1
|
Liu X, Gilbert RG. Normal and abnormal glycogen structure - A review. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 338:122195. [PMID: 38763710 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Glycogen, a complex branched glucose polymer, is found in animals and bacteria, where it serves as an energy storage molecule. It has linear (1 → 4)-α glycosidic bonds between anhydroglucose monomer units, with branch points connected by (1 → 6)-α bonds. Individual glycogen molecules are referred to as β particles. In organs like the liver and heart, these β particles can bind into larger aggregate α particles, which exhibit a rosette-like morphology. The mechanisms and bonding underlying the aggregation process are not fully understood. For example, mammalian liver glycogen has been observed to be molecularly fragile under certain conditions, such as glycogen from diabetic livers fragmenting when exposed to dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), while glycogen from healthy livers is much less fragile; this indicates some difference, as yet unknown, in the bonding between β particles in healthy and diabetic glycogen. This fragility may have implications for blood sugar regulation, especially in pathological conditions such as diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genomics and Molecular Breeding/Zhongshan Biological Breeding Laboratory, and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology, College of Agriculture, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; Centre for Nutrition & Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture & Food Innovations (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Robert G Gilbert
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genomics and Molecular Breeding/Zhongshan Biological Breeding Laboratory, and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology, College of Agriculture, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; Centre for Nutrition & Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture & Food Innovations (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Liu QH, Tang JW, Wen PB, Wang MM, Zhang X, Wang L. From Prokaryotes to Eukaryotes: Insights Into the Molecular Structure of Glycogen Particles. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:673315. [PMID: 33996916 PMCID: PMC8116748 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.673315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycogen is a highly-branched polysaccharide that is widely distributed across the three life domains. It has versatile functions in physiological activities such as energy reserve, osmotic regulation, blood glucose homeostasis, and pH maintenance. Recent research also confirms that glycogen plays important roles in longevity and cognition. Intrinsically, glycogen function is determined by its structure that has been intensively studied for many years. The recent association of glycogen α-particle fragility with diabetic conditions further strengthens the importance of glycogen structure in its function. By using improved glycogen extraction procedures and a series of advanced analytical techniques, the fine molecular structure of glycogen particles in human beings and several model organisms such as Escherichia coli, Caenorhabditis elegans, Mus musculus, and Rat rattus have been characterized. However, there are still many unknowns about the assembly mechanisms of glycogen particles, the dynamic changes of glycogen structures, and the composition of glycogen associated proteins (glycogen proteome). In this review, we explored the recent progresses in glycogen studies with a focus on the structure of glycogen particles, which may not only provide insights into glycogen functions, but also facilitate the discovery of novel drug targets for the treatment of diabetes mellitus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qing-Hua Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China.,Faculty of Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Jia-Wei Tang
- Department of Bioinformatics, School of Medical Informatics and Engineering, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Peng-Bo Wen
- Department of Bioinformatics, School of Medical Informatics and Engineering, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Meng-Meng Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Xiao Zhang
- Department of Bioinformatics, School of Medical Informatics and Engineering, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Liang Wang
- Department of Bioinformatics, School of Medical Informatics and Engineering, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Autry JM, Karim CB, Cocco M, Carlson SF, Thomas DD, Valberg SJ. Purification of sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles from horse gluteal muscle. Anal Biochem 2020; 610:113965. [PMID: 32956693 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2020.113965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
We have analyzed protein expression and enzyme activity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-transporting ATPase (SERCA) in horse gluteal muscle. Horses exhibit a high incidence of recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis, with myosolic Ca2+ proposed, but yet to be established, as the underlying cause. To better assess Ca2+ regulatory mechanisms, we developed an improved protocol for isolating sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) vesicles from horse skeletal muscle, based on mechanical homogenization and optimized parameters for differential centrifugation. Immunoblotting identified the peak subcellular fraction containing the SERCA1 protein (fast-twitch isoform). Gel analysis using the Stains-all dye demonstrated that calsequestrin (CASQ) and phospholipids are highly enriched in the SERCA-containing subcellular fraction isolated from horse gluteus. Immunoblotting also demonstrated that these horse SR vesicles show low content of glycogen phosphorylase (GP), which is likely an abundant contaminating protein of traditional horse SR preps. The maximal Ca2+-activated ATPase activity (Vmax) of SERCA in horse SR vesicles isolated using this protocol is 5‒25-fold greater than previously-reported SERCA activity in SR preps from horse skeletal muscle. We propose that this new protocol for isolating SR vesicles will be useful for determining enzymatic parameters of horse SERCA with high fidelity, plus assessing regulatory effect of SERCA peptide subunit(s) expressed in horse muscle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Autry
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
| | - Christine B Karim
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Mariana Cocco
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Samuel F Carlson
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - David D Thomas
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Stephanie J Valberg
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, McPhail Equine Performance Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48823, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cell walls of the dimorphic fungal pathogens Sporothrix schenckii and Sporothrix brasiliensis exhibit bilaminate structures and sloughing of extensive and intact layers. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018. [PMID: 29522522 PMCID: PMC5903669 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous mycosis caused by pathogenic species of the Sporothrix genus. A new emerging species, Sporothrix brasiliensis, is related to cat-transmitted sporotrichosis and has severe clinical manifestations. The cell wall of pathogenic fungi is a unique structure and impacts directly on the host immune response. We reveal and compare the cell wall structures of Sporothrix schenckii and S. brasiliensis using high-pressure freezing electron microscopy to study the cell wall organization of both species. To analyze the components of the cell wall, we also used infrared and 13C and 1H NMR spectroscopy and the sugar composition was determined by quantitative high-performance anion-exchange chromatography. Our ultrastructural data revealed a bi-layered cell wall structure for both species, including an external microfibrillar layer and an inner electron-dense layer. The inner and outer layers of the S. brasiliensis cell wall were thicker than those of S. schenckii, correlating with an increase in the chitin and rhamnose contents. Moreover, the outer microfibrillar layer of the S. brasiliensis cell wall had longer microfibrils interconnecting yeast cells. Distinct from those of other dimorphic fungi, the cell wall of Sporothrix spp. lacked α-glucan component. Interestingly, glycogen α-particles were identified in the cytoplasm close to the cell wall and the plasma membrane. The cell wall structure as well as the presence of glycogen α-particles varied over time during cell culture. The structural differences observed in the cell wall of these Sporothrix species seemed to impact its uptake by monocyte-derived human macrophages. The data presented here show a unique cell wall structure of S. brasiliensis and S. schenckii during the yeast parasitic phase. A new cell wall model for Sporothrix spp. is therefore proposed that suggests that these fungi molt sheets of intact cell wall layers. This observation may have significant effects on localized and disseminated immunopathology.
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
Mutants with deletion mutations in the glg and mal gene clusters of Escherichia coli MC4100 were used to gain insight into glycogen and maltodextrin metabolism. Glycogen content, molecular mass, and branch chain distribution were analyzed in the wild type and in ΔmalP (encoding maltodextrin phosphorylase), ΔmalQ (encoding amylomaltase), ΔglgA (encoding glycogen synthase), and ΔglgA ΔmalP derivatives. The wild type showed increasing amounts of glycogen when grown on glucose, maltose, or maltodextrin. When strains were grown on maltose, the glycogen content was 20 times higher in the ΔmalP strain (0.97 mg/mg protein) than in the wild type (0.05 mg/mg protein). When strains were grown on glucose, the ΔmalP strain and the wild type had similar glycogen contents (0.04 mg/mg and 0.03 mg/mg protein, respectively). The ΔmalQ mutant did not grow on maltose but showed wild-type amounts of glycogen when grown on glucose, demonstrating the exclusive function of GlgA for glycogen synthesis in the absence of maltose metabolism. No glycogen was found in the ΔglgA and ΔglgA ΔmalP strains grown on glucose, but substantial amounts (0.18 and 1.0 mg/mg protein, respectively) were found when they were grown on maltodextrin. This demonstrates that the action of MalQ on maltose or maltodextrin can lead to the formation of glycogen and that MalP controls (inhibits) this pathway. In vitro, MalQ in the presence of GlgB (a branching enzyme) was able to form glycogen from maltose or linear maltodextrins. We propose a model of maltodextrin utilization for the formation of glycogen in the absence of glycogen synthase.
Collapse
|
6
|
|
7
|
Hess WM, Nelson DL, Sturges DL. Morphology and Ultrastructure of a Snowmold Fungus on Sagebrush (Artemisia Tridentata). Mycologia 1985. [DOI: 10.1080/00275514.1985.12025149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wilford M. Hess
- Department of Botany and Range Science, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602
| | - David L. Nelson
- USDA-Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Provo, Utah 84601
| | - David L. Sturges
- USDA-Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyoming 82070
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Orlean P. Glycogen synthesis by cell-free extracts from the dimorphic yeast Candida albicans. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1984; 50:341-8. [PMID: 6240964 DOI: 10.1007/bf00394647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
A particulate glucosyltransferase prepared from budding and filamentous cultures of Candida albicans used uridine diphosphate glucose as sole glucosyl donor in a reaction (measured by following the incorporation of [14C]-glucose from UDP [14C]-glucose into polymer) stimulated by glucose-6-phosphate and inhibited by adenosine triphosphate and guanosine triphosphate. The radiolabelled reaction product was solubilized by alpha-amylase, and, on oxidation with periodate followed by reduction with borohydride and acid hydrolysis, yielded erythritol and glycerol in the ratio of 4 to 1. The radiolabelled glucosyl residues were attached to an endogenous acceptor of high molecular weight.
Collapse
|
9
|
Barreto-Bergter E, Gorin PA. Structural Chemistry of Polysaccharides from Fungi and Lichens. Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem 1983. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2318(08)60056-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
10
|
Coulter DB, Aronson JM. Glycogen and other soluble glucans from chytridiomycete and oomycete species. Arch Microbiol 1977; 115:317-22. [PMID: 603339 DOI: 10.1007/bf00446458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Dry weight, protein, lipid, and glycogen were determined at various times during cultivation of the Chytridiomycetes, Rhizophydium sphaerotheca and Monoblepharella elongata. M. elongata had relatively stable levels of glycogen, but, in R. sphaerotheca, glycogen levels showed significant changes, particularly in older cultures in which a depletion of glycogen was accompanied by a marked thickening of the cell walls. Glycogen was a significant cellular constituent in both chytridiomycete species. In R. sphaerotheca and M. elongata, respectively, glycogen accounted for as much as 6% and 8.1% of the dry weight. In purified glycogens of both species, only alpha-1,4- and alpha-1,6-linked glucosyl residues were detected and the absorbance spectra of I2-complexes were similar to those of other well characterized glycogens. Purified Rhizophydium glycogen had a beta-amylolysis limit of 43%, and a CL of approximately 12. For the Monoblepharella polysaccharide, the respective values were 45% and 11. In extracts of the Oomycetes, Pythium debaryanum, Mindeniella spinospora, and Apodachlya sp., only beta-1,3- and beta-1,6-linked glucosyl residues were detected. These glucans were not iodophilic nor were they sensitive to alpha-amylase and beta-amylase. The properties of the oomycete polysaccharides suggested that they were similar to the mycolaminarans of Phytophthora spp. Although both investigated chytridiomycete species produced glycogen with typical properties, glycogen was apparently absent in the investigated Oomycetes.
Collapse
|
11
|
|
12
|
Arai T, Mikami Y, Yokoyama K, Kawata T, Masuda K. Morphological changes in yeasts as a result of the action of 5-fluorocytosine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1977; 12:255-60. [PMID: 332075 PMCID: PMC429894 DOI: 10.1128/aac.12.2.255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The mode of action of 5-fluorocytosine on Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae was studied with special reference to morphology and ultrastructure. Shortly after contact of yeast cells with 10 mug of 5-fluorocytosine per ml, marked enlargement of the cells occurred. The initial increase in cell size was almost the same with both yeast strains. As incubation proceeded, further increase in cell volume continued with C. albicans, whereas no further change in cell volume was observed with S. cerevisiae. An electron microscope examination of C. albicans cells after exposure to the drug revealed characteristic changes, consisting of an enlarged nucleus and a thin cell wall. The morphological changes were exactly comparable to those reported with inhibitors of deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in mammalian cells and some bacteria.
Collapse
|