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Sand W, Schippers A, Hedrich S, Vera M. Progress in bioleaching: fundamentals and mechanisms of microbial metal sulfide oxidation - part A. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:6933-6952. [PMID: 36194263 PMCID: PMC9592645 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-12168-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Bioleaching of metal sulfides is performed by diverse microorganisms. The dissolution of metal sulfides occurs via two chemical pathways, either the thiosulfate or the polysulfide pathway. These are determined by the metal sulfides’ mineralogy and their acid solubility. The microbial cell enables metal sulfide dissolution via oxidation of iron(II) ions and inorganic sulfur compounds. Thereby, the metal sulfide attacking agents iron(III) ions and protons are generated. Cells are active either in a planktonic state or attached to the mineral surface, forming biofilms. This review, as an update of the previous one (Vera et al., 2013a), summarizes some recent discoveries relevant to bioleaching microorganisms, contributing to a better understanding of their lifestyle. These comprise phylogeny, chemical pathways, surface science, biochemistry of iron and sulfur metabolism, anaerobic metabolism, cell–cell communication, molecular biology, and biofilm lifestyle. Recent advances from genetic engineering applied to bioleaching microorganisms will allow in the future to better understand important aspects of their physiology, as well as to open new possibilities for synthetic biology applications of leaching microbial consortia. Key points • Leaching of metal sulfides is strongly enhanced by microorganisms • Biofilm formation and extracellular polymer production influences bioleaching • Cell interactions in mixed bioleaching cultures are key for process optimization
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Sand
- Institute of Biosciences, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany. .,Faculty of Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany.
| | - Axel Schippers
- Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), Hannover, Germany
| | - Sabrina Hedrich
- Institute of Biosciences, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
| | - Mario Vera
- Instituto de Ingeniería Biológica y Médica, Escuelas de Ingeniería, Medicina y Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile. .,Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental, Escuela de Ingeniería, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
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Moncayo EA, Debut A, Vizuete K, Jumbo-Flores D, Aguirre P. Sticky bacteria: Combined effect of galactose and high ferric iron concentration on extracellular polymeric substances production and the attachment of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans on a polymetallic sulfide ore surface. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:951402. [PMID: 36171747 PMCID: PMC9512070 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.951402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Adaptation and microbial attachment mechanisms for the degradation of sulfide ores are mediated by the production of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and their role in biofilm formation. EPS production responds to induction mechanisms associated with environmental conditions. In this study, the double induction of EPS with galactose and high ferric iron concentrations in planktonic cells of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, and their attachment on the surface of a polymetallic sulfide ore from Bella Rica-Azuay in Ecuador were evaluated. A. ferrooxidans cells were previously adapted to different concentrations of galactose [0, 0.15, and 0.25% (w/v)], using two ferrous iron concentrations as an energy source (9 and 18 g L–1) in a 9K culture medium. EPS production and its effect on mineral attachment were determined at the time point of maximal growth. The results obtained show a maximum cell attachment of 94.1% within 2 h at 0.15% of galactose and 18 g⋅L–1 of ferric iron concentration, compared to 71.4% without galactose and 9 g⋅L–1 of ferric iron. The maximum concentration of EPS was obtained with a 0.25% galactose concentration; however, it did not result in greater attachment compared to 0.15% galactose concentration. Through the combined induction of low galactose concentration and high ferric iron concentration, the percentage of bacterial attachment can be increased and, therefore, a possible increase in the rate of biooxidation and bioleaching could be obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo A. Moncayo
- Maestría en Química Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
- Grupo de Investigación y Desarrollo de la Biotecnología BioSin-Biociencias, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Alexis Debut
- Centro de Nanociencia y Nanotecnología, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador
| | - Karla Vizuete
- Centro de Nanociencia y Nanotecnología, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador
| | - Diana Jumbo-Flores
- Grupo de Investigación en Materiales y Ambiente, Departamento de Química, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL), Loja, Ecuador
| | - Paulina Aguirre
- Grupo de Investigación en Materiales y Ambiente, Departamento de Química, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL), Loja, Ecuador
- *Correspondence: Paulina Aguirre,
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Aguirre P, Guerrero K, Sanchez-Rodriguez A, Gentina JC, Schippers A. Making sticky cells: effect of galactose and ferrous iron on the attachment of Leptospirillum ferrooxidans to mineral surfaces. Res Microbiol 2018; 169:569-575. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Işıldar A, van de Vossenberg J, Rene ER, van Hullebusch ED, Lens PNL. Two-step bioleaching of copper and gold from discarded printed circuit boards (PCB). WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2016; 57:149-157. [PMID: 26704063 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2015.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
An effective strategy for environmentally sound biological recovery of copper and gold from discarded printed circuit boards (PCB) in a two-step bioleaching process was experimented. In the first step, chemolithotrophic acidophilic Acidithiobacillus ferrivorans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans were used. In the second step, cyanide-producing heterotrophic Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas putida were used. Results showed that at a 1% pulp density (10g/L PCB concentration), 98.4% of the copper was bioleached by a mixture of A. ferrivorans and A. thiooxidans at pH 1.0-1.6 and ambient temperature (23±2°C) in 7days. A pure culture of P. putida (strain WCS361) produced 21.5 (±1.5)mg/L cyanide with 10g/L glycine as the substrate. This gold complexing agent was used in the subsequent bioleaching step using the Cu-leached (by A. ferrivorans and A. thiooxidans) PCB material, 44.0% of the gold was mobilized in alkaline conditions at pH 7.3-8.6, and 30°C in 2days. This study provided a proof-of-concept of a two-step approach in metal bioleaching from PCB, by bacterially produced lixiviants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arda Işıldar
- UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Eldon R Rene
- UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Eric D van Hullebusch
- Université Paris-Est, Laboratoire Geomatériaux et Environnement (LGE), EA 4508, UPEM, 77454 Marne-la-Vallée, France
| | - Piet N L Lens
- UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands; Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, PO Box 541, Tampere, Finland
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Development of a markerless gene replacement system for Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and construction of a pfkB mutant. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011; 78:1826-35. [PMID: 22210219 DOI: 10.1128/aem.07230-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The extremely acidophilic, chemolithoautotrophic Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is an important bioleaching bacterium of great value in the metallurgical industry and environmental protection. In this report, a mutagenesis system based on the homing endonuclease I-SceI was developed to produce targeted, unmarked gene deletions in the strain A. ferrooxidans ATCC 23270. A targeted phosphofructokinase (PFK) gene (pfkB) mutant of A. ferrooxidans ATCC 23270 was constructed by homologous recombination and identified by PCR with specific primers as well as Southern blot analysis. This potential pfkB gene (AFE_1807) was also characterized by expression in PFK-deficient Escherichia coli cells, and heteroexpression of the PFKB protein demonstrated that it had functional PFK activity, though it was significantly lower (about 800-fold) than that of phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-B) expressed by the pfkB gene from E. coli K-12. The function of the potential PFKB protein in A. ferrooxidans was demonstrated by comparing the properties of the pfkB mutant with those of the wild type. The pfkB mutant strain displayed a relatively reduced growth capacity in S(0) medium (0.5% [wt/vol] elemental sulfur in 9K basal salts solution adjusted to pH 3.0 with H(2)SO(4)), but the mutation did not completely prevent A. ferrooxidans from assimilating exogenous glucose. The transcriptional analysis of some related genes in central carbohydrate metabolism in the wild-type and mutant strains with or without supplementation of glucose was carried out by quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. This report suggests that the markerless mutagenesis strategy could serve as a model for functional studies of other genes of interest from A. ferrooxidans and multiple mutations could be made in a single A. ferrooxidans strain.
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Hu JJ, Wang L, Zhang SP, Wang YQ, Xi XF. Inhibitory effect of organic carbon on CO₂ fixing by non-photosynthetic microbial community isolated from the ocean. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2011; 102:7147-7153. [PMID: 21576014 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Revised: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 04/10/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The inhibitory effect of organic carbon on CO(2) fixation (CF) by the non-photosynthetic microbial community (NPMC) and its mechanism were studied. The results showed that different concentrations of glucose inhibited CF to some extent. However, when these microorganisms pre-cultured with glucose were re-cultured without organic carbon, their CF efficiency differed significantly from the control based on the glucose concentration in the pre-culture. ATP as bioenergy and NADH as reductant had no obvious inhibitory effect on CF; conversely, they improved CF efficiency to some extent, especially when both were present simultaneously. These results implied that not all organic materials inhibited CF by NPMC, and only those that acted as good carbon sources, such as glucose, inhibited CF. Moreover, some metabolites generated during the catabolism of glucose by heterotrophic metabolism of NPMC might inhibit CF, while other cumulated materials present in the cell interior, such as ATP and NADH, might improve CF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-jun Hu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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Luo H, Shen L, Yin H, Li Q, Chen Q, Luo Y, Liao L, Qiu G, Liu X. Comparative genomic analysis of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans strains using the A. ferrooxidans ATCC 23270 whole-genome oligonucleotide microarray. Can J Microbiol 2009; 55:587-98. [PMID: 19483787 DOI: 10.1139/w08-158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is an important microorganism used in biomining operations for metal recovery. Whole-genomic diversity analysis based on the oligonucleotide microarray was used to analyze the gene content of 12 strains of A. ferrooxidans purified from various mining areas in China. Among the 3100 open reading frames (ORFs) on the slides, 1235 ORFs were absent in at least 1 strain of bacteria and 1385 ORFs were conserved in all strains. The hybridization results showed that these strains were highly diverse from a genomic perspective. The hybridization results of 4 major functional gene categories, namely electron transport, carbon metabolism, extracellular polysaccharides, and detoxification, were analyzed. Based on the hybridization signals obtained, a phylogenetic tree was built to analyze the evolution of the 12 tested strains, which indicated that the geographic distribution was the main factor influencing the strain diversity of these strains. Based on the hybridization signals of genes associated with bioleaching, another phylogenetic tree showed an evolutionary relationship from which the co-relation between the clustering of specific genes and geochemistry could be observed. The results revealed that the main factor was geochemistry, among which the following 6 factors were the most important: pH, Mg, Cu, S, Fe, and Al.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailang Luo
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Gurung A, Chakraborty R. The role ofAcidithiobacillus ferrooxidansin alleviating the inhibitory effect of thiosulfate on the growth of acidophilicAcidiphiliumspecies isolated from acid mine drainage samples from Garubathan, India. Can J Microbiol 2009; 55:1040-8. [DOI: 10.1139/w09-062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Several acidophilic chemolithoautotrophic and heterotrophic strains were isolated from acid mine drainage samples from Garubathan, West Bengal, India. The strains, chemolithoautotrophic DK6.1 and heterotrophic DKAP1.1, used in this study were assigned to the species Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidiphilium cryptum , respectively. Unamended filtered and subsequently autoclaved elemental sulfur spent medium of A. ferrooxidans was used as the medium to study heterotrophic growth of A. cryptum DKAP1.1. While characterizing the heterotrophic strain, an inhibitory effect of thiosulfate on A. cryptum DKAP1.1 was identified. The lethality of thiosulfate broth was directly related to the concentration of thiosulfate in the medium. Nonviability of A. cryptum DKAP1.1 in the presence of thiosulfate was alleviated by A. ferrooxidans DK6.1 in co-culture. Microbiological data on a positive growth effect for A. ferrooxidans DK6.1 caused by co-culturing in solid media in the presence of A. cryptum DKAP1.1 is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anirudra Gurung
- Department of Biotechnology, University of North Bengal, Darjeeling 734013, India
| | - Ranadhir Chakraborty
- Department of Biotechnology, University of North Bengal, Darjeeling 734013, India
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10
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Jones CA, Kelly DP. Growth of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans on ferrous iron in chemostat culture: Influence of product and substrate inhibition. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/jctb.280330407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Matlakowska R, Sklodowska A. Adaptive responses of chemolithoautotrophic acidophilic Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans to sewage sludge. J Appl Microbiol 2007; 102:1485-98. [PMID: 17578413 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.03208.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM The aim of the present study was to investigate the phenotypic and genotypic variability of two strains of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans genus during growth in sewage sludge. METHODS AND RESULTS Compared with A. ferrooxidans cells grown in mineral medium, those grown in sewage sludge demonstrated remarkable changes in ultrastructure (transmission electron microscopy) and significantly elongated lag phases. These latter cells also lacked carboxysomes and rusticyanin, showed lower level of cytochromes and exhibited modifications to their outer membrane proteins (SDS-PAGE). Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis showed that most restriction fragments were highly conserved and shared by strains grown under different conditions. However, in relation to cells grown in mineral medium, sludge-grown A. ferrooxidans lacked a number of restriction fragments, clearly indicating structural changes to the chromosomal DNA of the organism. CONCLUSIONS In combination, the results of this study provide evidence of adaptive responses by chemolithoautotrophic acidophilic A. ferrooxidans to facilitate growth in sewage sludge. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The obtained results are important from scientific as well as industrial application point of view, because they confirmed that A. ferrooxidans highly sensitive to organic compounds bacteria is useful in biotechnologies of heavy metal removal from shale ore, polluted soils and sewage sludge containing organic hazardous compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Matlakowska
- Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Analysis, Faculty of Biology, Warsaw University, Warsaw, Poland
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12
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Martínez JP, Garay E, Alcaide E, Hernández E. The genus thiobacillus: Physiology and industrial applications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/abio.370030202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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13
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Biological oxidation of ferrous sulphate by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans: a review on the kinetic aspects. Biochem Eng J 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s1369-703x(98)00006-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Oh KJ, Seo MH, Son HJ, Kim D. Removal of hydrogen sulfide in a three phase fluidized bed bioreactor. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 1998. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02707070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Oh KJ, Kim D, Lee IH. Development of effective hydrogen sulphide removing equipment using Thiobacillus sp.IW. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 1998; 99:87-92. [PMID: 15093333 DOI: 10.1016/s0269-7491(97)00168-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/1997] [Accepted: 10/15/1997] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen sulphide is one of the commonest odours emitted by chemical plants. To remove the hydrogen sulphide biologically, a three phase fluidised bed bioreactor was used in which Thiobacillus sp.IW was immobilised on activated carbon. The optimum operating conditions of the bioreactor were 30 degrees C, pH7, aspect ratio (L/D) = 1 and at these conditions, the system removed over 94% of the hydrogen sulphide in the concentration range of 100-200 ppm and flow rate of 1.0-2.0 litre min(-1). From the upset and recovery test, the system proved stable within the moderate inlet concentration changes investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Oh
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Pusan, Korea
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Kai T, Suenaga YI, Matsuda K, Takahashi T. Enhancement of specific growth rate of iron-oxidizing bacteria by glucose. Biotechnol Lett 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00143460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Häger KP, Bothe H. Reduction of NAD+ by the reversed respiratory electron flow in Azotobacter vinelandii. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/0005-2728(87)90177-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Mandl M, Docekalová H. Use of the respiration activity of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans for the specific determination of iron(II, III). Folia Microbiol (Praha) 1985; 30:105-9. [PMID: 3996981 DOI: 10.1007/bf02922202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A method is described for the determination of Fe2+ and Fe3+ after its reduction to Fe2+ on the basis of oxygen uptake rate as a function of Fe2+ concentration. By using substrate-specific Thiobacillus ferrooxidans in combination with the standard addition method a specific determination of iron(II, III) is possible with the determination limit of 3 mumol/L.
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Sugio T, Kudo S, Tano T, Imai K. Glucose transport system in a facultative iron-oxidizing bacterium, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. J Bacteriol 1982; 150:1109-14. [PMID: 6804437 PMCID: PMC216330 DOI: 10.1128/jb.150.3.1109-1114.1982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Properties of a heat-labile glucose transport system in Thiobacillus ferrooxidans strain AP-44 were investigated with iron-grown cells. [14C]glucose was incorporated into cell fractions, and the cells metabolized [14C]glucose to 14CO2. Amytal, rotenone, cyanide, azide, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide strongly inhibited [14C]glucose uptake activity, suggesting the presence of an energy-dependent glucose transport system in T. ferrooxidans. Heavy metals, such as mercury, silver, uranium, and molybdate, markedly inhibited the transport activity at 1 mM. When grown on mixotrophic medium, the bacteria preferentially utilized ferrous iron as an energy source. When iron was exhausted, the cells used glucose if the concentration of ferrous sulfate in the medium was higher than 3% (wt/vol). However, when ferrous sulfate was lower than 1%, both of the energy sources were consumed simultaneously.
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Wichlacz PL, Unz RF. Acidophilic, Heterotrophic Bacteria of Acidic Mine Waters. Appl Environ Microbiol 1981; 41:1254-61. [PMID: 16345777 PMCID: PMC243898 DOI: 10.1128/aem.41.5.1254-1261.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Obligately acidophilic, heterotrophic bacteria were isolated both from enrichment cultures developed with acidic mine water and from natural mine drainage. The bacteria were grouped by the ability to utilize a number of organic acids as sole carbon sources. None of the strains were capable of chemolithotrophic growth on inorganic reduced iron and sulfur compounds. All bacteria were rod shaped, gram negative, nonencapsulated, motile, capable of growth at pH 2.6 but not at pH 6.0, catalase and oxidase positive, strictly aerobic, and capable of growth on citric acid. The bacteria were cultivatable on solid nutrient media only if agarose was employed as the hardening agent. Bacterial densities in natural mine waters ranged from approximately 20 to 250 cells per ml, depending upon source and culture medium. Ferric hydrates and stream vegetation contained from 1,500 to over 7 × 10
6
cells per g.
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Affiliation(s)
- P L Wichlacz
- Department of Civil Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
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Harrison AP, Jarvis BW, Johnson JL. Heterotrophic bacteria from cultures of autotrophic Thiobacillus ferrooxidans: relationships as studied by means of deoxyribonucleic acid homology. J Bacteriol 1980; 143:448-54. [PMID: 7400100 PMCID: PMC294268 DOI: 10.1128/jb.143.1.448-454.1980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
From several presumably pure cultures of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, we isolated a pair of stable phenotypes. One was a strict autotroph utilizing sulfur or ferrous iron as the energy source and unable to utilize glucose; the other phenotype was an acidophilic obligate heterotroph capable of utilizing glucose but not sulfur or ferrous iron. The acidophilic obligate heterotroph not only was encountered in cultures of T. ferrooxidans, but also was isolated with glucose-mineral salts medium, pH 2.0, directly from coal refuse. By means of deoxyribonucleic acid homology, we have demonstrated that the acidophilic heterotrophs are of a different genotype from T. ferrooxidans, not closely related to this species; we have shown also that the acidophilic obligate heterotrophs, regardless of their source of isolation, are related to each other. Therefore, cultures of T. ferrooxidans reported capable of utilizing organic compounds should be carefully examined for contamination. The acidophilic heterotrophs isolated by us are different from T. acidophilis, which is also associated with T. ferrooxidans but is facultative, utilizing both glucose and elemental sulfur as energy sources. Since they are so common and tenacious in T. ferrooxidans cultures, the heterotrophs must be associated with T. ferrooxidans in the natural habitat.
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Mao MW, Dugan PR, Martin PA, Touvinen OH. Plasmid DNA in chemoorganotrophicThiobacillus ferrooxidansandT. acidophilus. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1980. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1980.tb05063.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Chapter 4 Biogeochemistry of Iron. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/s0166-1116(08)71060-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
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Wood AP, Kelly DP. Heterotrophic growth of Thiobacillus A2 on sugars and organic acids. Arch Microbiol 1977; 113:257-64. [PMID: 879963 DOI: 10.1007/bf00492033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Thiobacillus A2 grew on a number of organic acids, pentoses, hexoses and alpha-linked disaccharides, but not on beta-linked disaccharides or galactosides. Growth was slow on glucose, although fast-growing strains were selectively isolated. Additive growth rates occured on glucose and galactose; growth on glucose with fructose, pyruvate or gluconate was biphasic rather than diauxic; fructose was used preferentially over glucose; slow growth on glucose was accelerated by some disaccharides; growth on acetate, fumarate or succinate with glucose gave diauxic growth with preferential use of the acid and repression of glucose incorporation. Acetate and succinate tended to be used preferentially even with cultures grown on them in mixture with fructose or sucrose.
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Smith AJ, Hoare DS. Specialist phototrophs, lithotrophs, and methylotrophs: a unity among a diversity of procaryotes? BACTERIOLOGICAL REVIEWS 1977; 41:419-48. [PMID: 329833 PMCID: PMC414007 DOI: 10.1128/br.41.2.419-448.1977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Tuttle JH, Dugan PR, Apel WA. Leakage of cellular material from Thiobacillus ferrooxidans in the presence of organic acids. Appl Environ Microbiol 1977; 33:459-69. [PMID: 848961 PMCID: PMC170703 DOI: 10.1128/aem.33.2.459-469.1977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Thiobacillus ferroodixans cells released varying amounts of iron, phosphate, sugar, ribonucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid, and substances that absorbed light at both 260 and 280 nm, when exposed to 10(-2) to 10(-1) M concentrations of these organic acids: propionic, butyric, valeric, hexanoic, and oxalacetic. These acids also retarded iron oxidation by the cells. Electron microscope observation of cells after exposure to the organic acids showed varying degrees of cell envelope disruption, suggesting that the mode of inhibition of autotrophic iron oxidation in the cell involves interference with the function of the cell envelope, possibly the cell membrane.
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Transition of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans KG-4 from heterotrophic growth on glucose to autotrophic growth on ferrous-iron. Arch Microbiol 1977. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00410784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Steinmüller W, Bock E. Growth of Nitrobacter in the presence of organic matter. I. Mixotrophic growth. Arch Microbiol 1976; 108:299-304. [PMID: 821450 DOI: 10.1007/bf00454856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
1. Culture filtrates of heterotrophic bacteria were tested for their stimulatory effect on nitrification of three strains of Nitrobacter. 2. Yeast extract-peptone solution, in which Pseudomonas fluorescens had grown, after removal of the cells was added to autotrophically growing cultures of Nitrobacter agilis; it caused a stimulated nitrite oxidation and growth of Nitrobacter agilis. 3. The degree of stimulation depended on: a) the proportion of the culture filtrate to the autotrophic medium; b) the composition of the complex medium in which Pseudomonas fluorescens had been grown; c) the time the heterotrophic bacterium had been grown in the complex medium. 4. The stimulatory effect was highest with Nitrobacter agilis, less with Nitrobacter winogradskyi and negligible with Nitrobacter K4. 5. It was possible to adapt nutrifying cells of Nitrobacter agilis to higher concentrations of yeast extract and peptone. After the nitrite had been completely oxidized the cell-N still increased up to 30% before growth stopped.
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McCarthy JT, Charles AM. Properties and regulation of ribulose diphosphate carboxylase from Thiobacillus novellus. Arch Microbiol 1975; 105:51-9. [PMID: 242294 DOI: 10.1007/bf00447113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Ribulose-diphosphate carboxylase from Thiobacillus novellus has been purified to hemogeneity as observed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and U.V. light observation during sedimentation velocity analysis. The optimum pH for the enzyme with Tris-HCl buffers was about 8.2. Concentrations of this buffer in excess of 80 mM were inhibitory. The apparent Km for RuDP was about 14.8 muM with a Hill value of 1.5, for HCO3- the apparent Km was about 11.7 mM with an n value of 1.18 and for Mg2+ about 0.61 mM. The enzyme was specific for this cation. Relatively high concentrations of either Hg2+ or pCMB were required before significant inhibition was observed. Activity declined slowly during a 4-hr incubation period in either 3.0 M or 8.0 M urea. Incubation for 12 hrs resulted in complete loss of activity which was not prevented by 10 mM Mg2+ and was not reversed by dialysis and subsequent addition of 10 mM cysteine. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed a loss of the major band and the appearance of 2 new bands. SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis gave an average M.W. of 73500 +/- 2500 for the slower moving band and 12250 +/- 2500 for the faster moving. However, incubation in urea for up to 40 hrs revealed a decrease in the M.W. of the slower moving band to about 60000. The Ea for the enzyme was calculated to be about 18.85 kcal mole-1, with the possibility of a "break" between 40 and 50 degrees C. The Q10 was 3.07 between 20 and 30 degrees C whereas between 30 to 40 degrees C it was 3.31. Only phosphorylated compounds caused significant inhibition of enzyme activity. They included ADP, FDP, F6P, G6P, PEP, 6PG, 2-PGA, R1P, R5P, and Ru5p.
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Hirt WE, Vestal JR. Physical and chemical studies of Thiobacillus ferroxidans lipopolysaccharides. J Bacteriol 1975; 123:642-50. [PMID: 238956 PMCID: PMC235771 DOI: 10.1128/jb.123.2.642-650.1975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The lipopolysaccharides (LPS) of the obligate acidophile Thiobacillus ferroxidans grown on iron, sulfur, and glucose as energy sources were examined for various physical and chemical properties. Both qualitative and quantitative variation were found among the three preparations. The LPS extracted from iron-grown cells (Fe-LPS) contained less than 3% protein compared to 18 to 25% in LPS extracted from either sulfur-grown cells (S-LPS) or glucose-grown cells (G-LPS). S-LPS showed two distinct sedimentable species, 61S and 9.3S, which could be fractionated on a column of Sepharose 4B. The relative densities of both S-LPS and G-LPS were found to be significantly greater than that of Fe-LPS. Spectral differences were noted when each LPS was reacted with a carbocyanine dye. Fe-LPS showed a single absorbance maximum at 472 nm, S-LPS displayed its maximum at 650 nm, and G-LPS showed two maxima, the first at 468 nm and the other at 655 nm. Analysis of the methyl ester derivatives of the LPS fatty aicds using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed the presence of a very stable species, tentatively identified as a methoxy methyl ester with a formula of CH3-3-C10H10-COOCH3, as the major component from each LPS. beta-Hydroxymyristic acid was found only in Fe-LPS.
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33
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Romano AH, Van Vranken NJ, Preisand P, Brustolon M. Regulation of the Thiobacillus intermedius glucose uptake system by thiosulfate. J Bacteriol 1975; 121:577-82. [PMID: 1112773 PMCID: PMC245969 DOI: 10.1128/jb.121.2.577-582.1975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells of the mixotrophic chemolithotroph (facultative autotroph) Thiobacillus intermedius which have been grown on a glucose-yeast extract medium, a condition in which glucose is used as a source of energy, accumulate the non-metabolizable analogue 2-deoxy-d-glucose against a concentration gradient in a predominantly unchanged state. On the other hand, cells grown mixotrophically on a thiosulfate-glucose medium, a condition in which glucose provides cell carbon but is not used extensively for energy, and in which enzymes of the Entner-Doudoroff pathway are repressed, do not accumulate 2-deoxy-d-glucose significantly. Similarly, cells grown chemolithotrophically on thiosulfate-carbonate do not take up this sugar. Transfer of thiosulfate-yeast extract-grown cells, which lack the capacity to accumulate 2-deoxy-d-glucose, to a glucose-yeast extract medium results in the induction of the concentrative sugar uptake system. The capacity of induced cells to take up 2-deoxy-d-glucose is inhibited by thiosulfate. Thus, the transport system for glucose appears to be regulated in this organism so that the sugar is accumulated only under conditions where it is utilized as a source of energy, and the presence of the preferred energy source leads to both repression and inhibition of the uptake system.
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Kuenen JG, Veldkamp H. Effects of organic compounds on growth of chemostat cultures of Thiomicrospira pelophila, Thiobacillus thioparus and Thiobacillus neapolitanus. ARCHIV FUR MIKROBIOLOGIE 1973; 94:173-90. [PMID: 4591719 DOI: 10.1007/bf00416691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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McFadden BA. Autotrophic CO2 assimilation and the evolution of ribulose diphosphate carboxylase. BACTERIOLOGICAL REVIEWS 1973; 37:289-319. [PMID: 4357017 PMCID: PMC413820 DOI: 10.1128/br.37.3.289-319.1973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Shafia F, Brinson KR, Heinzman MW, Brady JM. Transition of chemolithotroph Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans to obligate organotrophy and metabolic capabilities of glucose-grown cells. J Bacteriol 1972; 111:56-65. [PMID: 4669216 PMCID: PMC251239 DOI: 10.1128/jb.111.1.56-65.1972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Transition of chemolithotrophic Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans to organotrophy occurred after 60 hr of incubation in an organic medium. Three distinct phases, based on metabolic activities of cells, were observed during the course of transition. Conversion of cellular nutrition to organotrophy resulted in a gradual loss of Fe(2+) oxidation and cessation of CO(2) fixation. These changes were concomitant with a rapid increase in uptake of glucose and phosphate during the latter part of transition period. The outcome of transition was governed by the pH of the medium, temperature of incubation, availability of oxygen, age of the chemolithotrophic cells, and the type of energy and carbon source available to the bacterium. Presence or absence of p-aminobenzoic acid and Fe(2+) ions did not influence transition of cells. A defined medium containing glucose, mineral salts, and p-aminobenzoic acid at pH 2.5 was found to be most suitable for transition and for culture of heterotrophic convertants. Maximum growth rate of the heterotrophic cells was attained with vigorous aeration at 35 C. The bacterium could be cultured on a variety of organic compounds, including complex organic media, provided they were used in low concentrations. Serological studies on autotrophic cells and the heterotrophic convertant have shown a definite antigenic relationship between the two cell types.
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Pan P, Umbreit WW. Growth of obligate autotrophic bacteria on glucose in a continuous flow-through apparatus. J Bacteriol 1972; 109:1149-55. [PMID: 4551747 PMCID: PMC247337 DOI: 10.1128/jb.109.3.1149-1155.1972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitrosomonas europaea, Nitrobacter agilis, Thiobacillus denitrificans, T. neapolitanus, and T. thioparus (all obligate autotrophic bacteria) have been grown in dialysis culture, on glucose salts media, in the absence of their specific inorganic energy source. Metabolic products for N. agilis grown on nitrite salts medium were identified as keto acids. Pyruvic acid inhibited this organism at 5 x 10(-5)m. Keto acids were not inhibitory for the thiobacilli grown on thiosulfate medium. However, when T. denitrificans was grown on glucose with dialysis, addition of 5 x 10(-4)m pyruvate inhibited growth. Thus, it appears pyruvate may be inhibitory for other autotrophs, as has been reported for T. thiooxidans.
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Tuovinen OH, Kelly DP. Biology of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans in relation to the microbiological leaching of sulphide ores. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ALLGEMEINE MIKROBIOLOGIE 1972; 12:311-46. [PMID: 4561082 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3630120406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Tabita R, Lundgren DG. Heterotrophic metabolism of the chemolithotroph Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. J Bacteriol 1971; 108:334-42. [PMID: 4399339 PMCID: PMC247071 DOI: 10.1128/jb.108.1.334-342.1971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and the enzymes of the Entner-Doudoroff pathway, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrase and 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate aldolase (assayed together), are induced during heterotrophic growth of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans on an iron-glucose-supplemented medium or on glucose alone. By contrast, autotrophic cells (iron-grown) contain low levels of these enzymes. Fructose 1, 6-diphosphate aldolase, an enzyme of the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, is present at low levels irrespective of the growth medium, suggesting that this enzyme is not involved in energy-yielding reactions but merely provides intermediates for biosynthesis. The Entner-Doudoroff and pentose-phosphate pathways are the principle means through which glucose is dissimilated and is presumed to be concerned with energy production. Isotopic studies showed that a high rate of CO(2) formation from specifically labeled glucose came from carbon atoms 1 and 4. An unexpectedly high rate of evolution of CO(2) also came from carbon 6, suggesting that the triose phosphate formed during glucose breakdown and specifically as a result of 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate aldolase activity, was metabolized via some unorthodox metabolic route. Cells grown in the iron-supplemented and glucose-salts media have a complete tricarboxylic acid cycle, whereas autotrophically grown T. ferrooxidans lacked both alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide oxidase. Two isocitrate dehydrogenases [nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and NAD phosphate (NADP) specific] were present. NAD-linked enzyme was constitutive, whereas the NADP-linked enzyme was induced upon adaptation of autotrophic cells to heterotrophic growth.
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Tabita R, Lundgren DG. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from the chemolithotroph Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. J Bacteriol 1971; 108:343-52. [PMID: 4399340 PMCID: PMC247072 DOI: 10.1128/jb.108.1.343-352.1971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase was partially purified from both glucose-grown and iron-glucose-grown Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. The enzyme possesses a dual nucleotide specificity for either nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and has a molecular weight of 110,000 as determined by gel electrophoresis. Evidence is presented that T. ferrooxidans glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is identical when isolated from cells grown mixotrophically (iron-glucose grown) or cells grown heterotrophically (glucose-grown cells). The enzyme is activated by Mg(2+), and to a lesser extent by low concentrations of Mn(2+). Reduced NAD inhibits the enzyme from T. ferrooxidans. No deviation from normal Michaelis-Menten kinetics was observed in velocity versus substrate concentration experiments. Adenosine triphosphate exerted a profound inhibition of the enzyme; the effect was 10 times more pronounced in the presence of NAD as compared to NADP. The physiological significance of this inhibition is discussed.
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