Urkinase: structure of acetate kinase, a member of the ASKHA superfamily of phosphotransferases

Biological Function of Prophage-Related Gene Cluster ΔVpaChn25_RS25055~ΔVpaChn25_0714 of Vibrio parahaemolyticus CHN25

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is the primary foodborne pathogen known to cause gastrointestinal infections in humans. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms of V. parahaemolyticus pathogenicity are not fully understood. Prophages carry virulence and antibiotic resistance genes commonly found in Vibrio populations, and they facilitate the spread of virulence and the emergence of pathogenic Vibrio strains. In this study, we characterized three such genes, VpaChn25_0713, VpaChn25_0714, and VpaChn25_RS25055, within the largest prophage gene cluster in V. parahaemolyticus CHN25. The deletion mutants ΔVpaChn25_RS25055, ΔVpaChn25_0713, ΔVpaChn25_0714, and ΔVpaChn25_RS25055-0713-0714 were derived with homologous recombination, and the complementary mutants ΔVpaChn25_0713-com, ΔVpaChn25_0714-com, ΔVpaChn25_RS25055-com, ΔVpaChn25_RS25055-0713-0714-com were also constructed. In the absence of the VpaChn25_RS25055, VpaChn25_0713, VpaChn25_0714, and VpaChn25_RS25055-0713-0714 genes, the mutants showed significant reductions in low-temperature survivability and biofilm formation (p < 0.001). The ΔVpaChn25_0713, ΔVpaChn25_RS25055, and ΔVpaChn25_RS25055-0713-0714 mutants were also significantly defective in swimming motility (p < 0.001). In the Caco-2 model, the above four mutants attenuated the cytotoxic effects of V. parahaemolyticus CHN25 on human intestinal epithelial cells (p < 0.01), especially the ΔVpaChn25_RS25055 and ΔVpaChn25_RS25055-0713-0714 mutants. Transcriptomic analysis showed that 15, 14, 8, and 11 metabolic pathways were changed in the ΔVpaChn25_RS25055, ΔVpaChn25_0713, ΔVpaChn25_0714, and ΔVpaChn25_RS25055-0713-0714 mutants, respectively. We labeled the VpaChn25_RS25055 gene with superfolder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP) and found it localized at both poles of the bacteria cell. In addition, we analyzed the evolutionary origins of the above genes. In summary, the prophage genes VpaChn25_0713, VpaChn25_0714, and VpaChn25_RS25055 enhance V. parahaemolyticus CHN25's survival in the environment and host. Our work improves the comprehension of the synergy between prophage-associated genes and the evolutionary process of V. parahaemolyticus.

Multilayer precision-based screening of potential inhibitors targeting Mycobacterium tuberculosis acetate kinase using in silico approaches

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), remains a major threat to global health, with the emergence of multi-drug and extensively drug-resistant strains posing a serious challenge. Thereby, understanding the molecular basis of MTB virulence and disease pathogenesis is critical for developing effective therapeutic strategies. Targeting proteins involved in central metabolism has been recognized as a promising therapeutic approach to combat MTB. In this regard, the enzyme AckA of the acetate metabolic pathway which produces acetate from acetyl phosphate, is an important drug target for various pathogenic organisms. Therefore, this study aimed to identify potential AckA inhibitors through in silico methods, including molecular modeling, molecular dynamics simulation (MDS), and high-throughput virtual screening (HTVS) followed by ADMETox, MMGBSA, Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations. HTVS of one million compounds from the ZINC database against AckA resulted in the top five hits (ZINC82048449, ZINC1219737510, ZINC1771921358, ZINC119699567, and ZINC1427100376) with better binding affinity and optimal binding free energy. MDS studies on complexes revealed that key residues, Asn195, Asp266, Phe267, Gly314, and Asn318 played a significant role in stable interactions of the top-ranked compounds to AckA. These outcomes provide insights into the optimal binding of the leads to inhibit the acetate pathway and aid in the rational design of novel therapeutic agents. Thus, the identified leads may act as promising compounds for targeting AckA and may serve as a potential therapeutic modality for treating TB. Our findings offer valuable insights into the inhibition of the acetate pathway, while also serving as a blueprint for rational drug design. The identified leads hold promise as compelling compounds for targeting AckA, thereby offering a potential therapeutic avenue for tackling TB. Thus, our study uncovers a pathway toward promising TB therapeutics by elucidating AckA inhibitors. By leveraging in silico methodologies, potent compounds that hold the potential to thwart AckA's role in MTB's acetate pathway have been unveiled. This breakthrough fosters optimism in the quest for novel and effective TB treatments, addressing a global health challenge with renewed vigor.

The Moon-Forming Impact and the Autotrophic Origin of Life

The Moon-forming impact vaporized part of Earth's mantle, and turned the rest into a magma ocean, from which carbon dioxide degassed into the atmosphere, where it stayed until water rained out to form the oceans. The rain dissolved CO2 and made it available to react with transition metal catalysts in the Earth's crust so as to ultimately generate the organic compounds that form the backbone of microbial metabolism. The Moon-forming impact was key in building a planet with the capacity to generate life in that it converted carbon on Earth into a homogeneous and accessible substrate for organic synthesis. Today all ecosystems, without exception, depend upon primary producers, organisms that fix CO2 . According to theories of autotrophic origin, it has always been that way, because autotrophic theories posit that the first forms of life generated all the molecules needed to build a cell from CO2 , forging a direct line of continuity between Earth's initial CO2 -rich atmosphere and the first microorganisms. By modern accounts these were chemolithoautotrophic archaea and bacteria that initially colonized the crust and still inhabit that environment today.

Conservation and Diversification of tRNA t6A-Modifying Enzymes across the Three Domains of Life

The universal N⁶-threonylcarbamoyladenosine (t⁶A) modification occurs at position 37 of tRNAs that decipher codons starting with adenosine. Mechanistically, t⁶A stabilizes structural configurations of the anticodon stem loop, promotes anticodon–codon pairing and safeguards the translational fidelity. The biosynthesis of tRNA t⁶A is co-catalyzed by two universally conserved protein families of TsaC/Sua5 (COG0009) and TsaD/Kae1/Qri7 (COG0533). Enzymatically, TsaC/Sua5 protein utilizes the substrates of L-threonine, HCO₃⁻/CO₂ and ATP to synthesize an intermediate L-threonylcarbamoyladenylate, of which the threonylcarbamoyl-moiety is subsequently transferred onto the A37 of substrate tRNAs by the TsaD–TsaB –TsaE complex in bacteria or by the KEOPS complex in archaea and eukaryotic cytoplasm, whereas Qri7/OSGEPL1 protein functions on its own in mitochondria. Depletion of tRNA t⁶A interferes with protein homeostasis and gravely affects the life of unicellular organisms and the fitness of higher eukaryotes. Pathogenic mutations of YRDC, OSGEPL1 and KEOPS are implicated in a number of human mitochondrial and neurological diseases, including autosomal recessive Galloway–Mowat syndrome. The molecular mechanisms underscoring both the biosynthesis and cellular roles of tRNA t⁶A are presently not well elucidated. This review summarizes current mechanistic understandings of the catalysis, regulation and disease implications of tRNA t⁶A-biosynthetic machineries of three kingdoms of life, with a special focus on delineating the structure–function relationship from perspectives of conservation and diversity.

History of ectonucleotidases and their role in purinergic signaling

Ectonucleotidases are key for purinergic signaling. They control the duration of activity of purinergic receptor agonists. At the same time, they produce hydrolysis products as additional ligands of purinergic receptors. Due to the considerable diversity of enzymes, purinergic receptor ligands and purinergic receptors, deciphering the impact of extracellular purinergic receptor control has become a challenge. The first group of enzymes described were the alkaline phosphatases - at the time not as nucleotide-metabolizing but as nonspecific phosphatases. Enzymes now referred to as nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases and ecto-5'-nucleotidase were the first and only nucleotide-specific ectonucleotidases identified. And they were the first group of enzymes related to purinergic signaling. Additional research brought to light a surprising number of ectoenzymes with broad substrate specificity, which can also hydrolyze nucleotides. This short overview traces the development of the field and briefly highlights important results and benefits for therapies of human diseases achieved within nearly a century of investigations.

Methanosarcina acetivorans: A Model for Mechanistic Understanding of Aceticlastic and Reverse Methanogenesis

Acetate-utilizing methanogens are responsible for approximately two-thirds of the one billion metric tons of methane produced annually in Earth's anaerobic environments. Methanosarcina acetivorans has emerged as a model organism for the mechanistic understanding of aceticlastic methanogenesis and reverse methanogenesis applicable to understanding the methane and carbon cycles in nature. It has the largest genome in the Archaea, supporting a metabolic complexity that enables a remarkable ability for adapting to environmental opportunities and challenges. Biochemical investigations have revealed an aceticlastic pathway capable of fermentative and respiratory energy conservation that explains how Ms. acetivorans is able to grow and compete in the environment. The mechanism of respiratory energy conservation also plays a role in overcoming endothermic reactions that are key to reversing methanogenesis.

Characterization of a butyrate kinase from Desulfovibrio vulgaris str. Hildenborough

Short and branched chain fatty acid kinases participate in both bacterial anabolic and catabolic processes, including fermentation, through the reversible, ATP-dependent synthesis of acyl phosphates. This study reports biochemical properties of a predicted butyrate kinase from Desulfovibrio vulgaris str. Hildenborough (DvBuk) expressed heterologously and purified from Escherichia coli. Gel filtration chromatography indicates purified DvBuk is active as a dimer. The optimum temperature and pH for DvBuk activity is 44°C and 7.5, respectively. The enzyme displays enhanced thermal stability in the presence of substrates as observed for similar enzymes. Measurement of kcat and KM for various substrates reveals DvBuk exhibits the highest catalytic efficiencies for butyrate, valerate and isobutyrate. In particular, these measurements reveal this enzyme's apparent high affinity for C4 fatty acids relative to other butyrate kinases. These results have implications on structure and function relationships within the ASKHA superfamily of phosphotransferases, particularly regarding the acyl binding pocket, as well as potential physiological roles for this enzyme in Desulfovibrio vulgaris str. Hildenborough.

Enzymatic Reactions Involving Ketyls: From a Chemical Curiosity to a General Biochemical Mechanism

Ketyls are radical anions with nucleophilic properties. Ketyls obtained by enzymatic one-electron reduction of thioesters were proposed as intermediates for the dehydration of (R)-2-hydroxyacyl-CoA to (E)-2-enoyl-CoA. This concept was extended to the Birch-like reduction of benzoyl-CoA to 1,5-cyclohexadienecarboxyl-CoA. Nature uses two methods to achieve the therefore required low reduction potentials of less than -600 mV, either by an ATP-driven electron transfer similar to that catalyzed by the iron protein of nitrogenase or by electron bifurcation. Ketyls formed by thiyl radical-initiated oxidation of alcohols followed by deprotonation are involved in coenzyme B₁₂-independent diol dehydratases, other glycyl radical enzymes mediating key reactions in the degradations of choline, taurine, and 4-hydroxyproline, and all three classes of ribonucleotide reductases. A special case is the dehydration of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA, which most likely proceeds via an oxidation to an allylic ketyl but requires neither a strong reductant nor an external radical generator.

Characterization of the phosphotransacetylase-acetate kinase pathway for ATP production in Porphyromonas gingivalis

Acetyl phosphate (AcP) is generally produced from acetyl coenzyme A by phosphotransacetylase (Pta), and subsequent reaction with ADP, catalyzed by acetate kinase (Ack), produces ATP. The mechanism of ATP production in Porphyromonas gingivalis is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to explore the molecular basis of the Pta-Ack pathway in this microorganism. Pta and Ack from P. gingivalis ATCC 33277 were enzymatically and structurally characterized. Structural and mutational analyses suggest that Pta is a dimer with two substrate-binding sites in each subunit. Ack is also dimeric, with a catalytic cleft in each subunit, and structural analysis indicates a dramatic domain motion that opens and closes the cleft during catalysis. ATP formation by Ack proceeds via a sequential mechanism. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis demonstrated that the pta (PGN_1179) and ack (PGN_1178) genes, tandemly located in the genome, are cotranscribed as an operon. Inactivation of pta or ack in P. gingivalis by homologous recombination was successful only when the inactivated gene was expressed in trans. Therefore, both pta and ack genes are essential for this microorganism. Insights into the Pta-Ack pathway reported herein would be helpful to understand the energy acquisition in P. gingivalis.

Investigation of pyrophosphate versus ATP substrate selection in the Entamoeba histolytica acetate kinase

Acetate kinase (ACK; E.C. 2.7.2.1), which catalyzes the interconversion of acetate and acetyl phosphate, is nearly ubiquitous in bacteria but is present only in one genus of archaea and certain eukaryotic microbes. All ACKs utilize ATP/ADP as the phosphoryl donor/acceptor in the respective directions of the reaction (acetate + ATP \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\boldsymbol{\leftrightarrows }}$$\end{document}⇆ acetyl phosphate + ADP), with the exception of the Entamoeba histolytica ACK (EhACK) which uses pyrophosphate (PP_i)/inorganic phosphate (P_i) (acetyl phosphate + P_i  \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\boldsymbol{\leftrightarrows }}$$\end{document}⇆ acetate + PP_i). Structural analysis and modeling of EhACK indicated steric hindrance by active site residues constricts entry to the adenosine pocket as compared to ATP-utilizing Methanosarcina thermophila ACK (MtACK). Reciprocal alterations were made to enlarge the adenosine pocket of EhACK and reduce that of MtACK. The EhACK variants showed a step-wise increase in ADP and ATP binding but were still unable to use these as substrates, and enzymatic activity with P_i/PP_i was negatively impacted. Consistent with this, ATP utilization by MtACK variants was negatively affected but the alterations were not sufficient to convert this enzyme to P_i/PP_i utilization. Our results suggest that controlling access to the adenosine pocket can contribute to substrate specificity but is not the sole determinant.

Determination of essentiality and regulatory function of staphylococcal YeaZ in branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis

The staphylococcal YeaZ is highly conserved in prokaryotic cells and critical for growth of many bacterial pathogens. However, the essentiality for Staphylococcus aureus growth and the biological function of YeaZ behind its essentiality remain undefined. In this study, we created and characterized a defined Pspac-regulated yeaZ expression mutant in S. aureus and demonstrated the indispensability of YeaZ for S. aureus growth. Moreover, we conducted complementation studies, not only confirmed the requirement of YeaZ for S. aureus growth, but also revealed a similarity of essential function between staphylococcal YeaZ and its E. coli homolog. On the other hand, we explored the biological functions of YeaZ and found that YeaZ is involved in the regulation of the transcription of ilv-leu operon that encodes key enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids, including isoleucine, leucine, and valine (ILV). qPCR analysis showed that the 6-fold downregulation of YeaZ dramatically elevated approximately 17- to 289-fold RNA levels of ilvD, leuA and ilvA. We further confirmed the transcriptional regulation of the ilv-leu operon by YeaZ using an ilv-promoter-lux reporter system and gel-shift assays and revealed that YeaZ is able to bind the promoter region of ilv. Furthermore, we established that the regulation of ILV biosynthesis isn't associated with YeaZ's essentiality, as the deletion of the ilv-leu operon did not affect the requirement of YeaZ for growth in culture. Our results demonstrate the essentiality of YeaZ for S. aureus growth and suggest that the staphylococcal YeaZ possesses regulatory function.

Potential Role of Acetyl-CoA Synthetase (acs) and Malate Dehydrogenase (mae) in the Evolution of the Acetate Switch in Bacteria and Archaea

Although many Archaea have AMP-Acs (acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase) and ADP-Acs, the extant methanogenic genus Methanosarcina is the only identified Archaeal genus that can utilize acetate via acetate kinase (Ack) and phosphotransacetylase (Pta). Despite the importance of ack as the potential urkinase in the ASKHA phosphotransferase superfamily, an origin hypothesis does not exist for the acetate kinase in Bacteria, Archaea, or Eukarya. Here we demonstrate that Archaeal AMP-Acs and ADP-Acs contain paralogous ATPase motifs previously identified in Ack, which demonstrate a novel relation between these proteins in Archaea. The identification of ATPase motif conservation and resulting structural features in AMP- and ADP-acetyl-CoA synthetase proteins in this study expand the ASKHA superfamily to include acetyl-CoA synthetase. Additional phylogenetic analysis showed that Pta and MaeB sequences had a common ancestor, and that the Pta lineage within the halophilc archaea was an ancestral lineage. These results suggested that divergence of a duplicated maeB within an ancient halophilic, archaeal lineage formed a putative pta ancestor. These results provide a potential scenario for the establishment of the Ack/Pta pathway and provide novel insight into the evolution of acetate metabolism for all three domains of life.

Structures of substrate- and nucleotide-bound propionate kinase from Salmonella typhimurium: substrate specificity and phosphate-transfer mechanism

Kinases are ubiquitous enzymes that are pivotal to many biochemical processes. There are contrasting views on the phosphoryl-transfer mechanism in propionate kinase, an enzyme that reversibly transfers a phosphoryl group from propionyl phosphate to ADP in the final step of non-oxidative catabolism of L-threonine to propionate. Here, X-ray crystal structures of propionate- and nucleotide-bound Salmonella typhimurium propionate kinase are reported at 1.8-2.0 Å resolution. Although the mode of nucleotide binding is comparable to those of other members of the ASKHA superfamily, propionate is bound at a distinct site deeper in the hydrophobic pocket defining the active site. The propionate carboxyl is at a distance of ∼ 5 Å from the γ-phosphate of the nucleotide, supporting a direct in-line transfer mechanism. The phosphoryl-transfer reaction is likely to occur via an associative SN2-like transition state that involves a pentagonal bipyramidal structure with the axial positions occupied by the nucleophile of the substrate and the O atom between the β- and the γ-phosphates, respectively. The proximity of the strictly conserved His175 and Arg236 to the carboxyl group of the propionate and the γ-phosphate of ATP suggests their involvement in catalysis. Moreover, ligand binding does not induce global domain movement as reported in some other members of the ASKHA superfamily. Instead, residues Arg86, Asp143 and Pro116-Leu117-His118 that define the active-site pocket move towards the substrate and expel water molecules from the active site. The role of Ala88, previously proposed to be the residue determining substrate specificity, was examined by determining the crystal structures of the propionate-bound Ala88 mutants A88V and A88G. Kinetic analysis and structural data are consistent with a significant role of Ala88 in substrate-specificity determination. The active-site pocket-defining residues Arg86, Asp143 and the Pro116-Leu117-His118 segment are also likely to contribute to substrate specificity.

Acetate Metabolism in Anaerobes from the Domain Archaea

Acetate and acetyl-CoA play fundamental roles in all of biology, including anaerobic prokaryotes from the domains Bacteria and Archaea, which compose an estimated quarter of all living protoplasm in Earth's biosphere. Anaerobes from the domain Archaea contribute to the global carbon cycle by metabolizing acetate as a growth substrate or product. They are components of anaerobic microbial food chains converting complex organic matter to methane, and many fix CO2 into cell material via synthesis of acetyl-CoA. They are found in a diversity of ecological habitats ranging from the digestive tracts of insects to deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and synthesize a plethora of novel enzymes with biotechnological potential. Ecological investigations suggest that still more acetate-metabolizing species with novel properties await discovery.

Crystal structures of the Gon7/Pcc1 and Bud32/Cgi121 complexes provide a model for the complete yeast KEOPS complex

The yeast KEOPS protein complex comprising Kae1, Bud32, Cgi121, Pcc1 and Gon7 is responsible for the essential tRNA threonylcarbamoyladenosine (t(6)A) modification. Deletion of genes coding for the KEOPS subunits also affects telomere elongation and transcriptional regulation. In the present work, the crystal structure of Bud32/Cgi121 in complex with ADP revealed that ADP is bound in the catalytic site of Bud32 in a canonical manner characteristic of Protein Kinase A (PKA) family proteins. We found that Gon7 forms a stable heterodimer with Pcc1 and report the crystal structure of the Pcc1-Gon7 heterodimer. Gon7 interacts with the same Pcc1 region engaged in the archaeal Pcc1 homodimer. We further show that yeast KEOPS, unlike its archaeal counterpart, exists as a heteropentamer in which Gon7, Pcc1, Kae1, Bud32 and Cgi121 also adopt a linear arrangement. We constructed a model of yeast KEOPS that provides structural insight into the role of Gon7. The model also revealed the presence of a highly positively charged crater surrounding the entrance of Kae1 that likely binds tRNA.

The Role of Active Site Residues in ATP Binding and Catalysis in the Methanosarcina thermophila Acetate Kinase

Acetate kinase (ACK), which catalyzes the reversible phosphorylation of acetate by ATP, is a member of the acetate and sugar kinase/heat shock cognate/actin (ASKHA) superfamily. ASKHA family members share a common core fold that includes an ATPase domain with five structural motifs. The PHOSPHATE1 motif has previously been shown to be important for catalysis. We have investigated the role of two of these motifs in the Methanosarcina thermophila ACK (MtACK) and have shown that residues projecting into the ACK active site from the PHOSPHATE2 and ADENOSINE loops and a third highly conserved loop designated here as LOOP3 play key roles in nucleotide triphosphate (NTP) selection and utilization. Alteration of Asn211 of PHOSPHATE2, Gly239 of LOOP3, and Gly331 of ADENOSINE greatly reduced catalysis. In particular, Gly331, which is highly conserved throughout the ASKHA superfamily, has the greatest effect on substrate selection. Alteration at this site strongly skewed MtACK toward utilization of purines over pyrimidines, unlike the wild type enzyme that shows broad NTP utilization. Further investigation into differences between the ATPase domain in MtACK and other acetate kinases that show different substrate preferences will provide us with a better understanding of the diversity of phosphoryl donor selection in this enzyme family.

ATP-induced electron transfer by redox-selective partner recognition

Thermodynamically unfavourable electron transfers are enabled by coupling to an energy-supplying reaction. How the energy is transduced from the exergonic to the endergonic process is largely unknown. Here we provide the structural basis for an energy transduction process in the reductive activation of B12-dependent methyltransferases. The transfer of one electron from an activating enzyme to the cobalamin cofactor is energetically uphill and relies on coupling to an ATPase reaction. Our results demonstrate that the key to coupling is, besides the oxidation state-dependent complex formation, the conformational gating of the electron transfer. Complex formation induces a substitution of the ligand at the electron-accepting Co ion. Addition of ATP initiates electron transfer by provoking conformational changes that destabilize the complex. We show how remodelling of the electron-accepting Co(2+) promotes ATP-dependent electron transfer; an efficient strategy not seen in other electron-transferring ATPases.

Structural and mutational analysis of amino acid residues involved in ATP specificity of Escherichia coli acetate kinase

Acetate kinase (AK) generally utilizes ATP as a phosphoryl donor, but AK from Entamoeba histolytica (PPi-ehiAK) uses pyrophosphate (PPi), not ATP, and is PPi-specific. The determinants of the phosphoryl donor specificity are unknown. Here, we inferred 5 candidate amino acid residues associated with this specificity, based on structural information. Each candidate residue in Escherichia coli ATP-specific AK (ATP-ecoAK), which is unable to use PPi, was substituted with the respective PPi-ehiAK amino acid residue. Each variant ATP-ecoAK had an increased Km for ATP, indicating that the 5 residues are the determinants for the specificity to ATP in ATP-ecoAK. Moreover, Asn-337 of ATP-ecoAK was shown to be particularly significant for the specificity to ATP. The 5 residues are highly conserved in 2625 PPi-ehiAK homologs, implying that almost all organisms have ATP-dependent, rather than PPi-dependent, AK.

Acetate kinase isozymes confer robustness in acetate metabolism

Acetate kinase (ACK) (EC no: 2.7.2.1) interconverts acetyl-phosphate and acetate to either catabolize or synthesize acetyl-CoA dependent on the metabolic requirement. Among all ACK entries available in UniProt, we found that around 45% are multiple ACKs in some organisms including more than 300 species but surprisingly, little work has been done to clarify whether this has any significance. In an attempt to gain further insight we have studied the two ACKs (AckA1, AckA2) encoded by two neighboring genes conserved in Lactococcus lactis (L. lactis) by analyzing protein sequences, characterizing transcription structure, determining enzyme characteristics and effect on growth physiology. The results show that the two ACKs are most likely individually transcribed. AckA1 has a much higher turnover number and AckA2 has a much higher affinity for acetate in vitro. Consistently, growth experiments of mutant strains reveal that AckA1 has a higher capacity for acetate production which allows faster growth in an environment with high acetate concentration. Meanwhile, AckA2 is important for fast acetate-dependent growth at low concentration of acetate. The results demonstrate that the two ACKs have complementary physiological roles in L. lactis to maintain a robust acetate metabolism for fast growth at different extracellular acetate concentrations. The existence of ACK isozymes may reflect a common evolutionary strategy in bacteria in an environment with varying concentrations of acetate.

Structural characterization of the ribonuclease H-like type ASKHA superfamily kinase MK0840 from Methanopyrus kandleri

Murein recycling is a process in which microorganisms recover peptidoglycan-degradation products in order to utilize them in cell wall biosynthesis or basic metabolic pathways. Methanogens such as Methanopyrus kandleri contain pseudomurein, which differs from bacterial murein in its composition and branching. Here, four crystal structures of the putative sugar kinase MK0840 from M. kandleri in apo and nucleotide-bound states are reported. MK0840 shows high similarity to bacterial anhydro-N-acetylmuramic acid kinase, which is involved in murein recycling. The structure shares a common fold with panthothenate kinase and the 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA dehydratase component A, both of which are members of the ASKHA (acetate and sugar kinases/Hsc70/actin) superfamily of phosphotransferases. Local conformational changes in the nucleotide-binding site between the apo and holo forms are observed upon nucleotide binding. Further insight is given into domain movements and putative active-site residues are identified.

Mechanistic features of Salmonella typhimurium propionate kinase (TdcD): insights from kinetic and crystallographic studies

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) play a major role in carbon cycle and can be utilized as a source of carbon and energy by bacteria. Salmonella typhimurium propionate kinase (StTdcD) catalyzes reversible transfer of the γ-phosphate of ATP to propionate during l-threonine degradation to propionate. Kinetic analysis revealed that StTdcD possesses broad ligand specificity and could be activated by various SCFAs (propionate>acetate≈butyrate), nucleotides (ATP≈GTP>CTP≈TTP; dATP>dGTP>dCTP) and metal ions (Mg(2+)≈Mn(2+)>Co(2+)). Inhibition of StTdcD by tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates such as citrate, succinate, α-ketoglutarate and malate suggests that the enzyme could be under plausible feedback regulation. Crystal structures of StTdcD bound to PO4 (phosphate), AMP, ATP, Ap4 (adenosine tetraphosphate), GMP, GDP, GTP, CMP and CTP revealed that binding of nucleotide mainly involves hydrophobic interactions with the base moiety and could account for the broad biochemical specificity observed between the enzyme and nucleotides. Modeling and site-directed mutagenesis studies suggest Ala88 to be an important residue involved in determining the rate of catalysis with SCFA substrates. Molecular dynamics simulations on monomeric and dimeric forms of StTdcD revealed plausible open and closed states, and also suggested role for dimerization in stabilizing segment 235-290 involved in interfacial interactions and ligand binding. Observation of an ethylene glycol molecule bound sufficiently close to the γ-phosphate in StTdcD complexes with triphosphate nucleotides supports direct in-line phosphoryl transfer.

Crystal structures of acetate kinases from the eukaryotic pathogens Entamoeba histolytica and Cryptococcus neoformans

Acetate kinases (ACKs) are members of the acetate and sugar kinase/hsp70/actin (ASKHA) superfamily and catalyze the reversible phosphorylation of acetate, with ADP/ATP the most common phosphoryl acceptor/donor. While prokaryotic ACKs have been the subject of extensive biochemical and structural characterization, there is a comparative paucity of information on eukaryotic ACKs, and prior to this report, no structure of an ACK of eukaryotic origin was available. We determined the structures of ACKs from the eukaryotic pathogens Entamoeba histolytica and Cryptococcus neoformans. Each active site is located at an interdomain interface, and the acetate and phosphate binding pockets display sequence and structural conservation with their prokaryotic counterparts. Interestingly, the E. histolytica ACK has previously been shown to be pyrophosphate (PP(i))-dependent, and is the first ACK demonstrated to have this property. Examination of its structure demonstrates how subtle amino acid substitutions within the active site have converted cosubstrate specificity from ATP to PP(i) while retaining a similar backbone conformation. Differences in the angle between domains surrounding the active site suggest that interdomain movement may accompany catalysis. Taken together, these structures are consistent with the eukaryotic ACKs following a similar reaction mechanism as is proposed for the prokaryotic homologs.

Structural and mechanistic investigations on Salmonella typhimurium acetate kinase (AckA): identification of a putative ligand binding pocket at the dimeric interface

Background

Bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium can utilize acetate as the sole source of carbon and energy. Acetate kinase (AckA) and phosphotransacetylase (Pta), key enzymes of acetate utilization pathway, regulate flux of metabolites in glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, TCA cycle, glyoxylate bypass and fatty acid metabolism.

Results

Here we report kinetic characterization of S. typhimurium AckA (StAckA) and structures of its unliganded (Form-I, 2.70 Å resolution) and citrate-bound (Form-II, 1.90 Å resolution) forms. The enzyme showed broad substrate specificity with k_cat/K_m in the order of acetate > propionate > formate. Further, the K_m for acetyl-phosphate was significantly lower than for acetate and the enzyme could catalyze the reverse reaction (i.e. ATP synthesis) more efficiently. ATP and Mg²⁺ could be substituted by other nucleoside 5′-triphosphates (GTP, UTP and CTP) and divalent cations (Mn²⁺ and Co²⁺), respectively. Form-I StAckA represents the first structural report of an unliganded AckA. StAckA protomer consists of two domains with characteristic βββαβαβα topology of ASKHA superfamily of proteins. These domains adopt an intermediate conformation compared to that of open and closed forms of ligand-bound Methanosarcina thermophila AckA (MtAckA). Spectroscopic and structural analyses of StAckA further suggested occurrence of inter-domain motion upon ligand-binding. Unexpectedly, Form-II StAckA structure showed a drastic change in the conformation of residues 230–300 compared to that of Form-I. Further investigation revealed electron density corresponding to a citrate molecule in a pocket located at the dimeric interface of Form-II StAckA. Interestingly, a similar dimeric interface pocket lined with largely conserved residues could be identified in Form-I StAckA as well as in other enzymes homologous to AckA suggesting that ligand binding at this pocket may influence the function of these enzymes.

Conclusions

The biochemical and structural characterization of StAckA reported here provides insights into the biochemical specificity, overall fold, thermal stability, molecular basis of ligand binding and inter-domain motion in AckA family of enzymes. Dramatic conformational differences observed between unliganded and citrate-bound forms of StAckA led to identification of a putative ligand-binding pocket at the dimeric interface of StAckA with implications for enzymatic function.

Cellular function and molecular structure of ecto-nucleotidases

Ecto-nucleotidases play a pivotal role in purinergic signal transmission. They hydrolyze extracellular nucleotides and thus can control their availability at purinergic P2 receptors. They generate extracellular nucleosides for cellular reuptake and salvage via nucleoside transporters of the plasma membrane. The extracellular adenosine formed acts as an agonist of purinergic P1 receptors. They also can produce and hydrolyze extracellular inorganic pyrophosphate that is of major relevance in the control of bone mineralization. This review discusses and compares four major groups of ecto-nucleotidases: the ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases, ecto-5'-nucleotidase, ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterases, and alkaline phosphatases. Only recently and based on crystal structures, detailed information regarding the spatial structures and catalytic mechanisms has become available for members of these four ecto-nucleotidase families. This permits detailed predictions of their catalytic mechanisms and a comparison between the individual enzyme groups. The review focuses on the principal biochemical, cell biological, catalytic, and structural properties of the enzymes and provides brief reference to tissue distribution, and physiological and pathophysiological functions.

Novel pyrophosphate-forming acetate kinase from the protist Entamoeba histolytica

Acetate kinase (ACK) catalyzes the reversible synthesis of acetyl phosphate by transfer of the γ-phosphate of ATP to acetate. Here we report the first biochemical and kinetic characterization of a eukaryotic ACK, that from the protist Entamoeba histolytica. Our characterization revealed that this protist ACK is the only known member of the ASKHA structural superfamily, which includes acetate kinase, hexokinase, and other sugar kinases, to utilize inorganic pyrophosphate (PP(i))/inorganic phosphate (P(i)) as the sole phosphoryl donor/acceptor. Detection of ACK activity in E. histolytica cell extracts in the direction of acetate/PP(i) formation but not in the direction of acetyl phosphate/P(i) formation suggests that the physiological direction of the reaction is toward acetate/PP(i) production. Kinetic parameters determined for each direction of the reaction are consistent with this observation. The E. histolytica PP(i)-forming ACK follows a sequential mechanism, supporting a direct in-line phosphoryl transfer mechanism as previously reported for the well-characterized Methanosarcina thermophila ATP-dependent ACK. Characterizations of enzyme variants altered in the putative acetate/acetyl phosphate binding pocket suggested that acetyl phosphate binding is not mediated solely through a hydrophobic interaction but also through the phosphoryl group, as for the M. thermophila ACK. However, there are key differences in the roles of certain active site residues between the two enzymes. The absence of known ACK partner enzymes raises the possibility that ACK is part of a novel pathway in Entamoeba.

On the ATP-dependent activation of the radical enzyme (R)-2-hydroxyisocaproyl-CoA dehydratase

Members of the 2-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase enzyme family catalyze the β,α-dehydration of various CoA-esters in the fermentation of amino acids by clostridia. Abstraction of the nonacidic β-proton of the 2-hydroxyacyl-CoA compounds is achieved by the reductive generation of ketyl radicals on the substrate, which is initiated by the transfer of an electron at low redox potentials. The highly energetic electron needed on the dehydratase is donated by a [4Fe-4S] cluster containing ATPase, termed activator. We investigated the activator of the 2-hydroxyisocaproyl-CoA dehydratase from Clostridium difficile. The activator is a homodimeric protein structurally related to acetate and sugar kinases, Hsc70 and actin, and has a [4Fe-4S] cluster bound in the dimer interface. The crystal structures of the Mg-ADP, Mg-ADPNP, and nucleotide-free states of the reduced activator have been solved at 1.6-3.0 Å resolution, allowing us to define the position of Mg(2+) and water molecules in the vicinity of the nucleotides and the [4Fe-4S] cluster. The structures reveal redox- and nucleotide dependent changes agreeing with the modulation of the reduction potential of the [4Fe-4S] cluster by conformational changes. We also investigated the propensity of the activator to form a complex with its cognate dehydratase in the presence of Mg-ADP and Mg-ADPNP and together with the structural data present a refined mechanistic scheme for the ATP-dependent electron transfer between activator and dehydratase.

Direct detection of the acetate-forming activity of the enzyme acetate kinase

Acetate kinase, a member of the acetate and sugar kinase-Hsp70-actin (ASKHA) enzyme superfamily, is responsible for the reversible phosphorylation of acetate to acetyl phosphate utilizing ATP as a substrate. Acetate kinases are ubiquitous in the Bacteria, found in one genus of Archaea, and are also present in microbes of the Eukarya. The most well characterized acetate kinase is that from the methane-producing archaeon Methanosarcina thermophila. An acetate kinase which can only utilize PP(i) but not ATP in the acetyl phosphate-forming direction has been isolated from Entamoeba histolytica, the causative agent of amoebic dysentery, and has thus far only been found in this genus. In the direction of acetyl phosphate formation, acetate kinase activity is typically measured using the hydroxamate assay, first described by Lipmann, a coupled assay in which conversion of ATP to ADP is coupled to oxidation of NADH to NAD(+) by the enzymes pyruvate kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, or an assay measuring release of inorganic phosphate after reaction of the acetyl phosphate product with hydroxylamine. Activity in the opposite, acetate-forming direction is measured by coupling ATP formation from ADP to the reduction of NADP(+) to NADPH by the enzymes hexokinase and glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Here we describe a method for the detection of acetate kinase activity in the direction of acetate formation that does not require coupling enzymes, but is instead based on direct determination of acetyl phosphate consumption. After the enzymatic reaction, remaining acetyl phosphate is converted to a ferric hydroxamate complex that can be measured spectrophotometrically, as for the hydroxamate assay. Thus, unlike the standard coupled assay for this direction that is dependent on the production of ATP from ADP, this direct assay can be used for acetate kinases that produce ATP or PP(i).

Enzyme catalyzed radical dehydrations of hydroxy acids

BACKGROUND

The steadily increasing field of radical biochemistry is dominated by the large family of S-adenosylmethionine dependent enzymes, the so-called radical SAM enzymes, of which several new members are discovered every year. Here we report on 2- and 4-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratases which apply a very different method of radical generation. In these enzymes ketyl radicals are formed by one-electron reduction or oxidation and are recycled after each turnover without further energy input. Earlier reviews on 2-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratases were published in 2004 [J. Kim, M. Hetzel, C.D. Boiangiu, W. Buckel, FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 28 (2004) 455-468. W. Buckel, M. Hetzel, J. Kim, Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 8 (2004) 462-467.]

SCOPE OF REVIEW

The review focuses on four types of 2-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratases that are involved in the fermentation of amino acids by anaerobic bacteria, especially clostridia. These enzymes require activation by one-electron transfer from an iron-sulfur protein driven by hydrolysis of ATP. The review further describes the proposed mechanism that is highlighted by the identification of the allylic ketyl radical intermediate and the elucidation of the crystal structure of 2-hydroxyisocapryloyl-CoA dehydratase. With 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase the crystal structure, the complete stereochemistry and the function of several conserved residues around the active site could be identified. Finally potential biotechnological applications of the radical dehydratases are presented.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

The action of the activator as an 'Archerase' shooting electrons into difficultly reducible acceptors becomes an emerging principle in anaerobic metabolism. The dehydratases may provide useful tools in biotechnology. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Radical SAM enzymes and Radical Enzymology.

Preliminary X-ray crystallographic studies on acetate kinase (AckA) from Salmonella typhimurium in two crystal forms

Acetate kinase (AckA) catalyzes the reversible transfer of a phosphate group from acetyl phosphate to ADP, generating acetate and ATP, and plays a central role in carbon metabolism. In the present work, the gene corresponding to AckA from Salmonella typhimurium (StAckA) was cloned in the IPTG-inducible pRSET C vector, resulting in the attachment of a hexahistidine tag to the N-terminus of the expressed enzyme. The recombinant protein was overexpressed, purified and crystallized in two different crystal forms using the microbatch-under-oil method. Form I crystals diffracted to 2.70 Å resolution when examined using X-rays from a rotating-anode X-ray generator and belonged to the monoclinic space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a = 283.16, b = 62.17, c = 91.69 Å, β = 93.57°. Form II crystals, which diffracted to a higher resolution of 2.35 Å on the rotating-anode X-ray generator and to 1.90 Å on beamline BM14 of the ESRF, Grenoble, also belonged to space group C2 but with smaller unit-cell parameters (a = 151.01, b = 78.50, c = 97.48 Å, β = 116.37°). Calculation of Matthews coefficients for the two crystal forms suggested the presence of four and two protomers of StAckA in the asymmetric units of forms I and II, respectively. Initial phases for the form I diffraction data were obtained by molecular replacement using the coordinates of Thermotoga maritima AckA (TmAckA) as the search model. The form II structure was phased using a monomer of form I as the phasing model. Inspection of the initial electron-density maps suggests dramatic conformational differences between residues 230 and 300 of the two crystal forms and warrants further investigation.

Target highlights in CASP9: Experimental target structures for the critical assessment of techniques for protein structure prediction

One goal of the CASP community wide experiment on the critical assessment of techniques for protein structure prediction is to identify the current state of the art in protein structure prediction and modeling. A fundamental principle of CASP is blind prediction on a set of relevant protein targets, that is, the participating computational methods are tested on a common set of experimental target proteins, for which the experimental structures are not known at the time of modeling. Therefore, the CASP experiment would not have been possible without broad support of the experimental protein structural biology community. In this article, several experimental groups discuss the structures of the proteins which they provided as prediction targets for CASP9, highlighting structural and functional peculiarities of these structures: the long tail fiber protein gp37 from bacteriophage T4, the cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase Iβ dimerization/docking domain, the ectodomain of the JTB (jumping translocation breakpoint) transmembrane receptor, Autotaxin in complex with an inhibitor, the DNA-binding J-binding protein 1 domain essential for biosynthesis and maintenance of DNA base-J (β-D-glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil) in Trypanosoma and Leishmania, an so far uncharacterized 73 residue domain from Ruminococcus gnavus with a fold typical for PDZ-like domains, a domain from the phycobilisome core-membrane linker phycobiliprotein ApcE from Synechocystis, the heat shock protein 90 activators PFC0360w and PFC0270w from Plasmodium falciparum, and 2-oxo-3-deoxygalactonate kinase from Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Structural analysis of the essential resuscitation promoting factor YeaZ suggests a mechanism of nucleotide regulation through dimer reorganization

Background

The yeaZ gene product forms part of the conserved network YjeE/YeaZ/YgjD essential for the survival of many Gram-negative eubacteria. Among other as yet unidentified roles, YeaZ functions as a resuscitation promoting factor required for survival and resuscitation of cells in a viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In order to investigate in detail the structure/function relationship of this family of proteins we have performed X-ray crystallographic studies of Vibrio parahaemolyticus YeaZ. The YeaZ structure showed that it has a classic actin-like nucleotide-binding fold. Comparisons of this crystal structure to that of available homologues from E. coli, T. maritima and S. typhimurium revealed two distinctly different modes of dimer formation. In one form, prevalent in the absence of nucleotide, the putative nucleotide-binding site is incomplete, lacking a binding pocket for a nucleotide base. In the second form, residues from the second subunit complete the nucleotide-binding site. This suggests that the two dimer architectures observed in the crystal structures correspond to a free and a nucleotide-bound form of YeaZ. A multiple sequence alignment of YeaZ proteins from different bacteria allowed us to identify a large conserved hydrophobic patch on the protein surface that becomes exposed upon nucleotide-driven dimer re-arrangement. We hypothesize that the transition between two dimer architectures represents the transition between the ‘on’ and ‘off’ states of YeaZ. The effect of this transition is to alternately expose and bury a docking site for the partner protein YgjD.

Conclusions/Significance

This paper provides the first structural insight into the putative mechanism of nucleotide regulation of YeaZ through dimer reorganization. Our analysis suggests that nucleotide binding to YeaZ may act as a regulator or switch that changes YeaZ shape, allowing it to switch partners between YjeE and YgjD.

Structure of 2-oxo-3-deoxygalactonate kinase from Klebsiella pneumoniae

In most organisms, efficient D-galactose utilization requires the highly conserved Leloir pathway that converts D-galactose to D-glucose 1-phosphate. However, in some bacterial and fungal species alternative routes of D-galactose assimilation have been identified. In the so-called De Ley-Doudoroff pathway, D-galactose is metabolized into pyruvate and D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in five consecutive reactions carried out by specific enzymes. The penultimate step in this pathway involves the phosphorylation of 2-oxo-3-deoxygalactonate to 2-oxo-3-deoxygalactonate 6-phosphate catalyzed by 2-oxo-3-deoxygalactonate kinase, with ATP serving as a phosphoryl-group donor. Here, a crystal structure of 2-oxo-3-deoxygalactonate kinase from Klebsiella pneumoniae determined at 2.1 Å resolution is reported, the first structure of an enzyme from the De Ley-Doudoroff pathway. Structural comparison indicates that the enzyme belongs to the ASKHA (acetate and sugar kinases/hsc70/actin) family of phosphotransferases. The protein is composed of two α/β domains, each of which contains a core common to all family members. Additional elements introduced between conserved structural motifs define the unique features of 2-oxo-3-deoxygalactonate kinase and possibly determine the biological function of the protein.

The role of the C8 proton of ATP in the regulation of phosphoryl transfer within kinases and synthetases

BACKGROUND

The kinome comprises functionally diverse enzymes, with the current classification indicating very little about the extent of conserved regulatory mechanisms associated with phosphoryl transfer. The apparent Km of the kinases ranges from less than 0.4 μM to in excess of 1000 μM for ATP. It is not known how this diverse range of enzymes mechanistically achieves the regulation of catalysis via an affinity range for ATP varying by three-orders of magnitude.

RESULTS

We have demonstrated a previously undiscovered mechanism in kinase and synthetase enzymes where the overall rate of reaction is regulated via the C8-H of ATP. Using ATP deuterated at the C8 position (C8D-ATP) as a molecular probe it was shown that the C8-H plays a direct role in the regulation of the overall rate of reaction in a range of kinase and synthetase enzymes. Using comparative studies on the effect of the concentration of ATP and C8D-ATP on the activity of the enzymes we demonstrated that not only did C8D-ATP give a kinetic isotope effect (KIE) but the KIE's obtained are clearly not secondary KIE effects as the magnitude of the KIE in all cases was at least 2 fold and in most cases in excess of 7 fold.

CONCLUSIONS

Kinase and synthetase enzymes utilise C8D-ATP in preference to non-deuterated ATP. The KIE obtained at low ATP concentrations is clearly a primary KIE demonstrating strong evidence that the bond to the isotopically substituted hydrogen is being broken. The effect of the ATP concentration profile on the KIE was used to develop a model whereby the C8H of ATP plays a role in the overall regulation of phosphoryl transfer. This role of the C8H of ATP in the regulation of substrate binding appears to have been conserved in all kinase and synthetase enzymes as one of the mechanisms associated with binding of ATP. The induction of the C8H to be labile by active site residues coordinated to the ATP purine ring may play a significant role in explaining the broad range of Km associated with kinase enzymes.

Acetate kinase and phosphotransacetylase

Most of the methane produced in nature derives from the methyl group of acetate, the major end product of anaerobes decomposing complex plant material. The acetate is derived from the metabolic intermediate acetyl-CoA via the combined activities of phosphotransacetylase and acetate kinase. In Methanosarcina species, the enzymes function in the reverse direction to activate acetate to acetyl-CoA prior to cleavage into a methyl and carbonyl group of which the latter is oxidized providing electrons for reduction of the former to methane. Thus, phosphotransacetylase and acetate kinase have a central role in the conversion of complex organic matter to methane by anaerobic microbial food chains. Both enzymes have been purified from Methanosarcina thermophila and characterized. Both enzymes from M. thermophila have also been produced in Escherichia coli permitting crystal structures and amino acid variants, the kinetic and biochemical studies of which have lead to proposals for catalytic mechanisms. The high identity of both enzymes to paralogs in the domain Bacteria suggests ancient origins and common mechanisms.

How to make a living by exhaling methane

Methane produced in the biosphere is derived from two major pathways. Conversion of the methyl group of acetate to CH(4) in the aceticlastic pathway accounts for at least two-thirds, and reduction of CO(2) with electrons derived from H(2), formate, or CO accounts for approximately one-third. Although both pathways have terminal steps in common, they diverge considerably in the initial steps and energy conservation mechanisms. Steps and enzymes unique to the CO(2) reduction pathway are confined to methanogens and the domain Archaea. On the other hand, steps and enzymes unique to the aceticlastic pathway are widely distributed in the domain Bacteria, the understanding of which has contributed to a broader understanding of prokaryotic biology.

A complex of 2-hydroxyisocaproyl-coenzyme A dehydratase and its activator from Clostridium difficile stabilized by aluminium tetrafluoride-adenosine diphosphate

The dehydration of 2-hydroxyisocaproyl-CoA to isocaprenoyl-CoA is the chemically most demanding step in the reduction of leucine to isocaproate by Clostridium difficile, because the beta-hydrogen of the substrate is not acidic (pK(a) ca. 40). A two-component system, composed of a homodimeric activator and an heterodimeric dehydratase, catalyses this unusual alpha,beta-elimination of water. The reduced activator transfers an electron from its [4Fe-4S](+) cluster to that of the dehydratase in an ATP-dependent manner, similar to the iron protein of nitrogenase. Here we show that AlF(4)(-) x ADP traps the interaction of the activator with the dehydratase by forming a stable complex containing 1.0 mol homodimeric activator, 1.0 mol heterodimeric dehydratase and 1.2 mol ADP. The complex (148 kDa) was isolated by size exclusion chromatography, affinity chromatography using the Strep-tag at the activator, or most conveniently by ultrafiltration (100 kDa cut off membrane). Kinetic and EPR-spectroscopic experiments revealed that the complex formation proceeds much slower than the activation but in an almost irreversible manner. The isolated complex is devoid of any activity, because the dehydratase is in the oxidized form whereas the activator remains in the reduced state due to the presence of dithionite.

Influence of fatty acid precursors, including food preservatives, on the growth and fatty acid composition of Listeria monocytogenes at 37 and 10degreesC

Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen that grows at refrigeration temperatures and increases its content of anteiso-C(15:0) fatty acid, which is believed to be a homeoviscous adaptation to ensure membrane fluidity, at these temperatures. As a possible novel approach for control of the growth of the organism, the influences of various fatty acid precursors, including branched-chain amino acids and branched- and straight-chain carboxylic acids, some of which are also well-established food preservatives, on the growth and fatty acid composition of the organism at 37 degrees C and 10 degrees C were studied in order to investigate whether the organism could be made to synthesize fatty acids that would result in impaired growth at low temperatures. The results indicate that the fatty acid composition of L. monocytogenes could be modulated by the feeding of branched-chain amino acid, C(4), C(5), and C(6) branched-chain carboxylic acid, and C(3) and C(4) straight-chain carboxylic acid fatty acid precursors, but the growth-inhibitory effects of several preservatives were independent of effects on fatty acid composition, which were minor in the case of preservatives metabolized via acetyl coenzyme A. The ability of a precursor to modify fatty acid composition was probably a reflection of the substrate specificities of the first enzyme, FabH, in the condensation of primers of fatty acid biosynthesis with malonyl acyl carrier protein.

Radical and electron recycling in catalysis

An increasing number of enzymes are being discovered that contain radicals or catalyze reactions via radical intermediates. These radical enzymes are able to open reaction pathways that two-electron steps cannot achieve. Recently, organic chemists started to apply related radical chemistry for synthetic purposes, whereby an electron energized by light is recycled in every turnover. This Minireview compares this new type of reaction with enzymes that use recycling radicals and single electrons as cofactors.

Identification of coevolving residues and coevolution potentials emphasizing structure, bond formation and catalytic coordination in protein evolution

The structure and function of a protein is dependent on coordinated interactions between its residues. The selective pressures associated with a mutation at one site should therefore depend on the amino acid identity of interacting sites. Mutual information has previously been applied to multiple sequence alignments as a means of detecting coevolutionary interactions. Here, we introduce a refinement of the mutual information method that: 1) removes a significant, non-coevolutionary bias and 2) accounts for heteroscedasticity. Using a large, non-overlapping database of protein alignments, we demonstrate that predicted coevolving residue-pairs tend to lie in close physical proximity. We introduce coevolution potentials as a novel measure of the propensity for the 20 amino acids to pair amongst predicted coevolutionary interactions. Ionic, hydrogen, and disulfide bond-forming pairs exhibited the highest potentials. Finally, we demonstrate that pairs of catalytic residues have a significantly increased likelihood to be identified as coevolving. These correlations to distinct protein features verify the accuracy of our algorithm and are consistent with a model of coevolution in which selective pressures towards preserving residue interactions act to shape the mutational landscape of a protein by restricting the set of admissible neutral mutations.

Structure of the archaeal Kae1/Bud32 fusion protein MJ1130: a model for the eukaryotic EKC/KEOPS subcomplex

The EKC/KEOPS yeast complex is involved in telomere maintenance and transcription. The Bud32p and kinase-associated endopeptidase 1 (Kaelp) components of the complex are totally conserved in eukarya and archaea. Their genes are fused in several archaeal genomes, suggesting that they physically interact. We report here the structure of the Methanocaldococcus jannaschii Kae1/Bud32 fusion protein MJ1130. Kae1 is an iron protein with an ASKHA fold and Bud32 is an atypical small RIO-type kinase. The structure MJ1130 suggests that association with Kae1 maintains the Bud32 kinase in an inactive state. We indeed show that yeast Kae1p represses the kinase activity of yeast Bud32p. Extensive conserved interactions between MjKae1 and MjBud32 suggest that Kae1p and Bud32p directly interact in both yeast and archaea. Mutations that disrupt the Kae1p/Bud32p interaction in the context of the yeast complex have dramatic effects in vivo and in vitro, similar to those observed with deletion mutations of the respective components. Direct interaction between Kae1p and Bud32p in yeast is required both for the transcription and the telomere homeostasis function of EKC/KEOPS.

Crystal structure of butyrate kinase 2 from Thermotoga maritima, a member of the ASKHA superfamily of phosphotransferases

The enzymatic transfer of phosphoryl groups is central to the control of many cellular processes. One of the phosphoryl transfer mechanisms, that of acetate kinase, is not completely understood. Besides better understanding of the mechanism of acetate kinase, knowledge of the structure of butyrate kinase 2 (Buk2) will aid in the interpretation of active-site structure and provide information on the structural basis of substrate specificity. The gene buk2 from Thermotoga maritima encodes a member of the ASKHA (acetate and sugar kinases/heat shock cognate/actin) superfamily of phosphotransferases. The encoded protein Buk2 catalyzes the phosphorylation of butyrate and isobutyrate. We have determined the 2.5-A crystal structure of Buk2 complexed with (beta,gamma-methylene) adenosine 5'-triphosphate. Buk2 folds like an open-shelled clam, with each of the two domains representing one of the two shells. In the open active-site cleft between the N- and C-terminal domains, the active-site residues consist of two histidines, two arginines, and a cluster of hydrophobic residues. The ATP binding region of Buk2 in the C-terminal domain consists of abundant glycines for nucleotide binding, and the ATP binding motif is similar to those of other members of the ASKHA superfamily. The enzyme exists as an octamer, in which four disulfide bonds form between intermolecular cysteines. Sequence alignment and structure superposition identify the simplicity of the monomeric Buk2 structure, a probable substrate binding site, the key residues in catalyzing phosphoryl transfer, and the substrate specificity differences among Buk2, acetate, and propionate kinases. The possible enzyme mechanisms are discussed.

Methanogenesis in marine sediments

The anaerobic conversion of complex organic matter to CH(4) is an essential link in the global carbon cycle. In freshwater anaerobic environments, the organic matter is decomposed to CH(4) and CO(2) by a microbial food chain that terminates with methanogens that produce methane primarily by reduction of the methyl group of acetate and also reduction of CO(2). The process also occurs in marine environments, particularly those receiving large loads of organic matter, such as coastal sediments. The great majority of research on methanogens has focused on marine and freshwater CO(2)-reducing species, and freshwater acetate-utilizing species. Recent molecular, biochemical, bioinformatic, proteomic, and microarray analyses of the marine isolate Methanosarcina acetivorans has revealed that the pathway for acetate conversion to methane differs significantly from that in freshwater methanogens. Similar experimental approaches have also revealed striking contrasts with freshwater species for the pathway of CO-dependent CO(2) reduction to methane by M. acetivorans. The differences in both pathways reflect an adaptation by M. acetivorans to the marine environment.