Nucleic acid homologies among oxidase-negative Moraxella species

Genome diversity of domesticated Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 19606T strains

Acinetobacter baumannii has emerged as an important opportunistic pathogen worldwide, being responsible for large outbreaks for nosocomial infections, primarily in intensive care units. A. baumannii ATCC 19606^T is the species type strain, and a reference organism in many laboratories due to its low virulence, amenability to genetic manipulation and extensive antibiotic susceptibility. We wondered if frequent propagation of A. baumannii ATCC 19606^T in different laboratories may have driven micro- and macro-evolutionary events that could determine inter-laboratory differences of genome-based data. By combining Illumina MiSeq, MinION and Sanger technologies, we generated a high-quality whole-genome sequence of A. baumannii ATCC 19606^T, then performed a comparative genome analysis between A. baumannii ATCC 19606^T strains from several research laboratories and a reference collection. Differences between publicly available ATCC 19606^T genome sequences were observed, including SNPs, macro- and micro-deletions, and the uneven presence of a 52 kb prophage belonging to genus Vieuvirus. Two plasmids, pMAC and p1ATCC19606, were invariably detected in all tested strains. The presence of a putative replicase, a replication origin containing four 22-mer direct repeats, and a toxin-antitoxin system implicated in plasmid stability were predicted by in silico analysis of p1ATCC19606, and experimentally confirmed. This work refines the sequence, structure and functional annotation of the A. baumannii ATCC 19606^T genome, and highlights some remarkable differences between domesticated strains, likely resulting from genetic drift.

Accurate identification of clinically important Acinetobacter spp.: an update

Acinetobacter species have emerged as one of the most clinically important pathogens. The phenotypic techniques which are currently available are insufficient in accurately identifying and differentiating the closely related and clinically important Acinetobacter species. Here, we discuss the advantages and limitations of the conventional phenotypic methods, automated identification systems, molecular methods and MALDI-TOF in the precise identification and differentiation of Acinetobacter species. More specifically, several species of this genus are increasingly reported to be of high clinical importance. Molecular characterization such as of bla_OXA-51-like PCR together with rpoB sequencing has high discriminatory power over the conventional methods for Acinetobacter species identification, especially within the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus–Acinetobacter baumannii complex.

Acinetobacter species are considered to be one of the most important pathogens and associated with increased mortality. The species within the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus–Acinetobacter baumannii complex have emerged as high priority pathogens, especially in intensive care units, thereby posing a challenge to infection management practices. However, identification of Acinetobacter to the species level is difficult. Clear differentiation among various Acinetobacter species with available standard biochemical methods and automated systems is challenging. Although various molecular methods are available, they are not regularly used in diagnostic laboratories. The advantages and disadvantages of different methods useful in the accurate identification of Acinetobacter species are discussed in this review.

Highlights on molecular identification of closely related species

The term "complex" emerged in the literature at the beginning of the genomic era associated to taxonomy and grouping organisms that belong to different species but exhibited similar patterns according to their morphological, physiological and/or other phenotypic features. DNA-DNA hybridization values ~70% and high identity on 16S rRNA gene sequences were recommended for species delineation. Electrophoretic methods showed in some cases to be useful for species identification and population structure but the reproducibility was questionable. Later, the implementation of polyphasic approaches involving phenotypic and molecular methods brought new insights into the analysis of population structure and phylogeny of several "species complexes", allowing the identification of new closely related species. Likewise, the introduction of multilocus sequence typing and sequencing analysis of several genes offered an evolutionary perspective to the term "species complex". Several centres worldwide have recently released increasing genetic information on distinct microbial species. A brief review will be presented to highlight the definition of "species complex" for selected microorganisms, mainly the prokaryotic Acinetobacter calcoaceticus -Acinetobacter baumannii, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Burkholderia cepacia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Nocardia asteroides complexes, and the eukaryotic Aspergillus fumigatus, Leishmania donovani and Saccharomyces sensu stricto complexes. The members of these complexes may show distinct epidemiology, pathogenicity and susceptibility, turning critical their correct identification. Dynamics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes can be very distinct and the term "species complex" should be carefully extended.

Antibacterial susceptibility patterns and cross-resistance of acinetobacter, isolated from hospitalized patients, southern iran

BACKGROUND

Acinetobacter is a multi-drug resistant and nosocomial pathogen. The aim of this study was to determine antibacterial susceptibility patterns and cross-resistance of Acinetobacter species.

METHODS

This study was conducted in Nemazee Hospital, Shiraz, Iran from October 2007 to September 2008. Species identification was carried out by API E20. Minimum inhibitory concentration and cross-resistance of the isolated strains to 12 antibiotics were determined by E-test method.

RESULTS

Eighty eight isolates of Acinetobacter were collected from patients' samples. Acinetobacter baumannii was isolated most frequently (79; 89.8%). Colistin, imipenem and meropenem were found to be the three most effective antibiotics with 97.7%, 77.3% and 72.7% activity against the isolates, respectively. Multi-drug resistance was revealed among 2 to 11 antibiotics and high cross-resistance was also noticed.

CONCLUSION

To alleviate the situation, strict control measures and appropriate effective antibiotic therapy should be adopted to reduce hospital costs and related mortality.

Host-specific bacterial lineages in the taxon 2 and 3 complex of Pasteurellaceae

The aim of the investigation was to determine the genetic relationship of a phenotypically diverse strain collection of epidemiologically unrelated strains from the taxon 2 and 3 complex of Bisgaard isolated from different hosts. A total of 325 isolates belonging to the taxon 2 and 3 complex of Bisgaard was characterized phenotypically in 82 characters. The genetic relationship among a subset of 60 isolates was investigated by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). The isolates were selected aiming at including the broadest diversity with regards to phenotype and host spectrum. The results suggested a statistically clear association between AFLP clusters and the host species families Columbidae (pigeon, dove), Anatidae (duck, goose) and Psittacidae (parrot, parakeet, budgerigar), respectively. This association was further supported by results from previous whole cell protein profiling and DNA:DNA hybridization studies. In conclusion, it appears that distinct genetic lineages within the taxon 2 and 3 complex of Bisgaard have evolved specificity for host bird species of different families. The observed host specificity of taxon 2 and 3 organisms may be used in future diagnostics and studies elucidating aspects of pathogenicity and epidemiology associated with the different lineages and their respective hosts.

Artificial neural network identification of heterotrophic marine bacteria based on their fatty-acid composition

The traditional approach to biochemical identification of marine fresh isolates requires considerably long culture preparation times and large quantities of expensive materials and reagents, and the results are not reliable. On the other hand, taxonomy tests based on DNA composition, although sensitive and reliable, require long execution time and high costs. A method is presented for the classification of fatty-acid profiles, extracted from marine bacteria strains, at genus level based on supervised artificial neural networks. The proposed method allows the correct identification of all patterns belonging to the test set. Moreover, a quantitative measure of the importance of each fatty acid for bacterial classification is also achieved. This measure allows the determination of a cluster of fatty acids to be controlled with greater care. The results show that the proposed method is reproducible and rapid, so that it can be routinely used in the marine microbiology laboratory to identify fresh isolates.

Acinetobacter species identification by using tRNA spacer fingerprinting

Identification of Acinetobacter spp. to the DNA group level by phenotypic techniques is problematic, and there is a need for an alternative identification method for routine use. The present study validated the suitability of a rapid identification technique based on tRNA spacer (tDNA) fingerprinting in comparison with that of a commercially available assay involving carbon source utilization tests (Biolog MicroStation System) for identifying the 21 DNA-DNA hybridization groups belonging to the genus. For this purpose, 128 strains identified previously by DNA-DNA hybridization were analyzed by both techniques. tDNA fingerprinting was highly reproducible and classified all strains into 17 groups. Six DNA groups belonging to the A. calcoaceticus-A. baumannii complex were grouped into two distinct clusters, indicating the high degree of genetic similarity within this complex. Strains of the more recently described DNA groups BJ13 to BJ16 were ambiguously grouped and displayed three pattern types. The software used with the commercial carbon source utilization method grouped the 128 strains into 12 clusters, explaining the less discriminatory power of this system. We conclude that tDNA fingerprinting offers a quick and reliable method for the routine differentiation of most Acinetobacter spp. at the subgenus level.

Acinetobacter in Denmark: I. Taxonomy, antibiotic susceptibility, and pathogenicity of 112 clinical strains

One hundred and twelve clinical strains of Acinetobacter were collected during a 7-month period in 1990-1991 from Danish clinical microbiology departments. According to the old notation, 37 strains were biovar anitratus and 75 b.lwoffii. Using the newest terminology, 35 strains were unambiguously identified as the species A. haemolyticus, A. johnsonii, A. radioresistens, and as the unnamed phenons 6, 10, and 14, by a numerical approach using a simplified phenotypical identification scheme. Most of the remaining strains were identified to the genotypically heterogeneous A. calcoaceticus-A. baumannii complex and the A. lwoffii phenotype. Sixteen strains (14%) were left unidentified. Eight A. lwoffii strains were glucose-oxidizing and were thus classified as b. anitratus using the old terminology. The strains were tested for susceptibility to ampicillin, piperacillin, ticarcillin, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, imipenem, gentamicin, tetracycline, sulphonamide, and nalidixic acid. All strains were susceptible to imipenem. The susceptibility to the remaining beta-lactams was variable, the A. lwoffii isolates being the most and the A. calcoaceticus-A. baumannii complex strains the least susceptible. All non-A. calcoaceticus-A. baumannii complex strains were susceptible to all other antibiotics tested, except for one A. lwoffii strain that was sulphonamide resistant. Twenty-two percent of the strains in the A. calcoaceticus-A. baumannii complex showed reduced susceptibility or resistance to gentamicin, but only sporadic resistance to sulphonamides, tetracyclines, and nalidixic acid. Eight infections were recorded: three cases of septicaemia, three cases of peritonitis related to continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis, and two cases of recurrent urinary tract infection. No epidemics were detected.

Numerical classification and identification of Acinetobacter genomic species

A total of 211 Acinetobacter strains (representing all currently recognized genomic species) were tested for 329 biochemical characters. Overall similarities of all strains were determined for 145 characters by numerical taxonomic techniques, the UPGMA algorithm and the S(SM)) and the S(J) coefficients as measures of similarity. Seven clusters (two or more strains) and three unclustered strains were recovered at a similarity level of 80.0% (S(SM). At this level a complete correspondence between phenotypic cluster and genomic species was found only for genomic species 12 (Ac. radioresistens). At higher similarity levels (84.0% to 84.6% (S(SM)), however, several subclusters were found, each representing a single genomic species. An exception were the strains belonging to the genetically closely related species of the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-baumannii complex. These were recovered scattered in several subclusters. The degree of genomic relatedness between some DNA groups correlated with phenotypic similarities, especially for DNA group 8 (Ac. Iwoffii) and 15 of Tjernberg and Ursing, and for DNA group 4 (Ac. haemolyticus) and 6. For the majority of genomic species, two identification matrices were constructed consisting of 22 and 10 diagnostic characters, respectively. The correct identification rates for the matrices were 98.0% (22 tests) and 90.8% (10 tests) taking a Willcox probability > 0.9. For unambiguous identification of some genomic species, however, additional methods (preferably DNA-DNA hybridization or ribotyping) should be used.

The identification and classification ofAcinetobacter strains exhibiting variations in phosphate accumulation by SDS-PAGE and numerical analysis

The limitation of phosphate concentrations in effluents is of international concern because of the risk of eutrophication.Acinetobacter spp. have often been isolated from activated sludge plants exhibiting enhanced phosphate removal. The ability to remove phosphate from mixed liquor byAcinetobacter isolates and reference strains was, therefore, determined. The ability to remove phosphate was found to vary among theAcinetobacter strains. The taxonomic relationships among these various strains were elucidated by SDS-PAGE and numerical analysis, and the correlation between their taxonomy and phosphate uptake ability was determined. The ability to remove large amounts of phosphate was found to be strain specific rather than species specific. The classification ofA. haemolyticus andA. baumannii as separate species is questioned.

Reliability of phenotypic tests for identification of Acinetobacter species

A numerical approach was used for identification of 198 Acinetobacter strains assigned to DNA groups according to the classification of Tjernberg and Ursing (I. Tjernberg and J. Ursing, APMIS 97:595-605, 1989). The matrix used was constructed from data published by Bouvet and Grimont (P.J.M. Bouvet and P.A.D. Grimont, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 36:228-240, 1986) and Bouvet and Jeanjean (P.J.M. Bouvet and S. Jeanjean, Res. Microbiol. 140:291-299, 1989). The tests chosen were those of the simplified identification scheme for Acinetobacter species devised by Bouvet and Grimont (P.J.M. Bouvet and P.A.D. Grimont, Ann. Inst. Pasteur/Microbiol. 138:569-578, 1987), namely, growth at 37, 41, and 44 degrees C, oxidation of glucose, gelatin hydrolysis, and assimilation of 14 carbon sources. Of the strains tested, 181 represented 12 DNA groups in the matrix; at a probability level of greater than or equal to 0.95, 78% of them were correctly identified, 2.2% were misidentified, and 19.8% were not identified. Seventeen strains represented two DNA groups not included in the matrix; nine of them were incorrectly assigned to a DNA group by these phenotypic tests. Because of problems of separating strains belonging to DNA groups 1, 2, 3, and 13 by using the phenotypic tests proposed by Bouvet and Grimont (Ann. Inst. Pasteur/Microbiol.), we suggest that these groups should be referred to as the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-A. baumannii complex.

Clinical strains of Acinetobacter classified by DNA-DNA hybridization

A collection of Acinetobacter strains consisting of 168 consecutive clinical strains and 30 type and reference strains was studied by DNA-DNA hybridization and a few phenotypic tests. The field strains could be allotted to 13 DNA groups. By means of reference strains ten of these could be identified with groups described by Bouvet & Grimont (1986), while three groups were new; they were given the numbers 13-15. The type strain of A. radioresistens--recently described by Nishimura et al. (1988)--was shown to be a member of DNA group 12, which comprised 31 clinical isolates. Of the 19 strains of A. junii, eight showed hemolytic activity on sheep and human blood agar and an additional four strains on human blood agar only. Strains of this species have previously been regarded as non-hemolytic. Reciprocal DNA pairing data for the reference strains of the DNA groups were treated by UPGMA clustering. The reference strains for A. calcoaceticus, A. baumannii and for DNA groups 3 and 13 formed a cluster with about 70% relatedness within the cluster. Other DNA groups joined at levels below 60%.

Delineation of new proteolytic genomic species in the genus Acinetobacter

Twenty-seven proteolytic Acinetobacter strains differing phenotypically from the 12 previously described Acinetobacter species were studied by DNA/DNA hybridization using the S1 nuclease method to assess their relatedness. Five DNA groups (genomic species 13 to 17) containing 20 strains were delineated. Seven strains remained ungrouped. Within species, the level of DNA relatedness to the reference strains ranged from 64 to 99%, with delta Tm values below 3.5 degrees C. DNA group 13 was 31 to 42% related to group 14. DNA group 15 was 59 to 69% related to group 16, with delta Tm values between 4.5 and 6 degrees C. DNA group 17 was 51 to 61% related to DNA groups 15 and 16 with delta Tm values between 5.5 and 7.5 degrees C. The seven ungrouped strains were 28 to 60% related to the five newly delineated genomic species with delta Tm between 6.5 and 13.5 degrees C. Reference strains of the five genomic species were 5 to 22% related to the type or reference strains of the 12 Acinetobacter genomic species previously described. Biochemically, DNA groups 13 to 17 and ungrouped strains could not be separated unambiguously and therefore are not named.

Taxonomic studies of Acinetobacter species based on the electrophoretic analysis of enzymes

Thirty six strains of Acinetobacter, 22 strains from the culture collections and 14 isolates from soil and cotton samples, were examined for the presence of twelve enzymes using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A numerical analysis was carried out on the basis of similarity values obtained from the electrophoretic mobilities of the enzymes. The strains used were divided into four clusters (Z-1, Z-2, Z-3 and Z-4), and cluster Z-1 was further divided into three subclusters (Z-1a, Z-1b and Z-1c). The type strains of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus IAM 12087 (ATCC 23055) and Acinetobacter lwoffii ATCC 15309 were found to belong to subcluster Z-1a and cluster Z-4, respectively. The radiation-resistant strain FO-1, a new type of acinetobacters, was included in cluster Z-3. Superoxide dismutase showed clearly distinguishable mobilities among four clusters, and was concluded to be useful in grouping acinetobacters.

Evolutionary implications of features of aromatic amino acid biosynthesis in the genus Acinetobacter

Key enzymes of aromatic amino acid biosynthesis were examined in the genus Acinetobacter. Members of this genus belong to a suprafamilial assemblage of Gram-negative bacteria (denoted Superfamily B) for which a phylogenetic tree based upon oligonucleotide cataloging of 16S rRNA exists. Since the Acinetobacter lineage diverged at an early evolutionary time from other lineages within Superfamily B, an examination of aromatic biosynthesis in members of this genus has supplied important clues for the deduction of major evolutionary events leading to the contemporary aromatic pathways that now exist within Superfamily B. Together with Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Xanthomonas campestris, four well-spaced lineages have now been studied in comprehensive detail with respect to comparative enzymological features of aromatic amino acid biosynthesis. A. calcoaceticus and A. lwoffii both possess two chorismate mutase isozymes: one a monofunctional isozyme (chorismate mutase-F), and the other (chorismate mutase-P) a component of a bifunctional P-protein (chorismate mutase-prephenate dehydratase). While both P-protein activities were feedback inhibited by L-phenylalanine, the chorismate mutase-P activity was additionally inhibited by prephenate. Likewise, chorismate mutase-F was product inhibited by prephenate. Two isozymes of 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate 7-phosphate synthase were detected. The major isozyme (greater than 95%) was sensitive to feedback inhibition by L-tyrosine, whereas the minor isozyme was apparently insensitive to allosteric control. Prephenate dehydrogenase and arogenate dehydrogenase activities were both detected, but could not be chromatographically resolved. Available evidence favors the existence of a single dehydrogenase enzyme, exhibiting substrate ambiguity for prephenate and L-arogenate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Transformation Assay for Identification of Psychrotrophic Achromobacters

The finding that many psychrotrophic, gram-negative, nonmotile, oxidase-positive coccobacilli (achromobacters) are competent for genetic transformation made possible the development of a transformation assay that permits recognition of genetically related strains. It has been demonstrated that 109 independently isolated achromobacters are genetically related since deoxyribonucleic acid samples from all of these organisms were able to transform a single competent auxotrophic strain to prototrophy. Genetically interacting bacteria included strains that lacked one or more of the characteristics typical for most achromobacters. An oxidase-negative mutant of one of these strains reacted positively in the transformation assay, unlike other oxidase-negative bacteria. Achromobacters were derived from fish, poultry, irradiated foods, seawater, and other sources. One strain previously classified as Micrococcus cryophilus has been shown to be related to the achromobacters. Two achromobacters had an optimum growth temperature of 35°C and behaved as typical mesophiles. The moraxellae and Acinetobacter were shown to be unrelated to the achromobacters by using the transformation assay. The ready demonstration of genetic relatedness provides a new basis for taxonomic grouping of the psychrotrophic achromobacters.

Study of genetic relationships among marine species of the genera Beneckea and Photobacterium by means of in vitro DNA/DNA hybridization

Strains representative of species of the marine genera Beneckea and Photobacterium were used as reference standards in in vitro DNA/DNA competition experiments. Within a given species, strains were found to be related by over 80% competition. (Competition was defined as the amount of radioactive DNA displaced by heterologous DNA relative to the amount displaced by homologous DNA.) On the basis of interspecies competition values (expressed as averages), the following groupings could be made: 1. "Photobacterium" fischeri was related to strain ATCC 15382 by a competition of 38% and was distinct from all the other strains tested (competition less than or equal to 11%). 2. The genus Photobacterium consisted of 3 species, P.phosphoreum, P.leiognathi, and a newly designated species, P.angustum (composed of non-luminous strains). The latter species was found to be related to P.leiognathi and P.phosphoreum by 56 and 28% competition, respectively, while P.phosphoreum was related to P.leiognathi by 29%. 3. In the genus Beneckea, 65% competition was detected between B.harveyi and B.campbellii as well as between B.parahaemolytica and B.alginolytica. These pairs of species were related to each other by 51-58% and to B.natriegens by 34-56% competition. A newly designated pathogenic species, B.vulnifica, appeared to have a low but significant relationship to all the above mentioned species of Beneckea. 4. Two biotypes, related by 68% competition, were recognized in the species B.splendida. Similarly, B.pelagia was found to consist of 2 biotypes related by a competition of 67%. The competition values between these species were 38-40%. 5. B.nereida, B.nigrapulchrituda, and "Vibrio" anguillarum had competition values less than or equal to 30% to each other as well as to other species of Beneckea. 6. With Vibrio cholerae as the reference standard, V.albensis was found to be related by a competition of 82%, while V.proteus and V.metschnikovii had competition values of 22 and 12%, respectively. These results suggested that V.albensis should be synonymized with V.cholerae, while the latter two organisms should remain distinct from this species. V.cholerae as well as the other terrestrial organisms tested did not appear to be significantly related to any of the marine strains (competition values less than or equal to 27%). The speciation derived from the results of the DNA/DNA competition experiments was compared to previous speciation based on phenotypic similarities.

Observation of nitrate reduction in some non-saccharolytic strains of Acinetobacter

Clinical isolates of non-saccharolytic Acinetobacter species were observed to reduce nitrate.

Simple genetic transformation assay for rapid diagnosis of Moraxella osloensis

A genetic transformation assay for unequivocal identification of strains of Moraxella osloensis is described. In this assay a stable tryptophan auxotroph is transformed to prototrophy by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) samples from other strains of M. osloensis but not by DNA samples from unrelated bacteria. The test is simple to perform and definitive results can be obtained in less than 24 h. The procedure, which is suitable for routine diagnosis in a clinical laboratory, involves a rapid method for preparation of crude transforming DNA from small quantities of bacterial cells and permits simultaneous examination of large numbers of isolated cultures. The assay was shown to correctly identify 27 strains previously classified as M. osloensis. Forty-five other gram-negative, oxidase-positive, nonmotile coccobacilli, which might be confused with M. osloensis unless subject to more extensive testing, were shown to be unrelated genetically to M. osloensis. The transformation assay clearly distinguishes M. osloensis from Acinetobacter. Although most strains of M. osloensis are nonfastidious, being able to grow in a mineral medium supplemented with a single organic carbon source, one of the strains tested was only able to grow on fairly complex media and could not be transformed to grow on simple media. Inability to alkalize Simmons citrate agar was shown not to be characteristic of all strains of M. osloensis.

Isolation of outer membranes with an ordered array of surface subunits from Acinetobacter

A method has been developed for the isolation of outer membranes from Acinetobacter sp. strain MJT/F5/199A. Washed cells were broken in a French press and, after deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease treatment, removal of intact cells, and four washes in 20 mosmol phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, with centrifugation at 25,000 x g for 10 min, preparations of cell wall fragments from which almost all pieces of plasma membrane had been removed resulted. Treatment of the cell walls with lysozyme and further washing, in the presence of 20 mM MgCl(2), yielded preparations of outer membranes. Electron microscopy of freeze-etched preparations shows that a regular pattern of subunits is present on the outer surfaces of intact cells. After negative staining, these subunits are visible on isolated walls and outer membranes; they can be removed by brief treatment with papain. In section, the cell wall structure is that typical of gram-negative bacteria, but the subunits are not detectable on the surface of the outer membrane. The outer membrane retains the appearance of a "unit membrane" in the cell wall, isolated outer membrane, and papain-treated outer membrane fractions. Both cell walls and outer membranes contain a high percentage of protein (76 and 84%, respectively) and not more than 5% carbohydrate, of which glucose and galactose are constitutents. The outer membranes of this Acinetobacter thus differ in structure and composition from those of bacteria in the Enterobacteriaceae.

Interspecies transformation of Acinetobacter: genetic evidence for a ubiquitous genus

The availability of a strain of Acinetobacter competent for transformation has made it possible to demonstrate the genetic relatedness of a large variety of gram-negative, oxidase-negative, nonmotile, and aerobic coccobacilli originally classified into eleven different genera. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) species from 265 such strains are capable of transforming stable auxotrophs of the competent Acinetobacter to prototrophy. The compositions of these DNA species vary from 40 to 46.8% guanine plus cytosine. Strains with widely differing phenotypic properties are also included in this collection of acinetobacters. DNA species from all oxidase-positive strains of Moraxella and from a variety of common bacteria are unable to transform the competent Acinetobacter. Although acinetobacters are usually considered to be unable to reduce nitrate to nitrite, six strains known to carry out this reduction have been shown to be authentic acinetobacters since their DNA species readily transform the competent Acinetobacter auxotrophs to prototrophy. In contrast to previous findings that acinetobacters rarely grow with glucose as a sole carbon source, the results of the present study show that 17 of the 265 strains grow readily in a glucosemineral medium, and 48 other strains can mutate spontaneously to grow in such a medium. A second competent strain of Acinetobacter, originally unable to use glucose, d-xylose, or d-ribose as carbon sources, has been transformed for ability to dissimilate these compounds using DNA species from strains that normally grow on these sugars. Although most of the 265 Acinetobacter strains studied were originally grown on complex media when isolated from human sources, only nine of these strains require growth factors in order to grow in a mineral medium containing a single carbon and energy source. A simple transformation assay has been devised for rapid examination of large numbers of strains to determine whether or not they are acinetobacters. This assay, which is suitable for routine diagnostic work, includes a procedure for preparation of crude transforming DNA from a small quantity of bacterial paste. Samples of DNA prepared from Acinetobacter cultures that had died on slants and plates were still able to effect transformation of the competent auxotrophs to prototrophy.

Cell wall composition and deoxyribonucleic acid similarities among the anaerobic coryneforms, classical propionibacteria, and strains of Arachnia propionica

Eighty strains of anaerobic coryneforms were compared with 29 strains of classical propionibacteria and 8 strains of Arachnia propionica by cell wall analysis, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) base compositions, and nucleotide sequence similarities. The anaerobic coryneforms have DNA base compositions in the range of 58 to 64% guanine + cytosine (GC) and show at least three homology groups. The largest group corresponds to organisms identified as Propionibacterium acnes and shows about 50% homology to strains in the P. avidum homology group. The third group, P. granulosum, shows low levels of similarities to the other two. All strains of anaerobic coryneforms have some combination of galactose, glucose, or mannose as cell wall sugars, and most have alanine (ala), glutamic acid (glu), glycine (gly), and l-alpha-epsilon-diaminopimelic acid (l-DAP) as amino acids of peptidoglycan. However, a few strains in the P. acnes and P. avidum homology groups have meso-DAP and minimal amounts of glycine. Two serological types, based on cell wall antigens, were found in the P. acnes homology group. One type had galactose, glucose, and mannose as cell wall sugars, the other glucose and mannose only. The classical propionibacteria have DNA base compositions in the range of 65 to 68% GC and show four homology groups which correspond closely to van Niel's classification as given in the 7th edition of Bergey's Manual. The P. jensenii group showed about 50% homology to the P. thoenii group and about 30 to 35% to the P. acidi-propionici group. The P. freudenreichii strains showed a rather lower level of similarity (8 to 25%) to the other homology groups. Most of the strains of classical propionibacteria also have some combination of galactose, glucose, or mannose as cell wall sugars and ala, glu, gly, and l-DAP as peptidoglycan amino acids, but P. shermanii and P. freudenreichii strains, which form a single homology group, have galactose, mannose, and rhamnose as cell wall sugars and ala, glu, and meso-DAP in their peptidoglycan. There is a rather low level of DNA homology (10 to 20%) between the anaerobic coryneforms and classical propionibacteria. However, the strains of A. propionica which have a GC content of 64 to 65% and form a single homology group, show no homology to either of the other two major groups.

Molecular heterogeneity of the Bdellovibrios: evidence of two new species

A systematic examination of a variety of isolates of the bacterial endoparasite Bdellovibrio has revealed extensive molecular diversity. The quantity of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) polynucleotide homology ranges from more than 90% among the isolates with DNA containing 50 to 51% guanine plus cytosine (GC) to undetectable levels between the 43% GC and 51% GC isolates. The two isolates with low GC-containing DNA (H-I Bdellovibrio A3.12 and UKi2) have only 16% DNA homology. H-I Bdellovibrio A3.12 and 109 have barely detectable ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) homology, whereas the homology approaches 100% among all the high GC isolates tested. Cases of high DNA/DNA and DNA/rRNA homologies are reflected in low dissimilarities of enzyme migration patterns in starch gel electrophoresis. The dissimilarities exhibited among the high GC Bdellovibrio isolates are as low as those previously reported for different Escherichia coli strains. The zymograms of H-I Bdellovibrio A3.12 and UKi2 are completely different from each other as well as from all other bdellovibrios (100% dissimilarity). Genome sizes determined for the representative isolates demonstrate three size ranges which coincide with group differences based on the above measurements. Enzyme assays reveal that all isolates possess a tricarboxylic acid cycle and most contain an alanine and glutamic dehydrogenase. We conclude that the use of bacterial endoparasitism as a defining trait has resulted in a molecularly diverse collection of isolates. It is recommended that the specific epitaph bacteriovorus be used only for the type specimen (Bdellovibrio 100 of Stolp and Starr, 1963) and for other related 50 to 51% GC isolates. The heterogeneity of the group warrants two new species. We designate Bdellovibrio A3.12 as the nomenclatural type of B. starrii sp. n. and Bdellovibrio UKi2 as the nomenclatural type of B. stolpii sp. n.