1
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Abstract
Viruses are incapable of autonomous energy production. Although many experimental studies make it clear that viruses are parasitic entities that hijack the molecular resources of the host, a detailed estimate for the energetic cost of viral synthesis is largely lacking. To quantify the energetic cost of viruses to their hosts, we enumerated the costs associated with two very distinct but representative DNA and RNA viruses, namely, T4 and influenza. We found that, for these viruses, translation of viral proteins is the most energetically expensive process. Interestingly, the costs of building a T4 phage and a single influenza virus are nearly the same. Due to influenza's higher burst size, however, the overall cost of a T4 phage infection is only 2-3% of the cost of an influenza infection. The costs of these infections relative to their host's estimated energy budget during the infection reveal that a T4 infection consumes about a third of its host's energy budget, whereas an influenza infection consumes only ≈ 1%. Building on our estimates for T4, we show how the energetic costs of double-stranded DNA phages scale with the capsid size, revealing that the dominant cost of building a virus can switch from translation to genome replication above a critical size. Last, using our predictions for the energetic cost of viruses, we provide estimates for the strengths of selection and genetic drift acting on newly incorporated genetic elements in viral genomes, under conditions of energy limitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gita Mahmoudabadi
- Department of Bioengineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125
| | - Ron Milo
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Rob Phillips
- Department of Bioengineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125;
- Department of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125
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2
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Fernandes S, Labarde A, Baptista C, Jakutytè L, Tavares P, São-José C. A non-invasive method for studying viral DNA delivery to bacteria reveals key requirements for phage SPP1 DNA entry in Bacillus subtilis cells. Virology 2016; 495:79-91. [PMID: 27179995 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Revised: 04/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Bacteriophages use most frequently a tail apparatus to create a channel across the entire bacterial cell envelope to transfer the viral genome to the host cell cytoplasm, initiating infection. Characterization of this critical step remains a major challenge due to the difficulty to monitor DNA entry in the bacterium and its requirements. In this work we developed a new method to study phage DNA entry that has the potential to be extended to many tailed phages. Its application to study genome delivery of bacteriophage SPP1 into Bacillus subtilis disclosed a key role of the host cell membrane potential in the DNA entry process. An energized B. subtilis membrane and a millimolar concentration of calcium ions are shown to be major requirements for SPP1 DNA entry following the irreversible binding of phage particles to the receptor YueB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Fernandes
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Audrey Labarde
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, UMR 9198, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France; Unit of Molecular and Structural Virology (VMS), UPR3296 CNRS, Campus CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Catarina Baptista
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lina Jakutytè
- Unit of Molecular and Structural Virology (VMS), UPR3296 CNRS, Campus CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Paulo Tavares
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, UMR 9198, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France; Unit of Molecular and Structural Virology (VMS), UPR3296 CNRS, Campus CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Carlos São-José
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal.
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3
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Adhikari R, Bhattacharya A. Translocation of a semiflexible polymer through a nanopore in the presence of attractive binding particles. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2015; 92:032711. [PMID: 26465502 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.92.032711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We study the translocation dynamics of a semiflexible polymer through a nanopore from the cis into the trans compartment containing attractive binding particles (BPs) using the Langevin dynamics simulation in two dimensions. The binding particles accelerate the threading process in two ways: (i) reducing the back-sliding of the translocated monomer, and (ii) providing the pulling force toward the translocation direction. We observe that for certain binding strength (ε_{c}) and concentration (ρ) of the BPs, the translocation is faster than the ideal ratcheting condition as elucidated by Simon, Peskin, and Oster [M. Simon, C. S. Peskin, and G. F. Oster, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 3770 (1992)PNASA60027-842410.1073/pnas.89.9.3770]. The asymmetry produced by the BPs at the trans-side leads to similarities of this process to that of a driven translocation with an applied force inside the pore manifested in various physical quantities. Furthermore, we provide an analytic expression for the force experienced by the translocating chain as well as for the scaled mean first passage time (MFPT), for which we observe that for various combinations of N, ε, and ρ the scaled MFPT (〈τ〉/N^{1.5}ρ^{0.8}) collapses onto the same master plot. Based on the analysis of our simulation data, we provide plausible arguments with regard to how the scaling theory of driven translocation can be generalized for such a directed diffusion process by replacing the externally applied force with an effective force.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramesh Adhikari
- Department of Physics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816-2385, USA
| | - Aniket Bhattacharya
- Department of Physics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816-2385, USA
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4
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Abstract
Sixty years after Hershey and Chase showed that nucleic acid is the major component of phage particles that is ejected into cells, we still do not fully understand how the process occurs. Advances in electron microscopy have revealed the structure of the condensed DNA confined in a phage capsid, and the mechanisms and energetics of packaging a phage genome are beginning to be better understood. Condensing DNA subjects it to high osmotic pressure, which has been suggested to provide the driving force for its ejection during infection. However, forces internal to a phage capsid cannot, alone, cause complete genome ejection into cells. Here, we describe the structure of the DNA inside mature phages and summarize the current models of genome ejection, both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian J Molineux
- Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA.
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5
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Casjens SR, Molineux IJ. Short noncontractile tail machines: adsorption and DNA delivery by podoviruses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 726:143-79. [PMID: 22297513 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0980-9_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Tailed dsDNA bacteriophage virions bind to susceptible cells with the tips of their tails and then deliver their DNA through the tail into the cells to initiate infection. This chapter discusses what is known about this process in the short-tailed phages (Podoviridae). Their short tails require that many of these virions adsorb to the outer layers of the cell and work their way down to the outer membrane surface before releasing their DNA. Interestingly, the receptor-binding protein of many short-tailed phages (and some with long tails) has an enzymatic activity that cleaves their polysaccharide receptors. Reversible adsorption and irreversible adsorption to primary and secondary receptors are discussed, including how sequence divergence in tail fiber and tailspike proteins leads to different host specificities. Upon reaching the outer membrane of Gram-negative cells, some podoviral tail machines release virion proteins into the cell that help the DNA efficiently traverse the outer layers of the cell and/or prepare the cell cytoplasm for phage genome arrival. Podoviruses utilize several rather different variations on this theme. The virion DNA is then released into the cell; the energetics of this process is discussed. Phages like T7 and N4 deliver their DNA relatively slowly, using enzymes to pull the genome into the cell. At least in part this mechanism ensures that genes in late-entering DNA are not expressed at early times. On the other hand, phages like P22 probably deliver their DNA more rapidly so that it can be circularized before the cascade of gene expression begins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherwood R Casjens
- Pathology Department, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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6
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Picozzi C, Volponi G, Vigentini I, Grassi S, Foschino R. Assessment of transduction of Escherichia coli Stx2-encoding phage in dairy process conditions. Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 153:388-94. [PMID: 22197444 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 11/22/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In the environment, bacteriophages are regarded as natural vector for the transmission of Shiga-toxin genes among Shiga-toxin Escherichia coli strains. The possibility of transduction has been noticed in intestinal tract of various animals but experimental observations on this phenomenon in food processes are lacking. To investigate the transduction in milk at different temperature profiles and cell concentrations, an experimental plan including two different Stx(2)-phages (ϕGV2412 and ϕL34), induced respectively from E. coli O157:H7 181181/2 and E. coli O157:H7 EC34, and two recipient E. coli strains (CNCTC 6896, WG5) was performed. The donor strains were generated by lysogenization of CNCTC 6896 with ϕGV2412 and ϕL34 respectively. Spectinomycin resistance gene (aadA) was inserted into stx(2) operon in order to select transduced cells. Transductants were never observed at 4°C up to 24 h, whereas after a treatment at 37°C for 2 h and at 25°C for 22 h they were detected in 67% of the trials with a ratio of transduction varying from 1.13 10(-6) to 7.87 10(-8). A treatment at 48°C for 2 h followed by a second step at 25°C for 22 h showed an occurrence of transduction events in only 19% of cases with a ratio of transduction varying from 2.22 10(-7) to 2.67 10(-8). The generation of transductants and the spontaneous induction of phages in milk were not affected by initial or final concentration of the donor or recipient strains. The results show that transduction phenomenon occurs when the cells are metabolically active and it does not take place at low temperatures. Therefore, the maintenance of the chilling chain proved to be a main factor to prevent the spread of Stx-genes in dairy processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Picozzi
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Alimentari e Microbiologiche, Università degli Studi di Milano, via G. Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
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7
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Calcium ion-dependent entry of the membrane-containing bacteriophage PM2 into its Pseudoalteromonas host. Virology 2010; 405:120-8. [PMID: 20646729 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2010] [Revised: 05/09/2010] [Accepted: 05/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Marine bacteriophage PM2 infects gram-negative Pseudoalteromonas species and is currently the only assigned member of the Corticoviridae family. The icosahedral protein shell covers an internal protein-rich phage membrane that encloses the highly supercoiled dsDNA genome. In this study we investigated PM2 entry into the host. Our results indicate that PM2 adsorption to the host is dependent on the intracellular ATP concentration, while genome penetration through the cytoplasmic membrane depends on the presence of millimolar concentrations of calcium ions in the medium. In the absence of Ca(2+) the infection is arrested at the entry stage but can be rescued by the addition of Ca(2+). Interestingly, PM2 entry induces abrupt cell lysis if the host outer membrane is not stabilized by divalent cations. Experimental data described in this study in combination with results obtained previously allowed us to propose a sequential model describing the entry of bacteriophage PM2 into the host cells.
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8
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Abstract
Shiga toxin (stx) transduction in various food matrices has been evaluated with lysogens of Stx phages. stx transduction events were observed for many phages under appropriate conditions. Transduction did not occur at low pH and low temperatures. A total of 10(3) to 10(4) CFU ml(-1) was the minimal amount of donor and recipient strains necessary to generate transductants.
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9
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Grayson P, Molineux IJ. Is phage DNA 'injected' into cells--biologists and physicists can agree. Curr Opin Microbiol 2007; 10:401-9. [PMID: 17714979 PMCID: PMC2064038 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2007.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2007] [Accepted: 04/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The double-stranded DNA inside bacteriophages is packaged at a density of approximately 500 mg/ml and exerts an osmotic pressure of tens of atmospheres. This pressure is commonly assumed to cause genome ejection during infection. Indeed, by the addition of their natural receptors, some phages can be induced in vitro to completely expel their genome from the virion. However, the osmotic pressure of the bacterial cytoplasm exerts an opposing force, making it impossible for the pressure of packaged DNA to cause complete genome ejection in vivo. Various processes for complete genome ejection are discussed, but we focus on a novel proposal suggesting that the osmotic gradient between the extracellular environment and the cytoplasm results in fluid flow through the phage virion at the initiation of infection. The phage genome is thereby sucked into the cell by hydrodynamic drag.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Grayson
- Department of Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125
| | - Ian J. Molineux
- Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712
- * Corresponding author. Phone: 512–471–3143
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10
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González-Huici V, Salas M, Hermoso JM. Requirements for Bacillus subtilis bacteriophage phi29 DNA ejection. Gene 2006; 374:19-25. [PMID: 16517096 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2006.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2005] [Revised: 01/05/2006] [Accepted: 01/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Phage phi29 infects Bacillus subtilis and ejects its linear DNA with a right to left polarity in a two-step, "push-pull" mechanism. In the first step 65% of the DNA is pushed inside the cell, presumably by the pressure built inside the capsid. In the second step, the remaining DNA is pulled by a hypothetical motor that comprises at least viral protein p17, encoded by the right early operon, in an energy-dependent process. We have further studied phi29 DNA ejection by using energy poisons and DNA replication and transcription inhibitors. The first step is passive, as it does not require an external energy source. The second step is transcription-independent and is completely abolished by novobiocin, suggesting a requirement for negatively supercoiled DNA. Viral DNA pulling also requires an electrochemical proton gradient, as the process is highly impaired by specific energy poisons such as gramicidin and CCCP (carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone). The fact that azide has no effect in the absence of p17 suggests that this protein is essential for energy transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor González-Huici
- Instituto de Biología Molecular Eladio Viñuela (CSIC), Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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11
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Kemp P, Gupta M, Molineux IJ. Bacteriophage T7 DNA ejection into cells is initiated by an enzyme-like mechanism. Mol Microbiol 2004; 53:1251-65. [PMID: 15306026 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2004.04204.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In a normal infection about 850 bp of the bacteriophage T7 genome is ejected into the cell, the remainder of the genome is internalized through transcription by Escherichia coli and then T7 RNA polymerase. Rates of T7 DNA internalization by the E. coli enzyme in vivo are constant across the whole genome. As expected for an enzyme-catalysed reaction, rates vary with temperature and can be fitted to Arrhenius kinetics. Phage virions containing a mutant gp16, a protein known to be ejected from the phage capsid into the cell at the initiation of infection, allow complete entry of the T7 genome in the absence of transcription. The kinetics of DNA ejection from such a mutant virion into the bacterial cytoplasm have also been measured at different temperatures in vivo. Between 15 and 43 degrees C the entire 40 kb T7 genome is translocated into the cell at a constant rate that is characteristic for each temperature, and the temperature-dependence of DNA translocation rates can be fitted to Arrhenius kinetics. The data are consistent with the idea that transcription-independent DNA translocation from the T7 virion is also enzyme-catalysed. The proton motive force is necessary for this mode of DNA translocation, because collapsing the membrane potential while the T7 genome is entering the cell abruptly halts further DNA transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Kemp
- Section of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, and Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712-1095, USA
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12
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Abstract
The mechanism of bacteriophage DNA injection is poorly understood, often considered a simple process, driven merely by the packing pressure inside the capsid. In contrast to the well-established DNA packaging mechanism of Bacillus subtilis phage Ø29, that involves a molecular motor formed by the connector and a viral ATPase, nothing is known about its DNA injection into the cell. We have studied this process measuring DNA binding of p6, a viral genome organization protein. The linear DNA penetrates with a right-left polarity, in a two-step process. In the first step approximately 65% of the genome is pushed into the cell most probably by the pressure built inside the viral capsid. Thus, synthesis of viral proteins from the right early operon is allowed. This step is controlled, probably by bacterial protein(s) that slow down DNA entry. In the second step at least one of the viral early proteins, p17, participates in the molecular machinery that pulls the remaining DNA inside the cell. Both steps are energy-dependent, as treatment of cells with azide overrides the whole mechanism, leading to a deregulated, passive entry of DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor González-Huici
- Instituto de Biología Molecular Eladio Viñuela (CSIC), Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma, Canto Blanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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13
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Zandi R, Reguera D, Rudnick J, Gelbart WM. What drives the translocation of stiff chains? Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:8649-53. [PMID: 12851462 PMCID: PMC166366 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1533334100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2003] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We study the dynamics of the passage of a stiff chain through a pore into a cell containing particles that bind reversibly to it. Using Brownian molecular dynamics simulations we investigate the mean first-passage time as a function of the length of the chain inside for different concentrations of binding particles. As a consequence of the interactions with these particles, the chain experiences a net force along its length whose calculated value from the simulations accounts for the velocity at which it enters the cell. This force can in turn be obtained from the solution of a generalized diffusion equation incorporating an effective Langmuir adsorption free energy for the chain plus binding particles. These results suggest a role of binding particles in the translocation process that is in general quite different from that of a Brownian ratchet. Furthermore, nonequilibrium effects contribute significantly to the dynamics; e.g., the chain often enters the cell faster than particle binding can be saturated, resulting in a force several times smaller than the equilibrium value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roya Zandi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Calfornia, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- B V Prasad
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Keck Center for Computational Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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15
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Abstract
Development of a sensitive assay that measures the rate of cellular internalization of an infecting bacteriophage T7 genome has led to surprising observations on the initiation of infection. Proteins ejected from the phage virion probably function as an extensible tail to form a channel across the cell envelope. This channel is subsequently used for translocating the phage genome into the cell. One of these ejected proteins also controls the amount of DNA that enters the cell, rendering subsequent internalization of the remainder of the genome dependent on transcription. Mutations affecting this protein allow the entire phage genome to enter a cell by the transcription-independent process. This process exhibits pseudo-zero-order reaction kinetics and a temperature dependence of translocation rate that are not expected if DNA ejection from a phage capsid were caused by a physical process. The temperature dependence of transcription-independent T7 DNA translocation rate is similar to those of enzyme-catalysed reactions. Current data suggest a highly speculative model, in which two of the proteins ejected from the phage head establish a molecular motor that ratchets the phage genome into the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- I J Molineux
- Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712-1095, USA.
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16
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Abstract
The review deals with some of the transport functions of different systems that have been implicated with several pathological disorders. Membrane transport role in parasitic diseases and metal resistance is discussed as a few selected examples. Among various limitations that are encountered in recombinant technology and in heterologous expression of proteins, transport functions of the host organisms cannot be ignored. Recently, membrane transport has acquired a new emerging role in multidrug resistance. Several membrane transporters, particularly ATP binding cassette (ABC) proteins that are involved in drug resistance, have been identified throughout the evolutionary scale. The review briefly emphasizes that membranes are not only important as structural elements but are also adopted to perform diverse functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Prasad
- Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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17
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Watanabe K, Kakita Y, Nakashima Y, Miake F. Involvement of host cell energy in the transfection of Lactobacillus casei protoplasts with phage PL-1 DNA. Curr Microbiol 1995; 30:39-43. [PMID: 7765881 DOI: 10.1007/bf00294522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Transfection of Lactobacillus casei ATCC 27092 protoplasts with phage PL-1 DNA was studied under various conditions. The process of transfection was dependent on the incubation temperature, and the apparent activation energy was calculated to be about 11 kcal/mol. Transfection was inhibited by treating the cells before protoplasting either with monoiodoacetate, N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD), or NaN3, without affecting both the viability of uninfected cells and protoplasting. The addition of DCCD after mixing protoplasts and DNA had no influence on transfection efficiencies. The transfection of L. casei protoplasts with phage PL-1 DNA was considered to require cell energy such as proton-motive force, probably in the initial stages, although the direct involvement of cell energy in the transfer of DNA across the cell membrane is still unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Watanabe
- Microbiology Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Japan
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18
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Palmen R, Driessen AJ, Hellingwerf KJ. Bioenergetic aspects of the translocation of macromolecules across bacterial membranes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1994; 1183:417-51. [PMID: 8286395 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2728(94)90072-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria are extremely versatile in the sense that they have gained the ability to transport all three major classes of biopolymers through their cell envelope: proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides. These macromolecules are translocated across membranes in a large number of cellular processes by specific translocation systems. Members of the ABC (ATP binding cassette) superfamily of transport ATPases are involved in the translocation of all three classes of macromolecules, in addition to unique transport ATPases. An intriguing aspect of these transport processes is that the barrier function of the membrane is preserved despite the fact the dimensions of the translocated molecules by far surpasses the thickness of the membrane. This raises questions like: How are these polar compounds translocated across the hydrophobic interior of the membrane, through a proteinaceous pore or through the lipid phase; what drives these macromolecules across the membrane; which energy sources are used and how is unidirectionality achieved? It is generally believed that macromolecules are translocated in a more or less extended, most likely linear form. A recurring theme in the bioenergetics of these translocation reactions in bacteria is the joint involvement of free energy input in the form of ATP hydrolysis and via proton sym- or antiport, driven by a proton gradient. Important similarities in the bioenergetic mechanisms of the translocation of these biopolymers therefore may exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Palmen
- Department of Microbiology, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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19
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Sabelnikov AG. Nucleic acid transfer through cell membranes: towards the underlying mechanisms. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1994; 62:119-52. [PMID: 7524111 DOI: 10.1016/0079-6107(94)90009-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Various cases of DNA (RNA) transfer through membranes of living cells are reviewed. They are classified into two major categories: those which occur in Nature (natural transfer) and those imposed by various physical and chemical treatments of cells (induced transfer). Among the examples of natural transfer surveyed are the transfer during bacterial conjugation, genetic transformation, viral infection of bacteria, and nuclear membrane trafficking. Consideration of the induced transfer is focused on the two methods most widely used at present to introduce foreign genetic information into pro- and eukaryotic cells: Ca2+ (and some other divalent cations)-induced and calcium phosphate-induced transfer, and transfer during electroporation of cells. Emphasis is made on the underlying mechanisms of transfer, or rather on what is currently known about them. Energetic aspects of transfer are also discussed and different tentative models of transfer are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Sabelnikov
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, N.Y. 11973
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20
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Watanabe K, Shirabe M, Fukuzaki T, Kakita Y, Nakashima Y, Miake F. Electron microscope studies on the host cell energy requirement for injection of PL-1 phage DNA intoLactobacillus casei. Curr Microbiol 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01575920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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21
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Heller KJ. Molecular interaction between bacteriophage and the gram-negative cell envelope. Arch Microbiol 1992; 158:235-48. [PMID: 1417416 DOI: 10.1007/bf00245239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K J Heller
- Universität Konstanz, Fakultät für Biologie, Federal Republic of Germany
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22
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Boulanger P, Letellier L. Ion channels are likely to be involved in the two steps of phage T5 DNA penetration into Escherichia coli cells. J Biol Chem 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)50710-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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23
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Feucht A, Schmid A, Benz R, Schwarz H, Heller KJ. Pore formation associated with the tail-tip protein pb2 of bacteriophage T5. J Biol Chem 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)44788-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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24
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25
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Sabelnikov A. DNA transfer through cell membranes in bacteria. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-0728(89)87270-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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26
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Vinnikov AI, Zueva VS. Association between phage DNA injection and generation of the protonmotive force in Staphylococcus aureus. ZENTRALBLATT FUR BAKTERIOLOGIE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY 1989; 272:145-53. [PMID: 2534346 DOI: 10.1016/s0934-8840(89)80001-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Suppression of protonmotive force generators in staphylococci lead to a loss of phage infection efficiency. KCN inhibited phage infection by 49.5-53.5%; DCCD by 51.0-61.4%; CCCP by 59.2-68.8%. Suppression tock place at the stage of phage DNA transport. Valinomycin in concentration of 0.5 microM evoked dissipation of the membrane potential, nigericin caused a reduction of the gradient pH in the staphylococci membrane at a concentration of 12.0 microM. Individually, these antibiotics did not have an essential influence on the efficiency of phage infection but when combined, a maximum inhibition of phage infection (64.5%) occurred at the stage of introducing phage DNA into the bacterial cell implicating the participation of the membrane potential and pH gradient in the transportation of phage nucleic acid to the staphylococcal cell.
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27
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Letellier L, Boulanger P. Involvement of ion channels in the transport of phage DNA through the cytoplasmic membrane of E. coli. Biochimie 1989; 71:167-74. [PMID: 2470417 DOI: 10.1016/0300-9084(89)90147-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Upon infection, phage DNA is transported through the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane. This crossing is accompanied by a transient increase in the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane toward ions and small solutes. This has led several authors to propose that DNA might cross the cytoplasmic membrane through channels. In the first part of the review we present data that we obtained with phage T4 and that strongly support this proposal. We then present the structural and ionic characteristics of these channels. In the second part, we summarize data obtained by several authors concerning the permeability changes induced by different phages and show that these results are compatible with a model of phage DNA transfer through channels. Finally, we discuss the possible origin of these channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Letellier
- Laboratoire des Biomembranes, UA 1116, Université Paris Sud, Orsay, France
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28
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Characterization of ion channels involved in the penetration of phage T4 DNA into Escherichia coli cells. J Biol Chem 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)81584-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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29
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Filali Maltouf AK, Labedan B. The energetics of the injection process of bacteriophage lambda DNA and the role of the ptsM/pel-encoded protein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1985; 130:1093-101. [PMID: 2992499 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(85)91728-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
We have examined the nature of the role played in the process of phage lambda DNA injection by the bacterial protein coded by the ptsM/pel gene. Neither the specific inhibition of the activity of the PtsM protein, nor the addition of inhibitors of phosphotransferase system modified the efficiency of lambda DNA penetration. Thus, the PtsM/Pel protein does not seem to play a role through its transport function, although we have confirmed that it must be present for a successful lambda DNA injection. Moreover, the presence of various metabolic inhibitors (uncouplers, cyanide, arsenate) separately or together, or even harsher methods of energy depletion did not prevent lambda DNA penetration, suggesting that DNA is entering the cell cytoplasm by diffusion.
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30
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Release of respiratory control in Escherichia coli after bacteriophage adsorption: process independent of DNA injection. J Bacteriol 1985; 161:179-82. [PMID: 2981800 PMCID: PMC214853 DOI: 10.1128/jb.161.1.179-182.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Adsorption of phages T4, T5, and BF23 to previously starved Escherichia coli cells triggered the immediate release of respiratory control. A similar stimulation of respiration was induced after T4 ghost attachment, showing that this process was independent of the mechanism of DNA injection. Rather, this change in the respiratory rate was related to the transient depolarization of the cytoplasmic membrane also induced after phage and ghost adsorption. Both processes were suppressed by addition of ethylene glycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid in the case of T4 (phage and ghosts) but not of T5 and BF23. The increase in respiratory rate observed after phage adsorption was of a magnitude similar to that induced by protonophores. Since other treatments that depolarize the membrane without a massive proton influx did not increase the rate of respiration of starved bacteria with the same efficiency, these results suggest that phage adsorption induced an entry of protons into the cell cytoplasm.
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31
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Braun V, Fischer E, Hantke K, Heller K, Rotering H. Functional aspects of gram-negative cell surfaces. Subcell Biochem 1985; 11:103-80. [PMID: 3904084 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1698-3_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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32
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Abstract
Evidence for changes in Escherichia coli envelope structure caused by the bacteriophage T5 gene A2 protein was obtained by the use of mutant bacteriophages, envelope fractionation procedures, electrophoretic analysis, and in vitro binding studies with purified gene A2 protein. The results suggested that the T5 gene A2 protein perturbs the host envelope as it functions to promote DNA transfer.
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33
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Keweloh H, Bakker EP. Permeability changes in the cytoplasmic membrane of Escherichia coli K-12 early after infection with bacteriophage T1. J Bacteriol 1984; 160:347-53. [PMID: 6384195 PMCID: PMC214723 DOI: 10.1128/jb.160.1.347-353.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The nature of the bacteriophage T1-induced changes in the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane of Escherichia coli K-12 was investigated. At 20 degrees C and with glucose as a substrate, the addition of one bacteriophage per cell induced a complete and irreversible loss of K+ ions (single-hit phenomenon). K+ loss was compensated by an uptake of Na+, Li+, or choline by the cell, depending on which of these ions was the major cation in the medium. T1 depolarized the cells and inhibited 86Rb+-K+ exchange across the cytoplasmic membrane. The loss of K+ occurred independently of the Mg2+ concentration in the medium. By contrast, at low but not at high Mg2+ concentrations, T1 caused efflux of Mg2+ which in turn caused inhibition of respiration and a decrease of delta pH.
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34
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Keweloh HW, Bakker EP. Increased permeability and subsequent resealing of the host cell membrane early after infection of Escherichia coli with bacteriophage T1. J Bacteriol 1984; 160:354-9. [PMID: 6384196 PMCID: PMC214724 DOI: 10.1128/jb.160.1.354-359.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The addition of T1 to cells growing at 37 degrees C in a minimal medium at 0.4 mM Mg2+ rapidly induced an irreversible loss of K+ and Mg2+ and uptake of Na+ by the cells. Both the ATP pool of the cells and the transmembrane proton motive force were reduced. These cells did not lyse from within, since viral DNA replication and the maturation of the 36,000-molecular-weight phage head protein were inhibited. By contrast, cells lysed when infected at 5.4 mM Mg2+. In these cells, T1 initially induced K+ efflux and Na+ influx and lowered the cytoplasmic ATP concentration. After a few minutes, the cation gradients and ATP pool were restored to levels close to that of control cells. At 5.4 mM Mg2+, the shutoff of host protein synthesis was delayed and coincided with the restoration of the ATP pool. In an ATP synthase-negative mutant, infection with T1 did not affect the cytoplasmic ATP concentration but inhibited host protein synthesis with the same rate as it did in wild-type cells.
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35
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Hulen C, Legault-Demare J. Alteration of active transport after bacteriophage T5 infection. J Virol 1984; 50:671-7. [PMID: 6374164 PMCID: PMC255723 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.50.3.671-677.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophage T5 absorption immediately followed by injection of the first-step-transfer DNA segment produces alterations in the bacterial membrane which reduce the uptake of amino acids and of o-nitrophenyl-beta-D-galactopyranoside. Concomitantly, intracellular ATP is hydrolyzed. The extent of inhibition of uptake and of ATP hydrolysis is cooperatively increased with the multiplicity of infection. Inhibition of active transport at a high multiplicity of infection (greater than 3) is also observed after the second step of DNA injection. In contrast, at low multiplicities of infection, phage proteins are able to enhance amino acid uptake. Infection of su- bacteria with amber mutants in the first-step-transfer DNA suggests that protein A1 is implicated in this enhancement.
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36
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Tosi F, Labedan B, Legault-Démare J. Analysis of the coliphage T5 DNA ejection process with free and liposome-associated TonA protein. J Virol 1984; 50:213-9. [PMID: 6366246 PMCID: PMC255601 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.50.1.213-219.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Outer membrane protein TonA, the receptor for coliphage T5, has been partially purified and incorporated into the phospholipid bilayer of liposomes. Adsorption of the phage to its receptor in either a free or liposome-associated form is fast and sufficient to trigger the ejection of encapsidated DNA. In both in vitro systems the exit of DNA from the phage capsid is a very slow process. Ejected DNA can partially accumulate inside the liposome aqueous compartment, but the transfer from the phage head to the liposome internal space is never complete, perhaps because the liposome volume is too small. The presence of polyamines or divalent cations (magnesium) or both in the incubation medium diminished the extent of DNA ejection, possibly by stabilizing DNA inside the head. DNA movement was slowed as the temperature was decreased from 37 to 18 degrees C. Furthermore, incubation at 4 degrees C totally prevented this DNA movement, even if a large part of the DNA had already exited the capsid.
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37
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Letellier L, Labedan B. Involvement of envelope-bound calcium in the transient depolarization of the Escherichia coli cytoplasmic membrane induced by bacteriophage T4 and T5 adsorption. J Bacteriol 1984; 157:789-94. [PMID: 6421800 PMCID: PMC215328 DOI: 10.1128/jb.157.3.789-794.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that adsorption of bacteriophages T4 and T5 to their respective outer membrane receptors induced a partial depolarization of the cytoplasmic membrane. As these membrane potential changes were independent of phage properties, we proposed that phage adsorption triggered the emission of a signal which must be transmitted between the two membranes. We show here that these two phages use different mechanisms of transmission of this stimulation signal. In the case of T4, but not of T5, a specific requirement for envelope-bound calcium was found. Indeed, addition of ethylene glycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid prevented the membrane potential changes induced by T4. This envelope-bound calcium became accessible to the chelator only as a consequence of phage adsorption and remained in this state during the depolarization and repolarization. Membrane potential changes again occurred if calcium was added after the addition of ethylene glycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid and phage. The same concentration (300 microM) of ethylene glycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid prevented the T4-induced depolarization between multiplicities of infection of 6 and 30. This suggests that phage adsorption triggers both a conformational change of membrane components, the number of which reflects the number of stimuli (phages), and the liberation of a definite amount of calcium. This liberated calcium would, in turn, activate these modified membrane components to induce the depolarization. The fact that depolarization may be induced several times after a unique adsorption implies that these membrane components remain irreversibly modified.
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39
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Abstract
Injection of T5 first-step-transfer DNA was prevented at 29 degrees C, after adsorption to an unsaturated fatty acid mutant grown on elaidate (phase transition at 35 degrees C). Local anesthetics, which increase membrane fluidity, did not inhibit injection above transition temperature and could even reverse the inhibition observed at 29 degrees C on elaidate cells.
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