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Cheng L, Zhang Z, Zhu D, Luo Q, Lu X. Glucosylglycerol phosphorylase, a potential novel pathway of microbial glucosylglycerol catabolism. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 108:214. [PMID: 38363425 PMCID: PMC10873239 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-024-13035-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Glucosylglycerol (GG) is a natural compatible solute that can be synthesized by many cyanobacteria and a few heterotrophic bacteria under high salinity conditions. In cyanobacteria, GG is synthesized by GG-phosphate synthase and GG-phosphate phosphatase, and a hydrolase GGHA catalyzes its degradation. In heterotrophic bacteria (such as some Marinobacter species), a fused form of GG-phosphate phosphatase and GG-phosphate synthase is present, but the cyanobacteria-like degradation pathway is not available. Instead, a phosphorylase GGP, of which the coding gene is located adjacent to the gene that encodes the GG-synthesizing enzyme, is supposed to perform the GG degradation function. In the present study, a GGP homolog from the salt-tolerant M. salinexigens ZYF650T was characterized. The recombinant GGP catalyzed GG decomposition via a two-step process of phosphorolysis and hydrolysis in vitro and exhibited high substrate specificity toward GG. The activity of GGP was enhanced by inorganic salts at low concentrations but significantly inhibited by increasing salt concentrations. While the investigation on the physiological role of GGP in M. salinexigens ZYF650T was limited due to the failed induction of GG production, the heterologous expression of ggp in the living cells of the GG-producing cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 significantly reduced the salt-induced GG accumulation. Together, these data suggested that GGP may represent a novel pathway of microbial GG catabolism. KEY POINTS: • GGP catalyzes GG degradation by a process of phosphorolysis and hydrolysis • GGP-catalyzed GG degradation is different from GGHA-based GG degradation • GGP represents a potential novel pathway of microbial GG catabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Cheng
- College of Chemical Engineering and Materials Sciences, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China
| | - Zhichao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Shandong Energy Institute, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China
| | - Daling Zhu
- College of Chemical Engineering and Materials Sciences, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China.
| | - Quan Luo
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China.
- Shandong Energy Institute, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China.
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China.
| | - Xuefeng Lu
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Shandong Energy Institute, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Marine Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Wenhai Rd 168, Qingdao, 266237, China
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2
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Luo Q, Duan Y, Lu X. Biological sources, metabolism, and production of glucosylglycerols, a group of natural glucosides of biotechnological interest. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 59:107964. [PMID: 35452777 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.107964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Glucosylglycerols (GGs) are a group of functional heterosides comprising glycerol and glucose. In nature, they are mainly produced by many moderately salt-tolerant cyanobacteria as compatible solutes in a salt-dependent manner and synthesized in a few higher plants and fermentation processes. Because of their many interesting physicochemical properties and biological activities, such as low sweetness, low hygroscopicity, high water-holding capacity, excellent biocompatibility, favorable performance in protecting macromolecules, and antitumor activity, GGs exhibit large application potential in the fields of cosmetics, health care, food service, enzyme production, and pharmaceuticals. Many in vitro systems using different members of the GH (glycoside hydrolase) family have been established for the enzymatic synthesis of GGs, and a few of them are in use for commercial production. Based on a good understanding of the genetic bases, biochemical processes, and regulatory mechanisms of GG metabolism in microorganisms (mainly cyanobacteria), in recent years GG production technologies with in vivo systems have also been developed by applying metabolic and bioprocess engineering to a few native or heterologous microbial cell factories. This successfully provides the market GG products with an alternative source. With the further elucidation of details about the biological functions of GGs and related mechanisms, the application scope of GGs will be greatly expanded. In the present review, the biological sources and physiological roles of GGs, the molecular bases and regulation of GG metabolism, and the recent progress in GG production and application are systematically summarized. A few new questions that have arisen in the basic research of GGs and perspectives on GG application are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Luo
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao 266101, China; Shandong Energy Institute, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao 266101, China; Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao 266101, China.
| | - Yangkai Duan
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao 266101, China.
| | - Xuefeng Lu
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao 266101, China; Shandong Energy Institute, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao 266101, China; Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao 266101, China; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Songling Rd 189, Qingdao 266101, China; Marine Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Wenhai Rd 168, Qingdao 266237, China.
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3
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Klähn S, Mikkat S, Riediger M, Georg J, Hess WR, Hagemann M. Integrative analysis of the salt stress response in cyanobacteria. Biol Direct 2021; 16:26. [PMID: 34906211 PMCID: PMC8670252 DOI: 10.1186/s13062-021-00316-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms evolved specific acclimation strategies to thrive in environments of high or fluctuating salinities. Here, salt acclimation in the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 was analyzed by integrating transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic data. A dynamic reorganization of the transcriptome occurred during the first hours after salt shock, e.g. involving the upregulation of genes to activate compatible solute biochemistry balancing osmotic pressure. The massive accumulation of glucosylglycerol then had a measurable impact on the overall carbon and nitrogen metabolism. In addition, we observed the coordinated induction of putative regulatory RNAs and of several proteins known for their involvement in other stress responses. Overall, salt-induced changes in the proteome and transcriptome showed good correlations, especially among the stably up-regulated proteins and their transcripts. We define an extended salt stimulon comprising proteins directly or indirectly related to compatible solute metabolism, ion and water movements, and a distinct set of regulatory RNAs involved in post-transcriptional regulation. Our comprehensive data set provides the basis for engineering cyanobacterial salt tolerance and to further understand its regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Klähn
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, Genetics and Experimental Bioinformatics, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Mikkat
- Core Facility Proteome Analysis, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Matthias Riediger
- Faculty of Biology, Genetics and Experimental Bioinformatics, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jens Georg
- Faculty of Biology, Genetics and Experimental Bioinformatics, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang R Hess
- Faculty of Biology, Genetics and Experimental Bioinformatics, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Martin Hagemann
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of Rostock, A.-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany. .,Department Life, Light and Matter, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany.
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Fichtner F, Lunn JE. The Role of Trehalose 6-Phosphate (Tre6P) in Plant Metabolism and Development. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 72:737-760. [PMID: 33428475 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050718-095929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Trehalose 6-phosphate (Tre6P) has a dual function as a signal and homeostatic regulator of sucrose levels in plants. In source leaves, Tre6P regulates the production of sucrose to balance supply with demand for sucrose from growing sink organs. As a signal of sucrose availability, Tre6P influences developmental decisions that will affect future demand for sucrose, such as flowering, embryogenesis, and shoot branching, and links the growth of sink organs to sucrose supply. This involves complex interactions with SUCROSE-NON-FERMENTING1-RELATED KINASE1 that are not yet fully understood. Tre6P synthase, the enzyme that makes Tre6P, plays a key role in the nexus between sucrose and Tre6P, operating in the phloem-loading zone of leaves and potentially generating systemic signals for source-sink coordination. Many plants have large and diverse families of Tre6P phosphatase enzymes that dephosphorylate Tre6P, some of which have noncatalytic functions in plant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Fichtner
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia;
| | - John Edward Lunn
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany;
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Current knowledge and recent advances in understanding metabolism of the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Biosci Rep 2021; 40:222317. [PMID: 32149336 PMCID: PMC7133116 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20193325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are key organisms in the global ecosystem, useful models for studying metabolic and physiological processes conserved in photosynthetic organisms, and potential renewable platforms for production of chemicals. Characterizing cyanobacterial metabolism and physiology is key to understanding their role in the environment and unlocking their potential for biotechnology applications. Many aspects of cyanobacterial biology differ from heterotrophic bacteria. For example, most cyanobacteria incorporate a series of internal thylakoid membranes where both oxygenic photosynthesis and respiration occur, while CO2 fixation takes place in specialized compartments termed carboxysomes. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of our knowledge on cyanobacterial physiology and the pathways in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 (Synechocystis) involved in biosynthesis of sugar-based metabolites, amino acids, nucleotides, lipids, cofactors, vitamins, isoprenoids, pigments and cell wall components, in addition to the proteins involved in metabolite transport. While some pathways are conserved between model cyanobacteria, such as Synechocystis, and model heterotrophic bacteria like Escherichia coli, many enzymes and/or pathways involved in the biosynthesis of key metabolites in cyanobacteria have not been completely characterized. These include pathways required for biosynthesis of chorismate and membrane lipids, nucleotides, several amino acids, vitamins and cofactors, and isoprenoids such as plastoquinone, carotenoids, and tocopherols. Moreover, our understanding of photorespiration, lipopolysaccharide assembly and transport, and degradation of lipids, sucrose, most vitamins and amino acids, and haem, is incomplete. We discuss tools that may aid our understanding of cyanobacterial metabolism, notably CyanoSource, a barcoded library of targeted Synechocystis mutants, which will significantly accelerate characterization of individual proteins.
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Díaz-Troya S, Roldán M, Mallén-Ponce MJ, Ortega-Martínez P, Florencio FJ. Lethality caused by ADP-glucose accumulation is suppressed by salt-induced carbon flux redirection in cyanobacteria. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2020; 71:2005-2017. [PMID: 31858138 PMCID: PMC7242066 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are widely distributed photosynthetic organisms. During the day they store carbon, mainly as glycogen, to provide the energy and carbon source they require for maintenance during the night. Here, we generate a mutant strain of the freshwater cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 lacking both glycogen synthases. This mutant has a lethal phenotype due to massive accumulation of ADP-glucose, the substrate of glycogen synthases. This accumulation leads to alterations in its photosynthetic capacity and a dramatic decrease in the adenylate energy charge of the cell to values as low as 0.1. Lack of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, the enzyme responsible for ADP-glucose synthesis, or reintroduction of any of the glycogen synthases abolishes the lethal phenotype. Viability of the glycogen synthase mutant is also fully recovered in NaCl-supplemented medium, which redirects the surplus of ADP-glucose to synthesize the osmolite glucosylglycerol. This alternative metabolic sink also suppresses phenotypes associated with the defective response to nitrogen deprivation characteristic of glycogen-less mutants, restoring the capacity to degrade phycobiliproteins. Thus, our system is an excellent example of how inadequate management of the adenine nucleotide pools results in a lethal phenotype, and the influence of metabolic carbon flux in cell viability and fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Díaz-Troya
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Miguel Roldán
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Manuel J Mallén-Ponce
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Pablo Ortega-Martínez
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Francisco J Florencio
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
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7
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Kirsch F, Klähn S, Hagemann M. Salt-Regulated Accumulation of the Compatible Solutes Sucrose and Glucosylglycerol in Cyanobacteria and Its Biotechnological Potential. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2139. [PMID: 31572343 PMCID: PMC6753628 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes that can assimilate inorganic carbon via oxygenic photosynthesis, which results in the formation of organic compounds essentially from CO2, water, and light. Increasing concerns regarding the increase in atmospheric CO2 due to fossil energy usage fueled the idea of a photosynthesis-driven and CO2-neutral, i.e., cyanobacteria-based biotechnology. The ability of various cyanobacteria to tolerate high and/or fluctuating salinities attenuates the requirement of freshwater for their cultivation, which makes these organisms even more interesting regarding a sustainable utilization of natural resources. However, those applications require a detailed knowledge of the processes involved in salt acclimation. Here, we review the current state of our knowledge on the regulation of compatible solute accumulation in cyanobacteria. The model organism Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 responds to increasing salinities mainly by the accumulation of glucosylglycerol (GG) and sucrose. After exposure toward increased salt concentrations, the accumulation of the main compatible solute GG is achieved by de novo synthesis. The key target of regulation is the enzyme GG-phosphate synthase (GgpS) and involves transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and biochemical mechanisms. Recently, the GG-degrading enzyme GG hydrolase A (GghA) was identified, which is particularly important for GG degradation during exposure to decreasing salinities. The inversely ion-regulated activities of GgpS and GghA could represent the main model for effectively tuning GG steady state levels according to external salinities. Similar to GG, the intracellular amount of sucrose is also salt-regulated and seems to be determined by the balance of sucrose synthesis via sucrose-phosphate synthase (Sps) and its degradation via invertase (Inv). In addition to their role as stress protectants, both compatible solutes also represent promising targets for biotechnology. Hence, the increasing knowledge on the regulation of compatible solute accumulation not only improves our understanding of the stress physiology of cyanobacteria but will also support their future biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich Kirsch
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute for Biosciences, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Stephan Klähn
- Department of Solar Materials, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martin Hagemann
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute for Biosciences, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
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8
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Sun M, Zhu Z, Chen J, Yang R, Luo Q, Wu W, Yan X, Chen H. Putative trehalose biosynthesis proteins function as differential floridoside-6-phosphate synthases to participate in the abiotic stress response in the red alga Pyropia haitanensis. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 19:325. [PMID: 31324146 PMCID: PMC6642608 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-019-1928-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The heteroside floridoside is a primary photosynthetic product that is known to contribute to osmotic acclimation in almost all orders of Rhodophyta. However, the encoding genes and enzymes responsible for the synthesis of floridoside and its isomeric form, L- or D-isofloridoside, are poorly studied. RESULTS Here, four putative trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (TPS) genes, designated as PhTPS1, PhTPS2, PhTPS3, and PhTPS4, were cloned and characterized from the red alga Pyropia haitanensis (Bangiophyceae). The deduced amino acid sequence is similar to the annotated TPS proteins of other organisms, especially the UDP-galactose substrate binding sites of PhTPS1, 2, which are highly conserved. Of these, PhTPS1, 4 are involved in the biosynthesis of floridoside and isofloridoside, with isofloridoside being the main product. PhTPS3 is an isofloridoside phosphate synthase, while PhTPS2 exhibits no activity. When challenged by desiccation, high temperature, and salt stress, PhTPS members were expressed to different degrees, but the responses to thermal stress and desiccation were stronger. CONCLUSIONS Thus, in P. haitanensis, PhTPSs encode the enzymatical activity of floridoside and isofloridoside phosphate synthase and are crucial for the abiotic stress defense response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minxiu Sun
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo University, Post Box 71, Ningbo, 315211 Zhejiang Province China
| | - Zhujun Zhu
- Ningbo Institute of Oceanography, Ningbo, 315832 Zhejiang China
| | - Juanjuan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo University, Post Box 71, Ningbo, 315211 Zhejiang Province China
| | - Rui Yang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo University, Post Box 71, Ningbo, 315211 Zhejiang Province China
| | - Qijun Luo
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo University, Post Box 71, Ningbo, 315211 Zhejiang Province China
| | - Wei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo University, Post Box 71, Ningbo, 315211 Zhejiang Province China
| | - Xiaojun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo University, Post Box 71, Ningbo, 315211 Zhejiang Province China
| | - Haimin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo University, Post Box 71, Ningbo, 315211 Zhejiang Province China
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Amemiya S, Toyoda H, Kimura M, Saito H, Kobayashi H, Ihara K, Kamagata K, Kawabata R, Kato S, Nakashimada Y, Furuta T, Hamamoto S, Uozumi N. The mechanosensitive channel YbdG from Escherichia coli has a role in adaptation to osmotic up-shock. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:12281-12292. [PMID: 31256002 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.007340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanosensitive channels play an important role in the adaptation of cells to hypo-osmotic shock. Among members of this channel family in Escherichia coli, the exact function and physiological role of the mechanosensitive channel homolog YbdG remain unclear. Characterization of YbdG's physiological role has been hampered by its lack of measurable transport activity. Using a nitrosoguanidine mutagenesis-aided screen in combination with next-generation sequencing, here we isolated a mutant with a point mutation in ybdG This mutation (resulting in a I167T change) conferred sensitivity to high osmotic stress, and the mutant cells differed from WT cells in morphology during hyperosmotic stress at alkaline pH. Interestingly, unlike the cells containing the I167T variant, a null-ybdG mutant did not exhibit this sensitivity and phenotype. Although I167T was located near the putative ion-conducting pore in a transmembrane region of YbdG, no change in ion channel activities of YbdG-I167T was detected. Of note, introduction of the WT C-terminal cytosolic region of YbdG into the I167T variant complemented the osmo-sensitive phenotype. Co-precipitation of proteins interacting with the C-terminal YbdG region led to the isolation of HldD and FbaA, whose overexpression in cells containing the YbdG-I167T variant partially rescued the osmo-sensitive phenotype. This study indicates that YbdG functions as a component of a mechanosensing system that transmits signals triggered by external osmotic changes to intracellular factors. The cellular role of YbdG uncovered here goes beyond its predicted function as an ion or solute transport protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun Amemiya
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aobayama 6-6-07, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Hayato Toyoda
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aobayama 6-6-07, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Mami Kimura
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aobayama 6-6-07, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Hiromi Saito
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8675, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kobayashi
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8675, Japan
| | - Kunio Ihara
- Center for Gene Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan
| | - Kiyoto Kamagata
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials, Tohoku University, Katahira 2-1-1, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Ryuji Kawabata
- School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Setsu Kato
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Graduate School of Advanced Sciences of Matter, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8530, Japan
| | - Yutaka Nakashimada
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Graduate School of Advanced Sciences of Matter, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8530, Japan
| | - Tadaomi Furuta
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, B-62 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Shin Hamamoto
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aobayama 6-6-07, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Uozumi
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aobayama 6-6-07, Sendai 980-8579, Japan.
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10
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Oren N, Raanan H, Kedem I, Turjeman A, Bronstein M, Kaplan A, Murik O. Desert cyanobacteria prepare in advance for dehydration and rewetting: The role of light and temperature sensing. Mol Ecol 2019; 28:2305-2320. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.15074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nadav Oren
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem Israel
| | - Hagai Raanan
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem Israel
- Environmental Biophysics and Molecular Ecology Program, Institute of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences Rutgers University New Brunswick New Jersey
| | - Isaac Kedem
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem Israel
| | - Adi Turjeman
- The Center for Genomic Technologies The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem Israel
| | - Michal Bronstein
- The Center for Genomic Technologies The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem Israel
| | - Aaron Kaplan
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem Israel
| | - Omer Murik
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem Israel
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11
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Kirsch F, Luo Q, Lu X, Hagemann M. Inactivation of invertase enhances sucrose production in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2018; 164:1220-1228. [PMID: 30113304 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Sucrose is naturally synthesized by many cyanobacteria under high salt conditions, which can be applied to produce this widely used feedstock. To improve sucrose production with the moderate halo-tolerant cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, we identified and biochemically characterized the sucrose-degrading invertase. Inactivating the invertase encoding gene sll0626 (inv) significantly increased cellular sucrose levels; interestingly sucrose over-accumulation was also observed under NaCl-free conditions. The subsequent inactivation of inv in the mutant ΔggpS, which cannot synthesize the major compatible solute glucosylglycerol, resulted in further enhanced sucrose accumulation in the presence of 1.5 % NaCl. Then, inv mutation was introduced into the previously obtained sucrose-producing strain WD25 (Du W, Liang F, Duan Y, Tan X, Lu X. Metab Eng 2013;19:17-25), which resulted in almost 40 % higher sucrose accumulation. These findings show that invertase is an interesting target in obtaining efficient sucrose production in cyanobacterial host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich Kirsch
- 1Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Quan Luo
- 2Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, PR China
| | - Xuefeng Lu
- 2Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, PR China.,3Marine biology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Wenhai Rd 1, Aoshanwei, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Martin Hagemann
- 4Department Life, Light & Matter, University of Rostock, 18051 Rostock, Germany.,1Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059 Rostock, Germany
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12
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Roenneke B, Rosenfeldt N, Derya SM, Novak JF, Marin K, Krämer R, Seibold GM. Production of the compatible solute α-D-glucosylglycerol by metabolically engineered Corynebacterium glutamicum. Microb Cell Fact 2018; 17:94. [PMID: 29908566 PMCID: PMC6004087 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-018-0939-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background α-d-Glucosylglycerol (αGG) has beneficial functions as a moisturizing agent in cosmetics and potential as a health food material, and therapeutic agent. αGG serves as compatible solute in various halotolerant cyanobacteria such as Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, which synthesizes αGG in a two-step reaction: The enzymatic condensation of ADP-glucose and glycerol 3-phosphate by GG-phosphate synthase (GGPS) is followed by the dephosphorylation of the intermediate by the GG-phosphate phosphatase (GGPP). The Gram-positive Corynebacterium glutamicum, an industrial workhorse for amino acid production, does not utilize αGG as a substrate and was therefore chosen for the development of a heterologous microbial production platform for αGG. Results Plasmid-bound expression of ggpS and ggpP from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 enabled αGG synthesis exclusively in osmotically stressed cells of C. glutamicum (pEKEx2-ggpSP), which is probably due to the unique intrinsic control mechanism of GGPS activity in response to intracellular ion concentrations. C. glutamicum was then engineered to optimize precursor supply for αGG production: The precursor for αGG synthesis ADP-glucose gets metabolized by both the glgA encoded glycogen synthase and the otsA encoded trehalose-6-phosphate synthase. Upon deletion of both genes the αGG concentration in culture supernatants was increased from 0.5 mM in C. glutamicum (pEKEx3-ggpSP) to 2.9 mM in C. glutamicum ΔotsA IMglgA (pEKEx3-ggpSP). Upon nitrogen limitation, which inhibits synthesis of amino acids as compatible solutes, C. glutamicum ΔotsA IMglgA (pEKEx3-ggpSP) produced more than 10 mM αGG (about 2 g L−1). Conclusions Corynebacterium glutamicum can be engineered as efficient platform for the production of the compatible solute αGG. Redirection of carbon flux towards αGG synthesis by elimination of the competing pathways for glycogen and trehalose synthesis as well as optimization of nitrogen supply is an efficient strategy to further optimize production of αGG. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12934-018-0939-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Roenneke
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany.,Gutachterbüro U. Borchardt, Hennef (Sieg), Germany
| | - Natalie Rosenfeldt
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sami M Derya
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Jens F Novak
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Kay Marin
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany.,Evonik Degussa GmbH, Halle (Westphalia), Germany
| | - Reinhard Krämer
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Gerd M Seibold
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany. .,Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein Allee 11, 89081, Ulm, Germany.
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13
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Rübsam H, Kirsch F, Reimann V, Erban A, Kopka J, Hagemann M, Hess WR, Klähn S. The iron-stress activated RNA 1 (IsaR1) coordinates osmotic acclimation and iron starvation responses in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Environ Microbiol 2018; 20:2757-2768. [PMID: 29468839 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In nature, microorganisms are exposed to multiple stress factors in parallel. Here, we investigated the response of the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 to simultaneous iron limitation and osmotic stresses. Iron is a major limiting factor for bacterial and phytoplankton growth in most environments. Thus, bacterial iron homeostasis is tightly regulated. In Synechocystis, it is mediated mainly by the transcriptional regulator FurA and the iron-stress activated RNA 1 (IsaR1). IsaR1 is an important riboregulator that affects the acclimation of the photosynthetic apparatus to iron starvation in multiple ways. Upon increases in salinity, Synechocystis responds by accumulating the compatible solute glucosylglycerol (GG). We show that IsaR1 overexpression causes a reduction in the de novo GG synthesis rate upon salt shock. We verified the direct interaction between IsaR1 and the 5'UTR of the ggpS mRNA, which in turn drastically reduced the de novo synthesis of the key enzyme for GG synthesis, glucosylglycerol phosphate synthase (GgpS). Thus, IsaR1 specifically interferes with the salt acclimation process in Synechocystis, in addition to its primary regulatory function. Moreover, the salt-stimulated GgpS production became reduced under parallel iron limitation in WT - an effect which is, however, attenuated in an isaR1 deletion strain. Hence, IsaR1 is involved in the integration of the responses to different environmental perturbations and slows the osmotic adaptation process in cells suffering from parallel iron starvation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriette Rübsam
- Faculty of Biology, Genetics and Experimental Bioinformatics, Schänzlestr. 1, University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Friedrich Kirsch
- Plant Physiology department, A.-Einstein-Str. 3, University of Rostock, Institute of Biological Sciences, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Viktoria Reimann
- Faculty of Biology, Genetics and Experimental Bioinformatics, Schänzlestr. 1, University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Erban
- Department of Molecular Physiology: Applied Metabolome Analysis, Am Mühlenberg 1, Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Joachim Kopka
- Department of Molecular Physiology: Applied Metabolome Analysis, Am Mühlenberg 1, Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Martin Hagemann
- Plant Physiology department, A.-Einstein-Str. 3, University of Rostock, Institute of Biological Sciences, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Wolfgang R Hess
- Faculty of Biology, Genetics and Experimental Bioinformatics, Schänzlestr. 1, University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Klähn
- Faculty of Biology, Genetics and Experimental Bioinformatics, Schänzlestr. 1, University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
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14
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Beck C, Knoop H, Steuer R. Modules of co-occurrence in the cyanobacterial pan-genome reveal functional associations between groups of ortholog genes. PLoS Genet 2018. [PMID: 29522508 PMCID: PMC5862535 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are a monophyletic phylogenetic group of global importance and have received considerable attention as potential host organisms for the renewable synthesis of chemical bulk products from atmospheric CO2. The cyanobacterial phylum exhibits enormous metabolic diversity with respect to morphology, lifestyle and habitat. As yet, however, research has mostly focused on few model strains and cyanobacterial diversity is insufficiently understood. In this respect, the increasing availability of fully sequenced bacterial genomes opens new and unprecedented opportunities to investigate the genetic inventory of organisms in the context of their pan-genome. Here, we seek understand cyanobacterial diversity using a comparative genome analysis of 77 fully sequenced and assembled cyanobacterial genomes. We use phylogenetic profiling to analyze the co-occurrence of clusters of likely ortholog genes (CLOGs) and reveal novel functional associations between CLOGs that are not captured by co-localization of genes. Going beyond pair-wise co-occurrences, we propose a network approach that allows us to identify modules of co-occurring CLOGs. The extracted modules exhibit a high degree of functional coherence and reveal known as well as previously unknown functional associations. We argue that the high functional coherence observed for the modules is a consequence of the similar-yet-diverse nature of cyanobacteria. Our approach highlights the importance of a multi-strain analysis to understand gene functions and environmental adaptations, with implications beyond the cyanobacterial phylum. The analysis is augmented with a simple toolbox that facilitates further analysis to investigate the co-occurrence neighborhood of specific CLOGs of interest. Cyanobacteria are photoautotrophic prokaryotes of global importance and offer great potential as host organisms for the renewable synthesis of chemical bulk products, including biofuels, from atmospheric CO2. As yet, however, research has mostly focussed on a small number of model strains and the genetic inventory of the cyanobacterial phylum is still insufficiently understood. The rapidly increasing availability of fully sequenced cyanobacterial genomes opens new and unprecendented possibilities to study the diversity of cyanobacterial strain in the context of the cyanobacterial pan-genome. Here, we seek to understand the genetic inventory of individual cyanobacterial strains based on the hypothesis that genes that are functionally related also co-occur within the genomes of different strains. We confirm this hypothesis by in depth analysis of co-occurrence that goes beyond pair-wise co-occurrences. We show that co-occurrence does not imply co-localization on the genome. Our work provides a novel approach to infer gene function and highlights the importance of a multi-strain analysis, with implications beyond the analysis of the cyanobacterial phylum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Beck
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institut für Theoretische Biologie (ITB), Berlin, Germany
| | - Henning Knoop
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institut für Theoretische Biologie (ITB), Berlin, Germany
| | - Ralf Steuer
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institut für Theoretische Biologie (ITB), Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
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15
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Song K, Hagemann M, Tan X, Lu X. The Response Regulator Slr1588 Regulates spsA But Is Not Crucial for Salt Acclimation of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1176. [PMID: 28694802 PMCID: PMC5483463 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacterial sucrose biosynthesis is stimulated under salt stress, which could be used for biotechnological sugar production. It has been shown that the response regulator Slr1588 negatively regulates the spsA gene encoding sucrose-phosphate synthase and mutation of the slr1588 gene also affected the salt tolerance of Synechocystis (Chen et al., 2014). The latter finding is contrary to earlier observations (Hagemann et al., 1997b). Here, we observed that ectopic expression of slr1588 did not restore the salt tolerance of the slr1588 mutant, making the essential function of this response regulator for salt tolerance questionable. Subsequent experiments showed that deletion of the entire coding sequence of slr1588 compromised the expression of the downstream situated ggpP gene, which encodes glucosylglycerol-phosphate phosphatase for synthesis of the primary osmolyte glucosylglycerol. Mutation of slr1588 by deleting the N-terminal part of this protein (Δslr1588-F976) did not affect ggpP expression, glucosylglycerol accumulation as well as salt tolerance, while the mutation of ggpP resulted in the previously reported salt-sensitive phenotype. In the Δslr1588-F976 mutant spsA was up-regulated but sucrose content was lowered due to increased invertase activity. Our results reveal that Slr1588 is acting as a repressor for spsA as previously suggested but it is not crucial for the overall salt acclimation of Synechocystis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuo Song
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of SciencesQingdao, China
| | - Martin Hagemann
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of RostockRostock, Germany
| | - Xiaoming Tan
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of SciencesQingdao, China
| | - Xuefeng Lu
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of SciencesQingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and TechnologyQingdao, China
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16
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Veit S, Takeda K, Tsunoyama Y, Baymann F, Nevo R, Reich Z, Rögner M, Miki K, Rexroth S. Structural and functional characterisation of the cyanobacterial PetC3 Rieske protein family. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2016; 1857:1879-1891. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2016.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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17
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Murik O, Oren N, Shotland Y, Raanan H, Treves H, Kedem I, Keren N, Hagemann M, Pade N, Kaplan A. What distinguishes cyanobacteria able to revive after desiccation from those that cannot: the genome aspect. Environ Microbiol 2016; 19:535-550. [PMID: 27501380 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Filamentous cyanobacteria are the main founders and primary producers in biological desert soil crusts (BSCs) and are likely equipped to cope with one of the harshest environmental conditions on earth including daily hydration/dehydration cycles, high irradiance and extreme temperatures. Here, we resolved and report on the genome sequence of Leptolyngbya ohadii, an important constituent of the BSC. Comparative genomics identified a set of genes present in desiccation-tolerant but not in dehydration-sensitive cyanobacteria. RT qPCR analyses showed that the transcript abundance of many of them is upregulated during desiccation in L. ohadii. In addition, we identified genes where the orthologs detected in desiccation-tolerant cyanobacteria differs substantially from that found in desiccation-sensitive cells. We present two examples, treS and fbpA (encoding trehalose synthase and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase respectively) where, in addition to the orthologs present in the desiccation-sensitive strains, the resistant cyanobacteria also possess genes with different predicted structures. We show that in both cases the two orthologs are transcribed during controlled dehydration of L. ohadii and discuss the genetic basis for the acclimation of cyanobacteria to the desiccation conditions in desert BSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer Murik
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel
| | - Nadav Oren
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel
| | - Yoram Shotland
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Shamoon College of Engineering, Beer Sheva, 84100, Israel
| | - Hagai Raanan
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel
| | - Haim Treves
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel
| | - Isaac Kedem
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel
| | - Nir Keren
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel
| | - Martin Hagemann
- Institut für Biowissenschaften, Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, Universität Rostock, A.-Einstein-Str. 3, Rostock, D-18059, Germany
| | - Nadin Pade
- Institut für Biowissenschaften, Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, Universität Rostock, A.-Einstein-Str. 3, Rostock, D-18059, Germany
| | - Aaron Kaplan
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel
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18
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Li T, Zhang Y, Shi M, Pei G, Chen L, Zhang W. A putative magnesium transporter Slr1216 involved in sodium tolerance in cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. ALGAL RES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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19
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Biosynthesis, biotechnological production, and applications of glucosylglycerols. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 100:6131-6139. [PMID: 27225470 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-016-7608-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2016] [Revised: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Glucosylglycerols (GGs) are known as compatible solutes accumulated by some bacteria including cyanobacteria as well as higher plants for their adaptations to salt or desiccation stresses. Since being identified in Japanese sake, their physiological effects and potential applications on human health cares have been explored in the following 15 years. Several different synthesis methods have been successively developed for the production of GGs. However, the efficiency of GG synthesis, especially biological synthesis, is still low. With the recent advances in genome sequencing and synthetic biology tools, systematical screening of enzyme candidates and metabolic engineering approaches is necessary for improving GG synthesis efficiency. In this review, we will summarize GG structure information, protective effects on human skin and digestive system as well as industrial enzymes, together with their synthesis by chemical, enzymatic, and biological in vivo approaches in detail, and provide some prospects on improving GG production.
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20
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Hagemann M, Pade N. Heterosides--compatible solutes occurring in prokaryotic and eukaryotic phototrophs. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2015; 17:927-34. [PMID: 25996303 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The acclimation to osmotic and/or salt stress conditions induces an integrated response at different cellular levels. One acclimation strategy relies on the massive accumulation of low molecular mass compounds, so-called compatible solutes, to balance osmotic gradients and to directly protect critical macromolecules. Heterosides are compounds composed of a sugar and a polyol moiety that represent one chemical class of compatible solutes with interesting features. Well-investigated examples are glucosylglycerol, which is found in many cyanobacteria, and galactosylglycerols (floridoside and isofloridoside), which are accumulated by eukaryotic algae under salt stress conditions. Here, we review knowledge on physiology, biochemistry and genetics of heteroside accumulation in pro- and eukaryotic photoautotrophic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hagemann
- Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, Universität Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - N Pade
- Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, Universität Rostock, Rostock, Germany
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21
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Pade N, Linka N, Ruth W, Weber APM, Hagemann M. Floridoside and isofloridoside are synthesized by trehalose 6-phosphate synthase-like enzymes in the red alga Galdieria sulphuraria. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 205:1227-1238. [PMID: 25323590 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Compatible solutes are small molecules that are involved in acclimation to various abiotic stresses, especially high salinity. Among the red algae, the main photosynthetic products floridoside and isofloridoside (galactosylglycerols) are known also to contribute to the osmotic acclimation of cells. However, the genes encoding (iso)floridoside biosynthetic enzymes are still unknown. To identify candidate genes, we examined the genome of the floridoside- and isofloridoside-accumulating extremophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria belonging to the Cyanidiales. We hypothesized that two candidate genes, Gasu_10960 and Gasu_26940, code for enzymes involved in floridoside and isofloridoside biosynthesis. These proteins comprise a sugar phosphate synthase and a sugar phosphate phosphatase domain. To verify their biochemical activity, both genes were in vitro translated into the entire proteins. The protein translation mixture containing Gasu_10960 synthesized small amounts of isofloridoside, whereas the Gasu_26940 translation mix also produced small amounts of floridoside. Moreover, the expression of Gasu_10960 in a salt-sensitive mutant of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 resulted in increased salt tolerance as a consequence of the presence of isofloridoside in the complemented cells. Thus, our experiments suggest that the Gasu_26940 and Gasu_10960 genes of G. sulphuraria encode the enzymatically active floridoside and isofloridoside phosphate synthase/phosphatase fusion proteins, respectively, crucial for salt acclimation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadin Pade
- Institut für Biowissenschaften, Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3, D-18059, Rostock, Germany
| | - Nicole Linka
- Center of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, D-40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Ruth
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3, D-18059, Rostock, Germany
| | - Andreas P M Weber
- Center of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, D-40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Martin Hagemann
- Institut für Biowissenschaften, Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3, D-18059, Rostock, Germany
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22
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Salt acclimation of cyanobacteria and their application in biotechnology. Life (Basel) 2014; 5:25-49. [PMID: 25551682 PMCID: PMC4390839 DOI: 10.3390/life5010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The long evolutionary history and photo-autotrophic lifestyle of cyanobacteria has allowed them to colonize almost all photic habitats on Earth, including environments with high or fluctuating salinity. Their basal salt acclimation strategy includes two principal reactions, the active export of ions and the accumulation of compatible solutes. Cyanobacterial salt acclimation has been characterized in much detail using selected model cyanobacteria, but their salt sensing and regulatory mechanisms are less well understood. Here, we briefly review recent advances in the identification of salt acclimation processes and the essential genes/proteins involved in acclimation to high salt. This knowledge is of increasing importance because the necessary mass cultivation of cyanobacteria for future use in biotechnology will be performed in sea water. In addition, cyanobacterial salt resistance genes also can be applied to improve the salt tolerance of salt sensitive organisms, such as crop plants.
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23
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Tan X, Du W, Lu X. Photosynthetic and extracellular production of glucosylglycerol by genetically engineered and gel-encapsulated cyanobacteria. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 99:2147-54. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-6273-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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24
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Jeong JW, Seo DH, Jung JH, Park JH, Baek NI, Kim MJ, Park CS. Biosynthesis of Glucosyl Glycerol, a Compatible Solute, Using Intermolecular Transglycosylation Activity of Amylosucrase from Methylobacillus flagellatus KT. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2014; 173:904-17. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-014-0889-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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25
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2-O-α-D-glucosylglycerol phosphorylase from Bacillus selenitireducens MLS10 possessing hydrolytic activity on β-D-glucose 1-phosphate. PLoS One 2014; 9:e86548. [PMID: 24466148 PMCID: PMC3899277 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The glycoside hydrolase family (GH) 65 is a family of inverting phosphorylases that act on α-glucosides. A GH65 protein (Bsel_2816) from Bacillus selenitireducens MLS10 exhibited inorganic phosphate (Pi)-dependent hydrolysis of kojibiose at the rate of 0.43 s−1. No carbohydrate acted as acceptor for the reverse phosphorolysis using β-d-glucose 1-phosphate (βGlc1P) as donor. During the search for a suitable acceptor, we found that Bsel_2816 possessed hydrolytic activity on βGlc1P with a kcat of 2.8 s−1; moreover, such significant hydrolytic activity on sugar 1-phosphate had not been reported for any inverting phosphorylase. The H218O incorporation experiment and the anomeric analysis during the hydrolysis of βGlc1P revealed that the hydrolysis was due to the glucosyl-transferring reaction to a water molecule and not a phosphatase-type reaction. Glycerol was found to be the best acceptor to generate 2-O-α-d-glucosylglycerol (GG) at the rate of 180 s−1. Bsel_2816 phosphorolyzed GG through sequential Bi-Bi mechanism with a kcat of 95 s−1. We propose 2-O-α-d-glucopyranosylglycerol: phosphate β-d-glucosyltransferase as the systematic name and 2-O-α-d-glucosylglycerol phosphorylase as the short name for Bsel_2816. This is the first report describing a phosphorylase that utilizes polyols, and not carbohydrates, as suitable acceptor substrates.
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26
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Chen L, Wu L, Zhu Y, Song Z, Wang J, Zhang W. An orphan two-component response regulator Slr1588 involves salt tolerance by directly regulating synthesis of compatible solutes in photosynthetic Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 10:1765-74. [DOI: 10.1039/c4mb00095a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report here the characterization of a novel orphan response regulator Slr1588 directly involved in the synthesis and transport of compatible solutes against salt stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Chen
- Laboratory of Synthetic Microbiology
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering
| | - Lina Wu
- Laboratory of Synthetic Microbiology
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering
| | - Ye Zhu
- Laboratory of Synthetic Microbiology
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering
| | - Zhongdi Song
- Laboratory of Synthetic Microbiology
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering
| | - Jiangxin Wang
- Laboratory of Synthetic Microbiology
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering
| | - Weiwen Zhang
- Laboratory of Synthetic Microbiology
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering
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Tyystjärvi T, Huokko T, Rantamäki S, Tyystjärvi E. Impact of different group 2 sigma factors on light use efficiency and high salt stress in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63020. [PMID: 23638176 PMCID: PMC3637157 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sigma factors of RNA polymerase recognize promoters and have a central role in controlling transcription initiation and acclimation to changing environmental conditions. The cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 encodes four non-essential group 2 sigma factors, SigB, SigC, SigD and SigE that closely resemble the essential SigA factor. Three out of four group 2 sigma factors were simultaneously inactivated and acclimation responses of the triple inactivation strains were studied. All triple inactivation strains grew slowly in low light, and our analysis suggests that the reason is a reduced capacity to adjust the perception of light. Simultaneous inactivation of SigB and SigD hampered growth also in high light. SigB is the most important group 2 sigma factor for salt acclimation, and elimination of all the other group 2 sigma factors slightly improved the salt tolerance of Synechocystis. Presence of only SigE allowed full salt acclimation including up-regulation of hspA and ggpS genes, but more slowly than SigB. Cells with only SigD acclimated to high salt but the acclimation processes differed from those of the control strain. Presence of only SigC prevented salt acclimation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taina Tyystjärvi
- Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
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Yobi A, Wone BWM, Xu W, Alexander DC, Guo L, Ryals JA, Oliver MJ, Cushman JC. Metabolomic profiling in Selaginella lepidophylla at various hydration states provides new insights into the mechanistic basis of desiccation tolerance. MOLECULAR PLANT 2013; 6:369-85. [PMID: 23239830 DOI: 10.1093/mp/sss155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Selaginella lepidophylla is one of only a few species of spike mosses (Selaginellaceae) that have evolved desiccation tolerance (DT) or the ability to 'resurrect' from an air-dried state. In order to understand the metabolic basis of DT, S. lepidophylla was subjected to a five-stage, rehydration/dehydration cycle, then analyzed using non-biased, global metabolomics profiling technology based on GC/MS and UHLC/MS/MS(2) platforms. A total of 251 metabolites including 167 named (66.5%) and 84 (33.4%) unnamed compounds were characterized. Only 42 (16.7%) and 74 (29.5%) of compounds showed significantly increased or decreased abundance, respectively, indicating that most compounds were produced constitutively, including highly abundant trehalose, sucrose, and glucose. Several glycolysis/gluconeogenesis and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates showed increased abundance at 100% relative water content (RWC) and 50% RWC. Vanillate, a potent antioxidant, was also more abundant in the hydrated state. Many different sugar alcohols and sugar acids were more abundant in the hydrated state. These polyols likely decelerate the rate of water loss during the drying process as well as slow water absorption during rehydration, stabilize proteins, and scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS). In contrast, nitrogen-rich and γ-glutamyl amino acids, citrulline, and nucleotide catabolism products (e.g. allantoin) were more abundant in the dry states, suggesting that these compounds might play important roles in nitrogen remobilization during rehydration or in ROS scavenging. UV-protective compounds such as 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)propionate, apigenin, and naringenin, were more abundant in the dry states. Most lipids were produced constitutively, with the exception of choline phosphate, which was more abundant in dry states and likely plays a role in membrane hydration and stabilization. In contrast, several polyunsaturated fatty acids were more abundant in the hydrated states, suggesting that these compounds likely help maintain membrane fluidity during dehydration. Lastly, S. lepidophylla contained seven unnamed compounds that displayed twofold or greater abundance in dry or rehydrating states, suggesting that these compounds might play adaptive roles in DT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abou Yobi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0330, USA
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Yobi A, Wone BWM, Xu W, Alexander DC, Guo L, Ryals JA, Oliver MJ, Cushman JC. Comparative metabolic profiling between desiccation-sensitive and desiccation-tolerant species of Selaginella reveals insights into the resurrection trait. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 72:983-99. [PMID: 23061970 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Spike mosses (Selaginellaceae) represent an ancient lineage of vascular plants in which some species have evolved desiccation tolerance (DT). A sister-group contrast to reveal the metabolic basis of DT was conducted between a desiccation-tolerant species, Selaginella lepidophylla, and a desiccation-sensitive species, Selaginella moellendorffii, at 100% relative water content (RWC) and 50% RWC using non-biased, global metabolomics profiling technology, based on GC/MS and UHLC/MS/MS(2) platforms. A total of 301 metabolites, including 170 named (56.5%) and 131 (43.5%) unnamed compounds, were characterized across both species. S. lepidophylla retained significantly higher abundances of sucrose, mono- and polysaccharides, and sugar alcohols than did S. moellendorffii. Aromatic amino acids, the well-known osmoprotectant betaine and flavonoids were also more abundant in S. lepidophylla. Notably, levels of γ-glutamyl amino acid, linked with glutathione metabolism in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, and with possible nitrogen remobilization following rehydration, were markedly higher in S. lepidophylla. Markers for lipoxygenase activity were also greater in S. lepidophylla, especially at 50% RWC. S. moellendorffii contained more than twice the number of unnamed compounds, with only a slightly greater abundance than in S. lepidophylla. In contrast, S. lepidophylla contained 14 unnamed compounds of fivefold or greater abundance than in S. moellendorffii, suggesting that these compounds might play critical roles in DT. Overall, S. lepidophylla appears poised to tolerate desiccation in a constitutive manner using a wide range of metabolites with some inducible components, whereas S. moellendorffii mounts only limited metabolic responses to dehydration stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abou Yobi
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0330, USADepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0314, USAMetabolon Inc., 800 Capitola Drive, Suite 1, Durham, NC 27713, USAU.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Plant Genetic Research Unit, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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Yobi A, Wone BWM, Xu W, Alexander DC, Guo L, Ryals JA, Oliver MJ, Cushman JC. Comparative metabolic profiling between desiccation-sensitive and desiccation-tolerant species of Selaginella reveals insights into the resurrection trait. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012. [PMID: 23061970 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12008 [epub ahead of print]] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Spike mosses (Selaginellaceae) represent an ancient lineage of vascular plants in which some species have evolved desiccation tolerance (DT). A sister-group contrast to reveal the metabolic basis of DT was conducted between a desiccation-tolerant species, Selaginella lepidophylla, and a desiccation-sensitive species, Selaginella moellendorffii, at 100% relative water content (RWC) and 50% RWC using non-biased, global metabolomics profiling technology, based on GC/MS and UHLC/MS/MS(2) platforms. A total of 301 metabolites, including 170 named (56.5%) and 131 (43.5%) unnamed compounds, were characterized across both species. S. lepidophylla retained significantly higher abundances of sucrose, mono- and polysaccharides, and sugar alcohols than did S. moellendorffii. Aromatic amino acids, the well-known osmoprotectant betaine and flavonoids were also more abundant in S. lepidophylla. Notably, levels of γ-glutamyl amino acid, linked with glutathione metabolism in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, and with possible nitrogen remobilization following rehydration, were markedly higher in S. lepidophylla. Markers for lipoxygenase activity were also greater in S. lepidophylla, especially at 50% RWC. S. moellendorffii contained more than twice the number of unnamed compounds, with only a slightly greater abundance than in S. lepidophylla. In contrast, S. lepidophylla contained 14 unnamed compounds of fivefold or greater abundance than in S. moellendorffii, suggesting that these compounds might play critical roles in DT. Overall, S. lepidophylla appears poised to tolerate desiccation in a constitutive manner using a wide range of metabolites with some inducible components, whereas S. moellendorffii mounts only limited metabolic responses to dehydration stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abou Yobi
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0330, USADepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0314, USAMetabolon Inc., 800 Capitola Drive, Suite 1, Durham, NC 27713, USAU.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Plant Genetic Research Unit, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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Pade N, Compaoré J, Klähn S, Stal LJ, Hagemann M. The marine cyanobacterium Crocosphaera watsonii WH8501 synthesizes the compatible solute trehalose by a laterally acquired OtsAB fusion protein. Environ Microbiol 2012; 14:1261-71. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2012.02709.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Yoshikawa T, Ikeda Y, Sakata T, Maeda H. Cloning and analysis of the ggpS gene from Cyanobacteria Arthrospira spp. involved in the synthesis of an osmolyte glucosylglycerol. Biocontrol Sci 2011; 16:55-61. [PMID: 21719990 DOI: 10.4265/bio.16.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
The genus Arthrospira is a nonheterocystous filamentous cyanobacterium inhabiting diverse environments including those of high salinity. In the present study, Arthrospira strains were isolated from freshwater and brackish lakes in Myanmar, and their osmoprotective adaptation was investigated as it was for the genus Synechococcus strains. The Arthrospira strains showed satisfactory growth up to 1.0 M sodium chloride, suggesting their acclimation to high salinity stress. Cloning and phylogenetic analysis of ggpS, which encodes an osmolyte glucosylglycerol-phosphate synthase (GgpS), showed that the cyanobacterial strains possess a GgpS-based osmoprotective mechanism, except for Synechococcus strains of freshwater origin. The Arthrospira spp. strains fell into the same cluster in the GgpS phylogeny, suggesting their close taxonomic relationship. One exception was Arthrospira sp. TT-1 (II); the ggpS (II), possibly a paralogue of the ggpS (I), branched out from the cyanobacterial cluster. These findings suggest the wide distribution of the genus Arthrospira in freshwater to brackish environments is ascribed to its glucosylglycerol production as an osmoprotectant and resulting in salt acclimation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Yoshikawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Technology of Marine Food and Resources, Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.
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Renewable energy from Cyanobacteria: energy production optimization by metabolic pathway engineering. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 91:471-90. [PMID: 21691792 PMCID: PMC3136707 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3394-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Revised: 05/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The need to develop and improve sustainable energy resources is of eminent importance due to the finite nature of our fossil fuels. This review paper deals with a third generation renewable energy resource which does not compete with our food resources, cyanobacteria. We discuss the current state of the art in developing different types of bioenergy (ethanol, biodiesel, hydrogen, etc.) from cyanobacteria. The major important biochemical pathways in cyanobacteria are highlighted, and the possibility to influence these pathways to improve the production of specific types of energy forms the major part of this review.
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Luley-Goedl C, Nidetzky B. Glycosides as compatible solutes: biosynthesis and applications. Nat Prod Rep 2011; 28:875-96. [DOI: 10.1039/c0np00067a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Krämer R. Bacterial stimulus perception and signal transduction: response to osmotic stress. CHEM REC 2010; 10:217-29. [PMID: 20607761 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.201000005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
When exposed to osmotic stress from the environment, bacteria act to maintain cell turgor and hydration by responding both on the level of gene transcription and protein activity. Upon a sudden decrease in external osmolality, internal solutes are released by the action of membrane embedded mechanosensitive channels. In response to an osmotic upshift, the concentration of osmolytes in the cytoplasm is increased both by de novo synthesis and by active uptake. In order to coordinate these processes of osmoregulation, cells are equipped with systems and mechanisms of sensing physical stimuli correlated to changes in the external osmolality (osmosensing), with pathways to transduce these stimuli into useful signals which can be processed in the cell (signal transduction), and mechanisms of regulating proper responses in the cell to recover from the environmental stress and to maintain all necessary physiological functions (osmoregulation). These processes will be described by a number of representative examples, mainly of osmoreactive transport systems with a focus on available data of their molecular mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinhard Krämer
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674 Cologne, Germany.
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Abstract
Compatible solutes are a functional group of small, highly soluble organic molecules that demonstrate compatibility in high amounts with cellular metabolism. The accumulation of compatible solutes is often observed during the acclimation of organisms to adverse environmental conditions, particularly to salt and drought stress. Among cyanobacteria, sucrose, trehalose, glucosylglycerol and glycine betaine are used as major compatible solutes. Interestingly, a close correlation has been discovered between the final salt tolerance limit and the primary compatible solute in these organisms. In addition to the dominant compatible solutes, many strains accumulate mixtures of these compounds, including minor compounds such as glucosylglycerate or proline as secondary or tertiary solutes. In particular, the accumulation of sucrose and trehalose results in an increase in tolerance to general stresses such as desiccation and high temperatures. During recent years, the biochemical and molecular basis of compatible solute accumulation has been characterized using cyanobacterial model strains that comprise different salt tolerance groups. Based on these data, the distribution of genes involved in compatible solute synthesis among sequenced cyanobacterial genomes is reviewed, and thereby, the major compatible solutes and potential salt tolerance of these strains can be predicted. Knowledge regarding cyanobacterial salt tolerance is not only useful to characterize strain-specific adaptations to ecological niches, but it can also be used to generate cells with increased tolerance to adverse environmental conditions for biotechnological purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Klähn
- Universität Rostock, Institut für Biowissenschaften, Pflanzenphysiologie, Rostock, Germany
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Cumino AC, Perez-Cenci M, Giarrocco LE, Salerno GL. The proteins involved in sucrose synthesis in the marine cyanobacteriumSynechococcussp. PCC 7002 are encoded by two genes transcribed from a gene cluster. FEBS Lett 2010; 584:4655-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2010.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2010] [Revised: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/18/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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The gene ssl3076 encodes a protein mediating the salt-induced expression of ggpS for the biosynthesis of the compatible solute glucosylglycerol in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803. J Bacteriol 2010; 192:4403-12. [PMID: 20601470 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00481-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Acclimation to high salt concentrations involves concerted changes in gene expression. For the majority of salt-regulated genes, the mechanism underlying the induction process is not known. The gene ggpS (sll1566), which encodes the glucosylglycerol-phosphate synthase responsible for the synthesis of the compatible solute glucosylglycerol (GG), is specifically induced by salt in the cyanobacterial model strain Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803. To identify mechanisms mediating this salt-specific gene regulation, the ggpS promoter was analyzed in more detail. 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (5'-RACE) experiments revealed that the adjacent open reading frame (ORF), which is annotated as unknown protein Ssl3076, overlaps with the transcriptional start site of the ggpS gene. Reporter gene expression analyses indicated an essential role for the intact ssl3076 gene in the salt-regulated transcription of a gfp reporter gene. Promoter fragments containing a mutated ssl3076 lost the salt regulation; similarly, a frameshift mutation in ssl3076 resulted in a high level of ggpS expression under low-salt conditions, thereby establishing this small ORF, named ggpR, as a negative regulator of ggpS. Interestingly, small ORFs were also found adjacent to ggpS genes in the genomes of other GG-accumulating cyanobacteria. These results suggest that the GgpR protein represses ggpS expression under low-salt conditions, whereas in salt-shocked and salt-acclimated cells a stress-proportional ggpS expression occurs, leading to GG accumulation.
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Mao X, Olman V, Stuart R, Paulsen IT, Palenik B, Xu Y. Computational prediction of the osmoregulation network in Synechococcus sp. WH8102. BMC Genomics 2010; 11:291. [PMID: 20459751 PMCID: PMC2874817 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2009] [Accepted: 05/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Osmotic stress is caused by sudden changes in the impermeable solute concentration around a cell, which induces instantaneous water flow in or out of the cell to balance the concentration. Very little is known about the detailed response mechanism to osmotic stress in marine Synechococcus, one of the major oxygenic phototrophic cyanobacterial genera that contribute greatly to the global CO2 fixation. Results We present here a computational study of the osmoregulation network in response to hyperosmotic stress of Synechococcus sp strain WH8102 using comparative genome analyses and computational prediction. In this study, we identified the key transporters, synthetases, signal sensor proteins and transcriptional regulator proteins, and found experimentally that of these proteins, 15 genes showed significantly changed expression levels under a mild hyperosmotic stress. Conclusions From the predicted network model, we have made a number of interesting observations about WH8102. Specifically, we found that (i) the organism likely uses glycine betaine as the major osmolyte, and others such as glucosylglycerol, glucosylglycerate, trehalose, sucrose and arginine as the minor osmolytes, making it efficient and adaptable to its changing environment; and (ii) σ38, one of the seven types of σ factors, probably serves as a global regulator coordinating the osmoregulation network and the other relevant networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xizeng Mao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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Singh NK, Dhar DW. Cyanobacterial Reclamation of Salt-Affected Soil. GENETIC ENGINEERING, BIOFERTILISATION, SOIL QUALITY AND ORGANIC FARMING 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-8741-6_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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43
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Klähn S, Steglich C, Hess WR, Hagemann M. Glucosylglycerate: a secondary compatible solute common to marine cyanobacteria from nitrogen-poor environments. Environ Microbiol 2010; 12:83-94. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.02045.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Scanlan DJ, Ostrowski M, Mazard S, Dufresne A, Garczarek L, Hess WR, Post AF, Hagemann M, Paulsen I, Partensky F. Ecological genomics of marine picocyanobacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2009; 73:249-99. [PMID: 19487728 PMCID: PMC2698417 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00035-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 446] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine picocyanobacteria of the genera Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus numerically dominate the picophytoplankton of the world ocean, making a key contribution to global primary production. Prochlorococcus was isolated around 20 years ago and is probably the most abundant photosynthetic organism on Earth. The genus comprises specific ecotypes which are phylogenetically distinct and differ markedly in their photophysiology, allowing growth over a broad range of light and nutrient conditions within the 45 degrees N to 40 degrees S latitudinal belt that they occupy. Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus are closely related, together forming a discrete picophytoplankton clade, but are distinguishable by their possession of dissimilar light-harvesting apparatuses and differences in cell size and elemental composition. Synechococcus strains have a ubiquitous oceanic distribution compared to that of Prochlorococcus strains and are characterized by phylogenetically discrete lineages with a wide range of pigmentation. In this review, we put our current knowledge of marine picocyanobacterial genomics into an environmental context and present previously unpublished genomic information arising from extensive genomic comparisons in order to provide insights into the adaptations of these marine microbes to their environment and how they are reflected at the genomic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Scanlan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom.
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Klähn S, Marquardt DM, Rollwitz I, Hagemann M. Expression of the ggpPS gene for glucosylglycerol biosynthesis from Azotobacter vinelandii improves the salt tolerance of Arabidopsis thaliana. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2009; 60:1679-89. [PMID: 19363207 PMCID: PMC2671616 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erp030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Many organisms accumulate compatible solutes in response to salt or desiccation stress. Moderate halotolerant cyanobacteria and some heterotrophic bacteria synthesize the compatible solute glucosylglycerol (GG) as their main protective compound. In order to analyse the potential of GG to improve salt tolerance of higher plants, the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana was transformed with the ggpPS gene from the gamma-proteobacterium Azotobacter vinelandii coding for a combined GG-phosphate synthase/phosphatase. The heterologous expression of the ggpPS gene led to the accumulation of high amounts of GG. Three independent Arabidopsis lines showing different GG contents were characterized in growth experiments. Plants containing a low (1-2 micromol g(-1) FM) GG content in leaves showed no altered growth performance under control conditions but an increased salt tolerance, whereas plants accumulating a moderate (2-8 micromol g(-1) FM) or a high GG content (around 17 micromol g(-1) FM) showed growth retardation and no improvement of salt resistance. These results indicate that the synthesis of the compatible solute GG has a beneficial effect on plant stress tolerance as long as it is accumulated to an extent that does not negatively interfere with plant metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Klähn
- Universität Rostock, Institut für Biowissenschaften, Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, A.- Einstein-Str. 3, D-18051 Rostock, Germany
| | - Daniel M. Marquardt
- Universität zu Köln, Botanisches Institut, Gyrhofstr. 15, D-50931 Köln, Germany
| | - Inga Rollwitz
- Universität Rostock, Institut für Biowissenschaften, Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, A.- Einstein-Str. 3, D-18051 Rostock, Germany
- Universität zu Köln, Botanisches Institut, Gyrhofstr. 15, D-50931 Köln, Germany
| | - Martin Hagemann
- Universität Rostock, Institut für Biowissenschaften, Abteilung Pflanzenphysiologie, A.- Einstein-Str. 3, D-18051 Rostock, Germany
- To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail:
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The plant-associated bacterium Stenotrophomonas rhizophila expresses a new enzyme for the synthesis of the compatible solute glucosylglycerol. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:5898-906. [PMID: 18586931 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00643-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The rhizobacterium Stenotrophomonas rhizophila accumulates the compatible solutes glucosylglycerol (GG) and trehalose under salt stress conditions. The complete gene for the GG synthesis enzyme was cloned and sequenced. This enzyme from S. rhizophila represented a novel fusion protein composed of a putative C-terminal GG-phosphate synthase domain and an N-terminal putative GG-phosphate phosphatase domain, which was named GgpPS. A similar gene was cloned from Pseudomonas sp. strain OA146. The ggpPS gene was induced after a salt shock in S. rhizophila cells. After the salt-loaded cells reached stationary phase, the ggpPS mRNA content returned to the low level characteristic of the control cells, and GG was released into the medium. The complete ggpPS gene and a truncated version devoid of the phosphatase part were obtained as recombinant proteins. Enzyme activity tests revealed the expected abilities of the full-length protein to synthesize GG and the truncated GgpPS to synthesize GG-phosphate. However, dephosphorylation of GG-phosphate was detected only with the complete GgpPS protein. These enzyme activities were confirmed by complementation experiments using defined GG-defective mutants of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803. Genes coding for proteins very similar to the newly identified fusion protein GgpPS for GG synthesis in S. rhizophila were found in genome sequences of related bacteria, where these genes are often linked to a gene coding for a transporter of the Mfs superfamily.
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Torres LL, Salerno GL. A metabolic pathway leading to mannosylfructose biosynthesis in Agrobacterium tumefaciens uncovers a family of mannosyltransferases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:14318-23. [PMID: 17728402 PMCID: PMC1964871 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0706709104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A metabolic pathway for biosynthesis of the nonreducing disaccharide mannosylfructose (beta-fructofuranosyl-alpha-mannopyranoside), an important osmolyte in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, was discovered. We have identified and functionally characterized two ORFs that correspond to genes (named mfpsA and mfppA) encoding the rare enzymes mannosylfructose-phosphate synthase and mannosylfructose-phosphate phosphatase, an associated phosphohydrolase. The mfpsA and mfppA genes are arranged in an operon structure, whose transcription is up-regulated by NaCl, resulting in the accumulation of mannosylfructose in the cells. Not only is the biosynthesis of mannosylfructose mechanistically similar to that of sucrose, but the corresponding genes for the biosynthesis of both disaccharides are also phylogenetic close relatives. Importantly, a protein phylogeny analysis indicated that mannosylfructose-phosphate synthase defines a unique group of mannosyltransferases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leticia L. Torres
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Fundación para Investigaciones Biológicas Aplicadas, Casilla de Correo, 1348, 7600 Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Graciela L. Salerno
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Fundación para Investigaciones Biológicas Aplicadas, Casilla de Correo, 1348, 7600 Mar del Plata, Argentina
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed at:
Vieytes 3103, Casilla de Correo, 1348, 7600 Mar del Plata, Argentina. E-mail:
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Bagchi SN, Bitz T, Pistorius EK, Michel KP. A Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 mutant with a higher tolerance toward the herbicide bentazone also confers resistance to sodium chloride stress. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2007; 92:87-101. [PMID: 17554635 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-007-9176-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2006] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Following a N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine-based mutagenesis of Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 wild type, we were able to select several mutants with an enhanced tolerance toward the herbicide bentazone (3-isopropyl-1H-2,1,3-benzothiadiazine-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide). Mutant Mu1 has in part been previously characterized. In the present paper we report on another mutant, called Mu2, which also has a higher tolerance toward bentazone. Since Mu2 showed a better growth than WT when cultivated with elevated NaCl concentrations in the growth medium and since S. elongatus WT has previously been classified to be low salt tolerant, we were especially interested in the identification of the modifications conferring this higher salt tolerance to mutant Mu2. Immunoblot analyses provided evidence that Mu2 had a constitutively higher expression of PsbO and of IsiA. In addition, in Mu2 a significantly higher concentration of IdiA was detected under salt stress as compared to WT. These three proteins most likely contribute to a better protection and/or stabilization of photosystem II. Moreover, Mu2 had a higher amount of the photosystem I reaction center proteins PsaAB under salt stress than WT. In addition, the amount of the ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase and also of the ATP synthase was constitutively higher in Mu2 than in WT. In contrast to WT the latter two proteins did not decrease under salt stress in Mu2. Therefore, it can be assumed that Mu2 could maintain a high cyclic electron transport activity around photosystem I under salt stress. It can be assumed that the combination of these modifications of the electron transport chain cause a better protection of photosystem II against oxidative damage and cause an increase of cyclic electron transport activity around photosystem I with ATP synthesis. Thus, the overall cellular energization in Mu2 relative to WT is improved. Together with putative other not yet identified modifications this seems to enable Mu2 to energize its cytoplasmic membrane-localized ion pumps more effectively than WT and, as a consequence, to keep the intracellular NaCl concentration low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suvendra N Bagchi
- BioVIII: Lehrstuhl für Molekulare Zellphysiologie, Fakultät für Biologie, Universität Bielefeld, Universitätsstr. 25, Bielefeld, 33615, Germany
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Stirnberg M, Fulda S, Huckauf J, Hagemann M, Krämer R, Marin K. A membrane-bound FtsH protease is involved in osmoregulation in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803: the compatible solute synthesizing enzyme GgpS is one of the targets for proteolysis. Mol Microbiol 2007; 63:86-102. [PMID: 17116240 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05495.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Protein quality control and proteolysis are involved in cell maintenance and environmental acclimatization in bacteria and eukaryotes. The AAA protease FtsH2 of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 was identified during a screening for mutants impaired in osmoregulation. The ftsH2(-) mutant was salt sensitive because of a decreased level of the osmoprotectant glucosylglycerol (GG). In spite of wild type-like transcription of the ggpS gene in ftsH2(-) cells the GgpS protein content increased but only low levels of GgpS activity were observed. Consequently, salt tolerance of the ftsH2(-) mutant decreased while addition of external osmolyte complemented the salt sensitivity. The proteolytic degradation of the GgpS protein by FtsH2 was demonstrated by an in vitro assay using inverted membrane vesicles. The GgpS is part of a GG synthesizing complex, because yeast two-hybrid screens identified a close interaction with the GG-phosphate phosphatase. Besides GgpS as the first soluble substrate of a cyanobacterial FtsH protease, several other putative targets were identified by a proteomic approach. We present a novel molecular explanation for the salt-sensitive phenotype of bacterial ftsH(-) mutants as the result of accumulation of inactive enzymes for compatible solute synthesis, in this case GgpS the key enzyme of GG synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit Stirnberg
- Universität zu Köln, Institut für Biochemie, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674 Köln, Germany
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50
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Marin K, Stirnberg M, Eisenhut M, Krämer R, Hagemann M. Osmotic stress in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803: low tolerance towards nonionic osmotic stress results from lacking activation of glucosylglycerol accumulation. Microbiology (Reading) 2006; 152:2023-2030. [PMID: 16804177 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.28771-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to compare the molecular principles of the acclimatization of bacterial cells to salt and nonionic osmotic stress, the moderately halotolerant cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 was challenged by salt (NaCl), and the osmolytes sorbitol and maltose. The physiological response towards each of the three compounds was found to be different. After salt addition, the cell volume remained unchanged, and the accumulation of the osmoprotective compound glucosylglycerol (GG) was observed after activation of the key enzyme GgpS at the biochemical and gene (ggpS) expression level. Sorbitol addition had only minor effects on the cell volume. In spite of the fact that the ggpS expression was increased, the GgpS enzyme was not activated, resulting in the absence of GG accumulation. In contrast the cells accumulated sorbitol, which served as a compatible solute and assured a certain osmotic resistance. In comparison to NaCl and sorbitol, the addition of maltose caused a strong decrease in cell volume indicating water efflux. However, no osmolyte accumulation was observed, resulting in an osmosensitive phenotype. Consequently, a successful response of Synechocystis cells to an osmotic challenge is indicative of the de novo synthesis of GG upon salt-dependent activation of the GgpS enzyme or the uptake of external solutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay Marin
- Universität Rostock, Institut Biowissenschaften, Pflanzenphysiologie, Albert Einsteinstr. 3, 18051 Rostock, Germany
- Universität zu Köln, Institut für Biochemie, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Marit Stirnberg
- Universität zu Köln, Institut für Biochemie, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Marion Eisenhut
- Universität Rostock, Institut Biowissenschaften, Pflanzenphysiologie, Albert Einsteinstr. 3, 18051 Rostock, Germany
| | - Reinhard Krämer
- Universität zu Köln, Institut für Biochemie, Zülpicher Str. 47, 50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Martin Hagemann
- Universität Rostock, Institut Biowissenschaften, Pflanzenphysiologie, Albert Einsteinstr. 3, 18051 Rostock, Germany
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