de novo synthesis of this RNA primer. However, the archaeal primase from Pyrococcus furiosus (Pfu) frequently incorporates mismatched nucleoside monophosphate, which stops RNA synthesis. Pfu DNA polymerase (PolB) cannot elongate the resulting 3'-mismatched RNA primer because it cannot remove the 3'-mismatched ribonucleotide. This study demonstrates the potential role of a RecJ-like protein from P. furiosus (PfRecJ) in proofreading 3'-mismatched ribonucleotides. PfRecJ hydrolyzes single-stranded RNA and the RNA strand of RNA/DNA hybrids in the 3'-5' direction, and the kinetic parameters (Km and Kcat) of PfRecJ during RNA strand digestion are consistent with a role in proofreading 3'-mismatched RNA primers. Replication protein A, the single-stranded DNA-binding protein, stimulates the removal of 3'-mismatched ribonucleotides of the RNA strand in RNA/DNA hybrids, and Pfu DNA polymerase can extend the 3'-mismatched RNA primer after the 3'-mismatched ribonucleotide is removed by PfRecJ. Finally, we reconstituted the primer-proofreading reaction of a 3'-mismatched ribonucleotide RNA/DNA hybrid using PfRecJ, replication protein A, Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and PolB. Given that PfRecJ is associated with the GINS complex, a central nexus in archaeal DNA replication fork, we speculate that PfRecJ proofreads the RNA primer in vivo.

Early steps of double-strand break repair in Bacillus subtilis

All organisms rely on integrated networks to repair DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in order to preserve the integrity of the genetic information, to re-establish replication, and to ensure proper chromosomal segregation. Genetic, cytological, biochemical and structural approaches have been used to analyze how Bacillus subtilis senses DNA damage and responds to DSBs. RecN, which is among the first responders to DNA DSBs, promotes the ordered recruitment of repair proteins to the site of a lesion. Cells have evolved different mechanisms for efficient end processing to create a 3'-tailed duplex DNA, the substrate for RecA binding, in the repair of one- and two-ended DSBs. Strand continuity is re-established via homologous recombination (HR), utilizing an intact homologous DNA molecule as a template. In the absence of transient diploidy or of HR, however, two-ended DSBs can be directly re-ligated via error-prone non-homologous end-joining. Here we review recent findings that shed light on the early stages of DSB repair in Firmicutes.

Exonuclease VII is involved in "reckless" DNA degradation in UV-irradiated Escherichia coli

The recA mutants of Escherichia coli exhibit an abnormal DNA degradation that starts at sites of double-strand DNA breaks (DSBs), and is mediated by RecBCD exonuclease (ExoV). This "reckless" DNA degradation occurs spontaneously in exponentially growing recA cells, and is stimulated by DNA-damaging agents. We have previously found that the xonA and sbcD mutations, which inactivate exonuclease I (ExoI) and SbcCD nuclease, respectively, markedly suppress "reckless" DNA degradation in UV-irradiated recA cells. In the present work, we show that inactivation of exonuclease VII (ExoVII) by an xseA mutation contributes to attenuation of DNA degradation in UV-irradiated recA mutants. The xseA mutation itself has only a weak effect, however, it acts synergistically with the xonA or sbcD mutations in suppressing "reckless" DNA degradation. The quadruple xseA xonA sbcD recA mutants show no sign of DNA degradation during post-irradiation incubation, suggesting that ExoVII, together with ExoI and SbcCD, plays a crucial role in regulating RecBCD-catalyzed chromosome degradation. We propose that these nucleases act on DSBs to create blunt DNA ends, the preferred substrates for the RecBCD enzyme. In addition, our results show that in UV-irradiated recF recA(+) cells, the xseA, xonA, and sbcD mutations do not affect RecBCD-mediated DNA repair, suggesting that ExoVII, ExoI and SbcCD nucleases are not essential for the initial targeting of RecBCD to DSBs. It is possible that the DNA-blunting activity provided by ExoVII, ExoI and SbcCD is required for an exchange of RecBCD molecules on dsDNA ends during ongoing "reckless" DNA degradation.

Homologous Recombination-Enzymes and Pathways

Homologous recombination is an ubiquitous process that shapes genomes and repairs DNA damage. The reaction is classically divided into three phases: presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic. In Escherichia coli, the presynaptic phase involves either RecBCD or RecFOR proteins, which act on DNA double-stranded ends and DNA single-stranded gaps, respectively; the central synaptic steps are catalyzed by the ubiquitous DNA-binding protein RecA; and the postsynaptic phase involves either RuvABC or RecG proteins, which catalyze branch-migration and, in the case of RuvABC, the cleavage of Holliday junctions. Here, we review the biochemical properties of these molecular machines and analyze how, in light of these properties, the phenotypes of null mutants allow us to define their biological function(s). The consequences of point mutations on the biochemical properties of recombination enzymes and on cell phenotypes help refine the molecular mechanisms of action and the biological roles of recombination proteins. Given the high level of conservation of key proteins like RecA and the conservation of the principles of action of all recombination proteins, the deep knowledge acquired during decades of studies of homologous recombination in bacteria is the foundation of our present understanding of the processes that govern genome stability and evolution in all living organisms.

DNA end resection controls the balance between homologous and illegitimate recombination in Escherichia coli

Even a partial loss of function of human RecQ helicase analogs causes adverse effects such as a cancer-prone Werner, Bloom or Rothmund-Thompson syndrome, whereas a complete RecQ deficiency in Escherichia coli is not deleterious for a cell. We show that this puzzling difference is due to different mechanisms of DNA double strand break (DSB) resection in E. coli and humans. Coupled helicase and RecA loading activities of RecBCD enzyme, which is found exclusively in bacteria, are shown to be responsible for channeling recombinogenic 3' ending tails toward productive, homologous and away from nonproductive, aberrant recombination events. On the other hand, in recB1080/recB1067 mutants, lacking RecBCD's RecA loading activity while preserving its helicase activity, DSB resection is mechanistically more alike that in eukaryotes (by its uncoupling from a recombinase polymerization step), and remarkably, the role of RecQ also becomes akin of its eukaryotic counterparts in a way of promoting homologous and suppressing illegitimate recombination. The sickly phenotype of recB1080 recQ mutant was further exacerbated by inactivation of an exonuclease I, which degrades the unwound 3' tail. The respective recB1080 recQ xonA mutant showed poor viability, DNA repair and homologous recombination deficiency, and very increased illegitimate recombination. These findings demonstrate that the metabolism of the 3' ending overhang is a decisive factor in tuning the balance of homologous and illegitimate recombination in E. coli, thus highlighting the importance of regulating DSB resection for preserving genome integrity. recB mutants used in this study, showing pronounced RecQ helicase and exonuclease I dependence, make up a suitable model system for studying mechanisms of DSB resection in bacteria. Also, these mutants might be useful for investigating functions of the conserved RecQ helicase family members, and congruently serve as a simpler, more defined model system for human oncogenesis.

RecF recombination pathway in Escherichia coli cells lacking RecQ, UvrD and HelD helicases

In recBCD sbcB sbcC(D) mutants of Escherichia coli homologous recombination proceeds via RecF pathway, which is thought to require RecQ, UvrD and HelD helicases at its initial stage. It was previously suggested that depletion of all three helicases totally abolishes the RecF pathway. The present study (re)examines the roles of these helicases in transductional recombination, and in recombinational repair of UV-induced DNA damage in the RecF pathway. The study has employed the ΔrecBCD ΔsbcB sbcC201 and ΔrecBCD sbcB15 sbcC201 strains, carrying combinations of mutations in recQ, uvrD, and helD genes. We show that in ΔrecBCD ΔsbcB sbcC201 strains, recombination requires exclusively the RecQ helicase. In ΔrecBCD sbcB15 sbcC201 strains, RecQ may be partially substituted by UvrD helicase. The HelD helicase is dispensable for recombination in both backgrounds. Our results also suggest that significant portion of recombination events in the RecF pathway is independent of RecQ, UvrD and HelD. These events are initiated either by RecJ nuclease alone or by RecJ nuclease associated with an unknown helicase. Inactivation of exonuclease VII by a xseA mutation further decreases the requirement for helicase activity in the RecF pathway. We suggest that elimination of nucleases acting on 3' single-strand DNA ends reduces the necessity for helicases in initiation of recombination.

Homologous Recombination-Experimental Systems, Analysis, and Significance

Homologous recombination is the most complex of all recombination events that shape genomes and produce material for evolution. Homologous recombination events are exchanges between DNA molecules in the lengthy regions of shared identity, catalyzed by a group of dedicated enzymes. There is a variety of experimental systems in Escherichia coli and Salmonella to detect homologous recombination events of several different kinds. Genetic analysis of homologous recombination reveals three separate phases of this process: pre-synapsis (the early phase), synapsis (homologous strand exchange), and post-synapsis (the late phase). In E. coli, there are at least two independent pathway of the early phase and at least two independent pathways of the late phase. All this complexity is incongruent with the originally ascribed role of homologous recombination as accelerator of genome evolution: there is simply not enough duplication and repetition in enterobacterial genomes for homologous recombination to have a detectable evolutionary role and therefore not enough selection to maintain such a complexity. At the same time, the mechanisms of homologous recombination are uniquely suited for repair of complex DNA lesions called chromosomal lesions. In fact, the two major classes of chromosomal lesions are recognized and processed by the two individual pathways at the early phase of homologous recombination. It follows, therefore, that homologous recombination events are occasional reflections of the continual recombinational repair, made possible in cases of natural or artificial genome redundancy.

Double-strand break repair in bacteria: a view from Bacillus subtilis

In all living organisms, the response to double-strand breaks (DSBs) is critical for the maintenance of chromosome integrity. Homologous recombination (HR), which utilizes a homologous template to prime DNA synthesis and to restore genetic information lost at the DNA break site, is a complex multistep response. In Bacillus subtilis, this response can be subdivided into five general acts: (1) recognition of the break site(s) and formation of a repair center (RC), which enables cells to commit to HR; (2) end-processing of the broken end(s) by different avenues to generate a 3'-tailed duplex and RecN-mediated DSB 'coordination'; (3) loading of RecA onto single-strand DNA at the RecN-induced RC and concomitant DNA strand exchange; (4) branch migration and resolution, or dissolution, of the recombination intermediates, and replication restart, followed by (5) disassembly of the recombination apparatus formed at the dynamic RC and segregation of sister chromosomes. When HR is impaired or an intact homologous template is not available, error-prone nonhomologous end-joining directly rejoins the two broken ends by ligation. In this review, we examine the functions that are known to contribute to DNA DSB repair in B. subtilis, and compare their properties with those of other bacterial phyla.

Reconstitution of initial steps of dsDNA break repair by the RecF pathway of E. coli

The RecF pathway of Escherichia coli is important for recombinational repair of DNA breaks and gaps. Here ;we reconstitute in vitro a seven-protein reaction that recapitulates early steps of dsDNA break repair using purified RecA, RecF, RecO, RecR, RecQ, RecJ, and SSB proteins, components of the RecF system. Their combined action results in processing of linear dsDNA and its homologous pairing with supercoiled DNA. RecA, RecO, RecR, and RecJ are essential for joint molecule formation, whereas SSB and RecF are stimulatory. This reconstituted system reveals an unexpected essential function for RecJ exonuclease: the capability to resect duplex DNA. RecQ helicase stimulates this processing, but also disrupts joint molecules. RecO and RecR have two indispensable functions: They mediate exchange of RecA for SSB to form the RecA nucleoprotein filament, and act with RecF to load RecA onto the SSB-ssDNA complex at processed ssDNA-dsDNA junctions. The RecF pathway has many parallels with recombinational repair in eukaryotes.

Contribution of RecFOR machinery of homologous recombination to cell survival after loss of a restriction-modification gene complex

Loss of a type II restriction-modification (RM) gene complex, such as EcoRI, from a bacterial cell leads to death of its descendent cells through attack by residual restriction enzymes on undermethylated target sites of newly synthesized chromosomes. Through such post-segregational host killing, these gene complexes impose their maintenance on their host cells. This finding led to the rediscovery of type II RM systems as selfish mobile elements. The host prokaryote cells were found to cope with such attacks through a variety of means. The RecBCD pathway of homologous recombination in Escherichia coli repairs the lethal lesions on the chromosome, whilst it destroys restricted non-self DNA. recBCD homologues, however, appear very limited in distribution among bacterial genomes, whereas homologues of the RecFOR proteins, responsible for another pathway, are widespread in eubacteria, just like the RM systems. In the present work, therefore, we examined the possible contribution of the RecFOR pathway to cell survival after loss of an RM gene complex. A recF mutation reduced survival in an otherwise rec-positive background and, more severely, in a recBC sbcBC background. We also found that its effect is prominent in the presence of specific non-null mutant forms of the RecBCD enzyme: the resistance to killing seen with recC1002, recC1004, recC2145 and recB2154 is severely reduced to the level of a null recBC allele when combined with a recF, recO or recR mutant allele. Such resistance was also dependent on RecJ and RecQ functions. UV resistance of these non-null recBCD mutants is also reduced by recF, recJ or recQ mutation. These results demonstrate that the RecFOR pathway of recombination can contribute greatly to resistance to RM-mediated host killing, depending on the genetic background.

RecBCD enzyme and the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks

The RecBCD enzyme of Escherichia coli is a helicase-nuclease that initiates the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks by homologous recombination. It also degrades linear double-stranded DNA, protecting the bacteria from phages and extraneous chromosomal DNA. The RecBCD enzyme is, however, regulated by a cis-acting DNA sequence known as Chi (crossover hotspot instigator) that activates its recombination-promoting functions. Interaction with Chi causes an attenuation of the RecBCD enzyme's vigorous nuclease activity, switches the polarity of the attenuated nuclease activity to the 5' strand, changes the operation of its motor subunits, and instructs the enzyme to begin loading the RecA protein onto the resultant Chi-containing single-stranded DNA. This enzyme is a prototypical example of a molecular machine: the protein architecture incorporates several autonomous functional domains that interact with each other to produce a complex, sequence-regulated, DNA-processing machine. In this review, we discuss the biochemical mechanism of the RecBCD enzyme with particular emphasis on new developments relating to the enzyme's structure and DNA translocation mechanism.

Roles of ExoI and SbcCD nucleases in "reckless" DNA degradation in recA mutants of Escherichia coli

Exponentially growing recA mutant cells of Escherichia coli display pronounced DNA degradation that starts at the sites of DNA damage and depends on RecBCD nuclease (ExoV) activity. As a consequence of this "reckless" DNA degradation, populations of recA mutants contain a large proportion of anucleate cells. We have found that both DNA degradation and anucleate-cell production are efficiently suppressed by mutations in the xonA (sbcB) and sbcD genes. The suppressive effects of these mutations were observed in normally grown, as well as in UV-irradiated, recA cells. The products of the xonA and sbcD genes are known to code for the ExoI and SbcCD nucleases, respectively. Since both xonA and sbcD mutations are required for strong suppression of DNA degradation while individual mutations have only a weak suppressive effect, we infer that ExoI and SbcCD play partially redundant roles in regulating DNA degradation in recA cells. We suggest that their roles might be in processing (blunting) DNA ends, thereby producing suitable substrates for RecBCD binding.

The RecBCD and SbcCD DNases suppress homology-facilitated illegitimate recombination during natural transformation of Acinetobacter baylyi

During natural transformation of Acinetobacter baylyi, the genomic integration of foreign (non-homologous) DNA is possible when the DNA contains a single segment homologous to the recipient genome (anchor) through homologous recombination in the anchor facilitating illegitimate recombination in the neighbouring foreign DNA (homology-facilitated illegitimate recombination; HFIR). DNA integration by HFIR occurs about 10 000 times less frequently than fully homologous recombination, but at least 100 000-fold more frequently than integration in the absence of any homology. We investigated the influence of the RecBCD enzyme (DNase/helicase) and SbcCD DNase (DNA-structure-specific single-strand endonuclease and exonuclease) on HFIR. In a recBCD null mutant the acquisition of foreign DNA was elevated 11-fold relative to wild-type cells by a 6.9-fold increased HFIR frequency and by the integration of longer stretches of foreign DNA in each event. In an sbcCD null mutant, the foreign DNA acquisition was 4.5-fold higher than in the wild-type, while homologous transformation with large DNA molecules was unaffected and increased 3.2-fold with small DNA fragments. The sbcCD mutation partially suppressed the high UV sensitivity and low viability of the recBCD mutant and also decreased its foreign DNA acquisition by HFIR to the lower level of the sbcCD mutant. We propose that suppression of HFIR results from the elimination of double-stranded intermediates of the HFIR process during transformation by RecBCD, and by SbcCD interfering with branched molecules. Our results provide evidence that the homologous recombination enzymes RecBCD and SbcCD control the level of foreign DNA acquisition by HFIR.