PCR detection, identification to species level, and fingerprinting of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli direct from diarrheic samples

First study in the frequency of isolation and phenotypic antimicrobial resistance profiles of pig and cattle origin Campylobacter strains in Romania

Campylobacter spp. is recognized as one of the most common pathogens involved in the development of gastrointestinal infections in humans. The current study aimed to enhance the knowledge on the occurrence and molecular characterization of Campylobacter spp. in pigs and cattle origin caecum samples (n = 56) collected in one year, from nine Romanian slaughterhouses, and to determine the antimicrobial resistance profile of the isolated strains. All Campylobacter spp. strains (n = 41) isolated from swine and cattle caecum samples were analyzed in terms of antimicrobial resistance, in accordance with the EURL protocol and with the Commission Implementing Decision No. 2020/1729. The prevalence rate for C. coli. in pig caecum samples was 92.3% (36/39), and the prevalence of C. jejuni, in cattle origin samples was 29.4% (5/17). C. coli strains isolated from pigs proved resistant to tetracycline 75% (27/36), ciprofloxacin 69.4% (25/36), erythromycin 8.3% (3/36), ertapenem 2.8% (1/36) and gentamicin 2.8% (1/36), but no resistance was observed towards chloramphenicol. C. jejuni strains originating from cattle expressed resistance to ciprofloxacin 60.0% (3/5) and tetracycline 20.0% (1/5), but they were susceptible to chloramphenicol, erythromycin, ertapenem and gentamicin. In the present study, 19.5% (7/36) C. coli strains isolated from pigs were identified as multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. The obtained results demonstrated that pigs especially, but cattle to, can be considered important natural reservoirs for zoonotic multidrug-resistant Campylobacter strains, having a stimulating effect for further studies aiming at the molecular screening of the genotypic antimicrobial resistance processing of a higher number of samples.

Novel rpsK / rpsD primer-probe assay improves detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in human stool

Campylobacter causes bacterial enteritis, dysentery, and growth faltering in children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Campylobacter spp. are fastidious organisms, and their detection often relies on culture independent diagnostic technologies, especially in LMICs. Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are most often the infectious agents and in high income settings together account for 95% of Campylobacter infections. Several other Campylobacter species have been detected in LMIC children at an increased prevalence relative to high income settings. After doing extensive whole genome sequencing of isolates of C. jejuni and C. coli in Peru, we observed heterogeneity in the binding sites for the main species-specific PCR assay (cadF) and designed an alternative rpsKD-based qPCR assay to detect both C. jejuni and C. coli. The rpsKD-based qPCR assay identified 23% more C.jejuni/ C.coli samples than the cadF assay among 47 Campylobacter genus positive cadF negative samples verified to have C. jejuni and or C. coli with shotgun metagenomics. This assay can be expected to be useful in diagnostic studies of enteric infectious diseases and be useful in revising the attribution estimates of Campylobacter in LMICs.

Detection of Campylobacter spp. in farmed sheep in Mymensingh division of Bangladesh: Prevalence, risk factors, and antimicrobial susceptibility status

Background and Aim

Campylobacter infections in sheep may be asymptomatic or cause enteritis, ileitis, infertility, and abortion. Thus, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in farming sheep and to detect risk factors, molecular patterns, and antimicrobial susceptibility status of these pathogens.

Materials and Methods

Four hundred and eight fecal samples were collected from 12 flocks in the Mymensingh and Sherpur districts. Samples were tested by both basic (culture and biochemical tests) and molecular (initially 16S rRNA and later hipO gene-based polymerase chain reaction). Furthermore, the antimicrobial susceptibility status of Campylobacter jejuni was confirmed using disk diffusion. Flock- and animal-level data were captured using semi-structured interviews with farm owners under bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses to confirm the risk factors for Campylobacter-positive status.

Results

The prevalence of C. jejuni staining at the animal and flock levels was 8.82% (36/408) and 66.70% (8/12), respectively. The age of sheep was identified as an important risk factor. Up to 1 year of age, sheep were 3.78 times more likely to be infected with C. jejuni (95% confidence interval: 1.0736-13.3146, p = 0.038). Of the 36 isolates of C. jejuni, all were found to be fully susceptible (100%) to gentamicin and ciprofloxacin. In this study, three antimicrobial agents, oxytetracycline, azithromycin, and ceftriaxone, were fully resistant (100%). The majority of isolates were resistant to a combination of 4-6 antimicrobial agents.

Conclusion

The present study highlights the predominant maintenance of zoonotic Campylobacter species in sheep, and their burden on human health is enormous. Therefore, environmental, animal, and human health needs to be focused under a One Health lens to mitigate the occurrence of Campylobacter in farm settings and to prevent further introduction to animals and humans.

Impact of In-Feed versus In-Water Chlortetracycline and Tiamulin Administrations on Fecal Prevalence and Antimicrobial Susceptibilities of Campylobacter in a Population of Nursery Pigs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria is a major public health concern in the US and around the world. Campylobacter is an important foodborne pathogen that resides in the gut of pigs and is shed in feces, with the potential to be transmitted to humans. In pigs, the oral route, either in-feed or in-water, is by far the most common route of administration of antimicrobials. Because the distribution of the antibiotic in the gut and the dosages are different, the impact of in-feed vs. in-water administration of antibiotics on the development of AMR is likely to be different. Therefore, a study was conducted to compare in-feed vs. in-water administrations of chlortetracycline (CTC) and/or tiamulin on fecal prevalence and AMR profiles of Campylobacter among weaned nursery piglets. A total of 1,296 weaned piglets, allocated into 48 pens (27 piglets per pen), were assigned randomly to six treatment groups: Control (no antibiotic), in-feed CTC, in-water CTC, in-feed tiamulin, in-water tiamulin, or in-feed CTC and tiamulin. Fecal samples were collected randomly from 5 piglets from each pen during the pre-treatment (days 0, 7), treatment (days 14, 21), and post-treatment (days 28, 35) phases. Bacterial isolations and species identifications were conducted by culture and PCR, respectively. The microbroth dilution method with SensititreTM plates was used to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility and resistance of Campylobacter isolates. The results on resistance were interpreted based on the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) epidemiological cutoff values for Campylobacter. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter was 18.2% (262/1440). Speciation of Campylobacter isolates by PCR indicated the prevalence of only two species: Campylobacter hyointestinalis (17.9%; 258/1440) and C. coli (0.3%; 4/1440). Campylobacter isolates were resistant to tetracycline (98.5%), ciprofloxacin (89.3%), and nalidixic acid (60.3%). Neither the antibiotic nor the route of administration had an effect (p > 0.05) on the prevalence of AMR Campylobacter in the feces of piglets.

Genotypic characterization, antimicrobial susceptibility and virulence determinants of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolated from pastured poultry farms

Aim

Campylobacter is the leading bacterial pathogen that causes foodborne illnesses worldwide. Pasture farming is regarded as an important source of agricultural production for small farming communities. Consumer preference for pasture-raised animal products has increased; however, there is a paucity of information on the microbiological quality of pasture-raised poultry products. The purpose of this study was to explore genetic relatedness of thermophilic Campylobacter isolates, to assess antibiotic resistance phenotypically and genotypically, and to screen the presence of virulence determinants of Campylobacter isolates from pasture-raised poultry farms from southeastern United States.

Methods

Ninety-seven Campylobacter isolates previously identified by Q7 BAX® System Real-Time PCR were genotyped by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Campylobacter isolates were then evaluated for their phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility against nine antimicrobial agents using Sensititre plates. Additionally, Campylobacter isolates were tested for the presence of antimicrobial resistance-associated elements. Furthermore, Campylobacter isolates were screened for the presence of 13 genes encoding putative virulence factors by PCR. These included genes involved in motility (flaA and flhA), adhesion and colonization (cadF, docC, racR, and virB11), toxin production (cdtA, cdtB, cdtC, wlaN, and ceuE) and invasion (ciaB and iamA).

Results

Among 97 Campylobacter isolates, Campylobacter jejuni (n = 79) and Campylobacter coli (n = 18) were identified. By MLST, C. jejuni isolates were assigned to seven clonal complexes. Among them, ST-353, ST-607 and ST-21 were the most common STs recognized. All C. coli (n = 18) isolates were included in CC-828. Interestingly, eight STs identified were not belonging any previous identified clonal complex. Campylobacter isolates displayed a high resistance rate against tetracycline (81.4%), while a low rate of resistance was observed against macrolides (azithromycin and erythromycin), quinolones and fluoroquinolones (nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin), aminoglycosides (gentamicin), ketolide (telithromycin), amphenicol (florfenicol) and lincomycin (clindamycin). Thirteen isolates (13.54%) were pan-susceptible to all tested antibiotics, while nine isolates were multi-antimicrobial resistant (MAR; resist to three or more antimicrobial classes). Interestingly, there were no isolates resistant to all antimicrobial classes. Thr86Ile mutation was identified in all quinolones resistant strains. Erythromycin encoding gene (ermB) was identified in 75% of erythromycin resistant isolates. The A2075 mutation was detected in one erythromycin resistant strain, while A2074 could not be identified. The tetO gene was identified in 93.7% of tetracycline resistant isolates and six tetracycline susceptible isolates. In conclusion, the results of this study revealed that Campylobacter isolates from pasture-raised poultry farms showed the ST relatedness to Campylobacter isolates commonly associated with humans, indicating pasture-raised broiler flocks, similar to conventionally-reared broiler flocks, as a potential vector for antibiotic-resistant and pathogenic strains of thermophilic Campylobacter to humans.

Investigating the Significance of Non-jejuni/coli Campylobacter Strains in Patients with Diarrhea

Campylobacter is one of the most commonly reported foodborne bacteria worldwide. Although Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli have been reported to be responsible for the great majority of campylobacteriosis, the burden of infections by species other than C. jejuni and C. coli have been increasing as a result of a transition to diagnostic test methods that enable the isolation of emerging species. The aim of the present study was to recover C. jejuni, C. coli, and emerging species from the stool samples of 500 patients with gastroenteritis and 100 healthy subjects via the use of a filtration method and culture techniques using Butzler agar and mCCDA under a microaerobic or hydrogen-enriched atmosphere, identify the species by multiplex PCR methods and assess the significance of emerging species in enteric diseases. Thirty-one (6.2%) Campylobacter spp. were isolated from the stool samples of diarrheic patients but none from healthy individuals. Of 31 isolates, 21 (67.8%), nine (29%), and one (3.2%) were identified as C. jejuni, C. coli, and Campylobacter concisus by multiplex PCR, respectively. The filtration method was superior to the culture technique using mCCDA under a microaerobic atmosphere. C. concisus was evaluated as the etiology of gastroenteritis as a result of laboratory and clinical evaluations. The present study was the first to indicate that emerging Campylobacter species are rarely detected and C. concisus is linked to acute gastroenteritis in Turkey where additional studies are warranted to clarify the significance of emerging species in gastroenteritis.

Genetic characteristics, antimicrobial susceptibility, and virulence genes distribution of Campylobacter isolated from local dual-purpose chickens in central China

Food-borne antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter poses a serious threat to public health. To understand the prevalence and genetic characteristics of Campylobacter in Chinese local dual-purpose (meat and eggs) chickens, the genomes of 30 Campylobacter isolates, including 13 C. jejuni and 17 C. coli from Jianghan-chickens in central China, were sequenced and tested for antibiotic susceptibility. The results showed that CC-354 and CC-828 were the dominant clonal complexes of C. jejuni and C. coli, respectively, and a phylogenetic analysis showed that three unclassified multilocus sequence types of C. coli were more closely genetically related to C. jejuni than to other C. coli in this study. Of the six antibiotics tested, the highest resistance rates were to ciprofloxacin and tetracycline (100%), followed by lincomycin (63.3%), erythromycin (30.0%), amikacin (26.7%), and cefotaxime (20.0%). The antibiotic resistance rate of C. coli was higher than that of C. jejuni. The GyrA T86I mutation and 15 acquired resistance genes were detected with whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Among those, the GyrA T86I mutation and tet(O) were most prevalent (both 96.7%), followed by the blaOXA-type gene (90.0%), ant(6)-Ia (26.7%), aac(6')-aph(3'') (23.3%), erm(B) (13.3%), and other genes (3.3%). The ciprofloxacin and tetracycline resistance phenotypes correlated strongly with the GyrA T86I mutation and tet(O)/tet(L), respectively, but for other antibiotics, the correlation between genes and resistance phenotypes were weak, indicating that there may be resistance mechanisms other than the resistance genes detected in this study. Virulence gene analysis showed that several genes related to adhesion, colonization, and invasion (including cadF, porA, ciaB, and jlpA) and cytolethal distending toxin (cdtABC) were only present in C. jejuni. Overall, this study extends our knowledge of the epidemiology and antibiotic resistance of Campylobacter in local Chinese dual-purpose chickens.

Detecting Enteric Pathogens in Low-Risk Drinking Water in Dhaka, Bangladesh: An Assessment of the WHO Water Safety Categories

The microbiological quality of water is usually assessed by fecal coliform bacteria, and the presence of E. coli as an indicator of fecal contamination is widely recommended by international guidelines. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of diarrheagenic pathogens, in both public and personal domain water sources and examine the reliance on the WHO drinking water risk assessment guidelines. This study was conducted in a low-income urban community in Dhaka, Bangladesh between September 2014 and October 2015. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect the marker and virulence genes of Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella species, and Campylobacter species, and the culture method was employed for the quantitative assessment of E. coli. According to the WHO guidelines, 48% of the public domain source water and 21% of the personal domain point-of-drinking water were classified in the low-risk group, i.e., 0 CFU of E. coli/100 mL. However, when using PCR, we detected pathogens in 39% (14/36) of the point-of-drinking water samples and 65% (74/114) of the public domain water source samples classified in the low-risk group. Our study showed that relying solely on E. coli detection as a measure of water quality may overlook the presence of other pathogens in the drinking water. In addition to the culture-based method, the detection of virulence genes by PCR should also be considered to add more scrutiny to the detection of diverse types of pathogens.

Low-Level Tetracycline Resistance Gene tet(O)_3 in Campylobacter jejuni

Campylobacter (C.) spp. are the most important foodborne, bacterial, and zoonotic pathogens worldwide. Resistance monitoring of foodborne bacterial pathogens is an important tool to control antimicrobial resistance as a part of the “One Health” approach. The detection and functionality of new resistance genes are of paramount importance in applying more effective screening methods based on whole genome sequencing (WGS). Most tetracycline-resistant C. spp. isolates harbor tet(O), a gene that encodes a ribosomal protection protein. Here we describe tet(O)_3, which has been identified in two food isolates of C. jejuni and is very similar to the tet(O) gene in Streptococcus pneumoniae, having a truncated promoter sequence. This gene confers resistance to tetracycline below 1 mg/L, which is the epidemiological cut-off value. We have analyzed the entire genome of these two isolates, together with a C. jejuni isolate found to have high-level resistance to tetracycline. In contrast to the highly resistant isolate, the promoter of tet(O)_3 is highly responsive to tetracycline, as observed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In addition, the two isolates possess a CRISPR repeat, fluoroquinolone resistance due to the gyrA point mutation C257T, a β-lactamase resistance gene blaOXA-184, a multidrug efflux pump CmeABC and its repressor CmeR, but no plasmid. Low-level antibiotic resistant C. jejuni might therefore have an advantage for surviving in non-host environments.

Metagenomic Strain-Typing Combined with Isolate Sequencing Provides Increased Resolution of the Genetic Diversity of Campylobacter jejuni Carriage in Wild Birds

As the world's leading cause of human gastro-enteritis, the food- and waterborne pathogen Campylobacter needs to be intensively monitored through a One Health approach. Particularly, wild birds have been hypothesized to contribute to the spread of human clinical recurring C. jejuni genotypes across several countries. A major concern in studying epidemiological dynamics is resolving the large genomic diversity of strains circulating in the environment and various reservoirs, challenging to achieve with isolation techniques. Here, we applied a passive-filtration method to obtain isolates and in parallel recovered genotypes from metagenomic sequencing data from associated filter sweeps. For genotyping mixed strains, a reference-based computational workflow to predict allelic profiles of nine extended-MLST loci was utilized. We validated the pipeline by sequencing artificial mixtures of C. jejuni strains and observed the highest prediction accuracy when including obtained isolates as references. By analyzing metagenomic samples, we were able to detect over 20% additional genetic diversity and observed an over 50% increase in the potential to connect genotypes across wild-bird samples. With an optimized filtration method and a computational approach for genotyping strain mixtures, we provide the foundation for future studies assessing C. jejuni diversity in environmental and clinical settings at improved throughput and resolution.

Occurrence of Campylobacter spp. and Phenotypic Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Campylobacter jejuni in Slaughtered Broiler Chickens in North-Western Romania

Campylobacteriosis is recognized as one of the most common food-borne zoonoses, with worldwide distribution, having undercooked poultry meat and other cross-contaminated foodstuffs as the main sources of human infections. The current study aimed to provide data on the occurrence of the thermophilic Campylobacter spp. in seven broiler chicken flocks, from three north-western Transylvanian counties of Romania, as well as to determine the antimicrobial resistance profile of the isolated C. jejuni strains. A total of 324 fresh cecal samples were collected during the slaughtering process, and screened for the presence of Campylobacter spp., using routine microbiological and molecular diagnostic tools. Overall, 85.2% (276/324; 95% CI 80.9-88.6) of the tested samples expressed positive results for Campylobacter spp., with dominant occurrence of C. coli towards C. jejuni (63.4% vs. 36.6%). From the six tested antimicrobials, the 101 isolated C. jejuni strains were resistant against ciprofloxacin (79.2%), nalidixic acid (78.2%), tetracycline (49.5%), and streptomycin (7.9%), but total susceptibility was noticed against erythromycin and gentamicin. Seven (6.9%) isolates exhibited multidrug resistance. The study results emphasize the role of broiler chicken as reservoir of Campylobacter infections for humans, as well as strengthen the necessity of the prudent using of antimicrobials in the poultry industry.

Campylobacter spp. isolated from poultry in Iran: Antibiotic resistance profiles, virulence genes, and molecular mechanisms

Campylobacter spp. genera is one of the most common causes of microbial enteritis worldwide. The objective of this work was to investigate the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) patterns, virulence genes, and genetic variation of thermophilic Campylobacter species collected from chicken meat samples in Iran. A total of 255 meat specimens were taken and transferred to the laboratory. Culture methods were utilized to identify the Campylobacter genus, and PCR and sequencing were performed to confirm the organisms. Antimicrobial susceptibility evaluation was performed using broth microdilution for six antimicrobials [ciprofloxacin (CIP), nalidixic acid (NAL), sitafloxacin (SIT), erythromycin (ERY), tetracycline (TET), and gentamicin (GEN)]. By using PCR, AMR and virulence genes were detected. The detection rate of Campylobacter spp. was 64 (25.09%) out of 255 meat samples, with C. jejuni and C. coli accounting for 41 (64.06%) and 14 (21.87%), respectively. Other Campylobacter isolates accounted for 14.06% of the total (nine samples). The antibiotic susceptibility of all Campylobacter isolates was tested using six antibiotics, and all (100%) were resistant to CIP and NAL. However, TET resistance was observed in 93.9% and 83.3% of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates, respectively. Four (8.2%) C. jejuni isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR), while none of the C. coli isolates were MDR. Two of the four MDR isolates were resistant to CIP, NAL, TET, and ERY, whereas the other two isolates were resistant to CIP, NAL, TET, and GEN. The values of the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) were as follows: CIP, 64-256 μg/ml; NAL, 128-512 μg/ml; TET, 2-1024 μg/ml; SIT, 0.25-1 μg/ml; ERY, 1-32 μg/ml; and GEN, 1-256 μg/ml. recR, dnaJ, cdtC, cdtB, cdtA, flaA, ciaB, cadF, and pidA were discovered in more than 50% of C. jejuni isolates, although wlaN, virbll, cgtB, and ceuE were found in <50%. flaA, cadF, pidA, and ciaB were discovered in more than 50% of the C. coli samples, whereas recR, cdtC, cdtB, cdtA, and cgtB were found in less than half. For C. coli, the percentages for wlaN, dnaJ, virbll, and ceuE were all zero. The results of this study show Campylobacter isolates obtained from poultry have higher resistance to quinolones and TET, pathogenicity potential, and varied genotypes.

Prevalence, Tetracycline Resistance and Tet(O) Gene Identification in Pathogenic Campylobacter Strains Isolated from Chickens in Retail Markets of Lima, Peru

Background: In this study, we aimed to estimate the prevalence, tetracycline resistance and presence of Tet(O) in Campylobacter strains isolated from chicken in markets of Lima, Peru. Methods: A total of 250 chicken samples were obtained from traditional markets (skin, n = 120) and supermarkets (meat, n = 130). Samples were subjected to microbiological assays for identification of Campylobacter spp. according to ISO 10272-2017, and the isolates were then submitted to species identification by PCR. Phenotypic resistance to tetracyclines was assessed by the Kirby−Bauer test, and the presence of the Tet(O) gene was determined by PCR. Results: A significantly higher prevalence (p < 0.0001) of Campylobacter coli in skin samples from traditional markets (97.5%) than in meat samples from supermarkets (36.2%) was observed. On the other hand, Campylobacter jejuni was confirmed only in 3.1% of meat samples. All Campylobacter species isolated from skin and meat samples were phenotypically resistant to tetracyclines; however, the presence of the Tet(O) gene in C. coli was identified in 76.9% and 66.0% of skin and meat samples, no significant statistical difference (p = 0.1488) was found between these prevalence. All C. jejuni isolated from chicken meat samples from supermarkets were positive for Tet(O) gene. Conclusions: This study confirms the high prevalence of C. coli isolated from chicken sold in traditional markets and supermarkets in Lima, Peru, and in more than 70% of these strains, phenotypic resistance to tetracyclines could be linked with expression of the Tet(O) gene. It is necessary to evaluate other genes involved in resistance to tetracyclines and other groups of antibiotics in campylobacter strains isolated from chicken meat.

Withdrawal of antibiotic growth promoters in China and its impact on the foodborne pathogen Campylobacter coli of swine origin

Antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) have been used as feed additives to improve feed efficiency in food animals for more than six decades. However, the wide use of AGPs has led to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens of animal origin, posing a significant threat to food safety and public health. China prohibited the addition of AGPs to animal feed from July 2020. The impacts caused by the withdrawal of AGPs on the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of foodborne pathogens have not been illustrated. Here, a total of 471 strains of Campylobacter were isolated from pigs from three pig farms and two slaughterhouses in Sichuan Province for 4 consecutive years (2018–2021), including 2 years before and 2 years after the ban on AGPs in China. The isolation rate of Campylobacter had a slight increase after prohibiting the addition of AGPs to the feed. Contrary to what we expected, the antibiotic susceptibility test and WGS data showed that the antibiotic resistance to gentamicin and florfenicol and the abundance of virulence genes increased significantly after the ban of AGPs. Comparison of the isolates of swine origin with isolates of human origin indicated the potential of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter transmission from pigs to humans. These data suggested that phasing out AGPs may lead to increased use of therapeutic antimicrobials, promoting the prevalence and transmission of both antibiotic resistance and virulence genes.

qPCR screening for Yersinia ruckeri clonal complex 1 against a background of putatively avirulent strains in Norwegian aquaculture

Although a number of genetically diverse Yersinia ruckeri strains are present in Norwegian aquaculture environments, most if not all outbreaks of yersiniosis in Atlantic salmon in Norway are associated with a single specific genetic lineage of serotype O1, termed clonal complex 1. To investigate the presence and spread of virulent and putatively avirulent strains in Norwegian salmon farms, PCR assays specific for Y. ruckeri (species level) and Y. ruckeri clonal complex 1 were developed. Following extensive screening of water and biofilm, the widespread prevalence of putatively avirulent Y. ruckeri strains was confirmed in freshwater salmon hatcheries, while Y. ruckeri clonal complex 1 was found in fewer farms. The formalin-killed bacterin yersiniosis vaccine was detected in environmental samples by both PCR assays for several weeks post-vaccination. It is thus important to interpret results from recently vaccinated fish with great care. Moreover, field studies and laboratory trials confirmed that stressful management procedures may result in increased shedding of Y. ruckeri by sub-clinically infected fish. Analysis of sea water sampled throughout thermal delousing procedures proved effective for detection of Y. ruckeri in sub-clinically infected populations.

Characterization of Campylobacter jejuni in large-billed crows (Corvus macrorhynchos) in Tochigi prefecture, Japan

As free-living crows are a potential source of Campylobacter infections in broilers and cattle, we characterized Campylobacter spp. isolated from crows using multilocus sequence typing and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. We obtained 82 samples from 27 birds captured at seven different times using a trap set in Tochigi prefecture, Japan. Campylobacter jejuni was isolated from 55 (67.1%) of the 82 samples and classified into 29 sequence types, of which 21 were novel. Tetracycline and streptomycin resistance rates were 18.2% and 3.6%, respectively. These results show that most types of C. jejuni infecting crows differ from those isolated from humans, broilers, and cattle. Thus, the importance of free-living crows as reservoirs of Campylobacter infections in broilers and cattle may be limited.

Local accessory gene sharing among Egyptian Campylobacter potentially promotes the spread of antimicrobial resistance

Campylobacter is the most common cause of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide, and diarrhoeal disease is a major cause of child morbidity, growth faltering and mortality in low- and middle-income countries. Despite evidence of high incidence and differences in disease epidemiology, there is limited genomic data from studies in developing countries. In this study, we aimed to quantify the extent of gene sharing in local and global populations. We characterized the genetic diversity and accessory-genome content of a collection of Campylobacter isolates from the Cairo metropolitan area, Egypt. In total, 112 Campylobacter isolates were collected from broiler carcasses (n=31), milk and dairy products (n=24), and patients suffering from gastroenteritis (n=57). Among the most common sequence types (STs), we identified the globally disseminated host generalist ST-21 clonal complex (CC21) and the poultry specialists CC206, CC464 and CC48. Notably, CC45 and the cattle-specialist CC42 were under-represented, with a total absence of CC61. Core- and accessory-genome sharing was compared among isolates from Egypt and a comparable collection from the UK (Oxford). Lineage-specific accessory-genome sharing was significantly higher among isolates from the same country, particularly CC21, which demonstrated greater local geographical clustering. In contrast, no geographical clustering was noted in either the core or accessory genome of CC828, suggesting a highly admixed population. A greater proportion of Campylobacter coli isolates were multidrug resistant compared to Campylobacter jejuni. Our results suggest that there is more horizontal transfer of accessory genes between strains in Egypt. This has strong implications for controlling the spread of antimicrobial resistance among this important pathogen.

Agents of Campylobacteriosis in Different Meat Matrices in Brazil

We aimed to identify the prevalence of thermophilic species of Campylobacter in meats of different species available on the Brazilian commercial market and to determine the genetic diversity, antimicrobial resistance and virulence potential of the isolates. A total of 906 samples, including chicken, beef and pork carcasses and chicken and beef livers, were purchased in retail outlets, and prevalences of 18.7% (46/246), 3.62% (5/138), 10.14% (14/138), 3.62% (5/138) and 4.47% (11/132), respectively, were identified, evidencing the dissemination of genotypes in the main producing macro-regions. Of all isolates, 62.8% were classified as multidrug resistant (MDR), with resistance to amoxicillin-clavulanate (49.4%), tetracycline (51.8%) and ciprofloxacin (50.6%) and co-resistance to macrolides and fluoroquinolones (37.1%). Multivirulent profiles were identified mainly in isolates from chicken carcasses (84.8%), and the emergence of MDR/virulent strains was determined in pork isolates. All isolates except those from chicken carcasses showed a high potential for biofilm formation (71.4% luxS) and consequent persistence in industrial food processing. For chicken carcasses, the general virulence was higher in C. jejuni (54.3%), followed by C. coli (24%) and Campylobacter spp. (21.7%), and in the other meat matrices, Campylobacter spp. showed a higher prevalence of virulence (57.2%). The high rates of resistance and virulence reinforce the existence of strain selection pressure in the country, in addition to the potential risk of strains isolated not only from chicken carcasses, but also from other meat matrices.

Epidemiology of Campylobacter infections among children of 0–24 months of age in South Africa

Background

Campylobacter spp. are one of the most frequent causes of diarrhoeal disease in humans throughout the world. This study aimed at determining the prevalence and the genotypic distribution of Campylobacter spp. and their association with diarrhoea and child growth in children of less than the age of two in the Limpopo Province of South Africa.

Methods

A total of 4280 diarrheal and non-diarrheal stool samples were collected on a monthly basis from children recruited at birth and followed up to 24 months. All stool samples were screened for the presence Campylobacter antigen using ELISA technique after which CAH 16S primer was used on the positive samples to confirm the presence of Campylobacter. Subsequently, the PCR positive samples were further characterised using species specific primers for Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli.

Results

Campylobacter antigen was detected in 564/4280 (13.2%). Campylobacter was more commonly found in diarrheal stools (20.4%) compared to non-diarrheal stools (12.4%) with a statistically significant difference (χ² = 7.345; p = 0.006). Throughout the year there were two main peaks of Campylobacter infection one in December- January and the second peak in June. The prevalence of Campylobacter increased with the age of the children up to 11 months after which the prevalence decreased. Out of 564 positive ELISA samples, 257 (45.6%) were confirmed to have 16S rRNA gene for Campylobacter spp. Furthermore, C. jejuni was found to be more prevalent (232/257) than C. coli (25/257) with a prevalence of 90.3% and 9.7%, respectively. Both C. jejuni and C. coli were significantly associated with diarrhea with statistical values of (χ² = 22.224; p < 0.001) and (χ² = 81.682; p < 0.001) respectively. Sequences generated from the analysis of hip gene confirmed the PCR positives samples were C. jejuni positive.

Conclusions

This study has delineated a high prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in the study cohort. Moreover, C. jejuni was found to be more prevalent than C. coli both of which were associated with diarrhea. These findings are of clinical and epidemiological significance.

Prevalence and Characterization of Quinolone Resistance in Campylobacter spp. Isolates in Chicken Livers from Retail Stores in Georgia, USA

ABSTRACT

Campylobacter is a bacterial pathogen that causes human foodborne illnesses worldwide, and outbreaks have been associated with consumption of undercooked chicken livers. The objectives of this study were to compare two PCR assays of 250 Campylobacter isolates for identification to species, to assess antibiotic resistance of the isolates, and to analyze genetic diversity of the quinolone resistance determining regions (QRDRs) of the isolates. A double-blind design was used to identify the species of Campylobacter; 181 (72%) of the isolates were identified as Campylobacter jejuni, and 69 (28%) isolates were identified as Campylobacter coli by both PCR assays. A total of 93 (37.2%) isolates were resistant to at least one antibiotic. Among 88 C. jejuni isolates, 33 (18%) were resistant to nalidixic acid (NAL) and ciprofloxacin (CIP), 25 (14%) were resistant to tetracycline (TET), and 18 (10%) were resistant to NAL and TET. Two C. jejuni isolates were resistant to four of the tested antibiotics, and one isolate was resistant to five antibiotics. Two C. coli isolates were resistant to TET, and two were resistant to NAL, CIP, and TET. The amino acid sequences of the QRDRs for the isolates had eight point mutations and could be classified into 12 groups. Thirty-eight C. jejuni isolates resistant to NAL and CIP had a point mutation at residue 86 (substitution from threonine to isoleucine). However, six isolates without this substitution were resistant to NAL and/or CIP. Ten isolates with a point mutation at residue 86 were susceptible to NAL and CIP. This observation suggests that in addition to the substitution at residue 86 other mechanisms may confer resistance to quinolones. Further studies are needed to elucidate mechanisms for quinolone resistance in Campylobacter. The Campylobacter spp. isolated from chicken livers in this study were resistant to quinolones and other classes of antibiotics.

HIGHLIGHTS

The incidence of Campylobacter contamination levels through chicken-sashimi processing steps in a small-scale poultry processing plant applying the external stripping method

This study aimed to analyze the incidence of Campylobacter in a small-scale chicken meat processing plant producing "chicken-sashimi", and determine the effectiveness of surface burning as a treatmentduring processing. The most probable number (MPN) method was used to analyze the load of Campylobacter in 48 samples from four different processing steps (de-feathering, chilling, surface burning, and final-products; 12 samples each). We found the highest load of isolated bacteria in chicken skin after de-feathering. Campylobacter wasn't detectedafter the surface burning step despite a large load of bacteria present in the cecum content. Campylobacter was absent in the final products. Adequate surface burning can avoid Campylobacter contamination of chicken sashimi in the processing plant by applying the external stripping method.

Campylobacter Express Resistance Array for detecting the presence of fluoroquinolone- and macrolide-resistant Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in broiler farms

AIMS

The aim of the study was to develop a microarray-based method for the detection of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter in broiler farms to decrease the risk of contamination of chicken meat.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A combination of DNA microarray and primer extension for rapid and simultaneous detection of fluoroquinolone- and macrolide-resistant Campylobacter jejuni/Campylobacter coli, termed Campylobacter Express Resistance Array (CAMERA), was used to analyse chicken caecal droppings. CAMERA assays could detect at least 10⁵ colony forming units of C. jejuni/C. coli g^-1 of chicken caecal contents spiked with C. jejuni/C. coli. To compare the CAMERA method and direct culturing method for screening antibiotic-resistant C. jejuni/C. coli in poultry farms, chicken caecal droppings obtained from 42 poultry houses were analysed using both methods. In total, 95.2% of the results (40/42 poultry houses) obtained using the CAMERA and culturing method were identical. In the remaining two poultry houses, the CAMERA could detect the prevalent strain of C. jejuni/C. coli based on results of the culturing method.

CONCLUSIONS

The culturing method required >3 days to isolate and identify antibiotic-resistant C. jejuni/C. coli. In contrast, the CAMERA required only 6 h.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This method can facilitate quick screening and control of fluoroquinolone- and macrolide-resistant C. jejuni/C. coli in broiler farms.

Occurrence and multidrug resistance of Campylobacter spp. at duck farms and associated environmental and anthropogenic risk factors in Bangladesh

Background

The alarming rise in multi-drug resistant (MDR) zoonotic pathogens, including Campylobacter spp., has been threatening the health sector globally. In Bangladesh, despite rapid growth in poultry sector little is known about the potential risks of zoonotic pathogens in homestead duck flocks. The aim of this study was to understand the occurrence, species diversity, and multi-drug resistance in Campylobacter spp., and identify the associated risk factors in duck farms in Bangladesh.

Methods

The study involved 20 duck farms at 6 sub-districts of Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Monthly occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in potential sources at the farms during February-September, 2018, was detected by culture and PCR-based methods. Campylobacter isolates were examined for resistance to different antimicrobials. Risk factors, concerning climatic and environmental disposition, farm management, and anthropogenic practices, of Campylobacter infection were estimated by participatory epidemiological tools.

Results

Occurrence of Campylobacter spp. was detected in overall 36.90% (155/420) samples, more frequently in drinking water (60%, 30/50), followed by cloacal swab (37.50%, 75/200), egg surface swab (35%, 35/100) and soil of the duck resting places (30%, 15/50) but was not detected in feed samples (n = 20). PCR assays distinguished the majority (61.30%, 95/155) of the isolates as C. coli, while the rest (38.70%, 60/155) were C. jejuni. Notably, 41.7% (25/60) and 31.6% (30/95) strains of C. jejuni and C. coli, respectively, were observed to be MDR. The dynamics of Campylobacter spp., distinctly showing higher abundance during summer and late-monsoon, correlated significantly with temperature, humidity, and rainfall, while sunshine hours had a negative influence. Anthropogenic management-related factors, including, inadequate hygiene practices, use of untreated river water, wet duck shed, flock age (1–6 months), and unscrupulous use of antimicrobials were identified to enhance the risk of MDR Campylobacter infection.

Conclusion

The present study clearly demonstrates that duck farms contribute to the enhanced occurrence and spread of potentially pathogenic and MDR C. coli and C. jejuni strains and the bacterial dynamics are governed by a combined interaction of environmental and anthropogenic factors. A long-term holistic research at the environment-animal-human interface would be integral to divulge health risk reduction approaches tackling the spread of Campylobacter spp. from duck farms.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-021-06834-w.

Detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella typhimurium in chicken using PCR for virulence factor hipO and invA genes (Saudi Arabia)

Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella typhimurium are the leading causes of bacterial food contamination in chicken carcasses. Contamination is particularly associated with the slaughtering process. The present study isolated C. jejuni and S. typhimurim from fifty chicken carcass samples, all of which were acquired from different companies in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The identification of C. jejuni was performed phenotypically by using a hippurate test and genetically using a polymerase chain reaction with primers for 16S rRNA and hippurate hydrolase (hipO gene). For the dentification of S. typhimurim, a serological Widal test was carried out using serum anti-S. typhimurium antibodies. Strains were genetically detected using invA gene primers. The positive isolates for C. jejuni showed a specific molecular size of 1448 bp for 16S rRNA and 1148 bp for hipO genes. However, the positive isolates of the invA gene exhibited a specific molecular size at 244 bp using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Comparing sequencing was performed with respect to the invA gene and the BLAST nucleotide isolates that were identified as Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar typhimurium strain ST45, thereby producing a similarity of 100%. The testing identified C.jejuni for hippuricase, GenBank: Z36940.1. While many isolates of Salmonella spp. that contained the invA gene were not necessarily identified as S. typhimurim, the limiting factor for the Widal test used antiS. typhimurum antibodies. The multidrug resistance (MDR) of C. jejuni isolates in chickens was compared with the standard C. jejuni strain ATCC 22931. Similarly, S. typhimurium isolates were compared with the standard S. typhimurium strain ATCC 14028.

Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Campylobacter Species in Diarrheal Patients in Mymensingh, Bangladesh

Campylobacter enteritis is the leading cause of gastroenteritis in humans worldwide including Bangladesh. The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence and antimicrobial-resistance status of Campylobacter spp. in human diarrheal samples collected from Surya Kanta Hospital, Mymensingh, Bangladesh. In this study, we evaluated a total of 330 clinical samples for the presence Campylobacter spp. via cultural and biochemical tests and molecular assays. Furthermore, antimicrobial susceptibility testing for Campylobacter species was accomplished by the standard agar disc diffusion technique against eight commercially available antimicrobial agents. A pretested semistructured questionnaire was used to capture the data on socioanthropological factors from the diarrheal patients. Pearson's chi-square test was performed, and a p value of <0.05 was considered for the level of significance. Nearly one in three diarrheal patients admitted in this hospital were infected with Campylobacter spp. Overall prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was estimated to be 31.5% (104/330) that comprised the prevalence of C. jejuni, 21.8% (n = 72), and C. coli, 9.6% (n = 32). Among the positive cases, the prevalence of Campylobacter was higher in the age group 0-5 years (52%) followed by 6-18 years (42.7%), 19-40 years (34.0%), 41-60 years (25.4%), and >60 years (10.5%). Age, family level's personal hygiene, and involvement with animal husbandry were captured as potential determinants to be associated with the Campylobacter positive status. Among the isolates, 27.3% (n = 20) of C. jejuni and 31.2% (n = 10) of C. coli demonstrated as multidrug-resistant (MDR) to three or more antimicrobial agents. The present study shows that Campylobacter spp. is most prevalent among the hospital-admitted diarrheal patients, and proper measures should be taken to reduce the burden focusing on the potential determinants.

Comparative prevalence and diversity of Campylobacter jejuni strains in water and human beings over a 1-year period in southwestern Alberta, Canada

Campylobacter jejuni was isolated from diarrheic people, river water (Oldman River watershed), wastewater, and drinking water over a 1-year period in southwestern Alberta (2008-2009). High rates of campylobacteriosis were observed during the study period (≥115 cases/100K). Infections occurred throughout the year, with a peak in late summer and early autumn. The majority of infections occurred in people living in Lethbridge. Campylobacter jejuni was not isolated from municipal drinking water. In contrast, the bacterium was isolated from untreated and treated wastewater, and river water (all sites). There were no correlations between C. jejuni recovery/detection from water and river flow rates, water turbidity, or fecal coliforms. Campylobacter jejuni recovery from water did not correspond with the peak periods of campylobacteriosis. The bacterium was most commonly isolated downstream of wastewater outfalls; waterfowl congregated at these sites, particularly during the winter months. A comparison of subtypes from people and water revealed that the vast majority of subtypes in water did not correspond to subtypes recovered from diarrheic people, and were linked to waterfowl and other non-human animal sources. We conclude that water-borne C. jejuni did not contribute significantly to the high rates of campylobacteriosis observed in people during the study period.

The effect of environmental conditions on the occurrence of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in wastewater and surface waters

Aims

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the occurrence of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in the aquatic environment based on the water origin, seasonality and physico‐chemical properties.

Methods and Results

The occurrence of C. jejuni and C. coli was determined in waste (29) or surface (56) waters in four different seasons. The air and water temperatures were measured during sampling and chemical analyses of water samples for ammonium, chloride, chlorine, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and iron were performed. The thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. were more frequently detected in wastewater (59%; 17 positive samples) compared to surface water (38%; 21 positive samples), with the highest rate in autumn (67% of samples positive) and with a higher C. coli occurrence than C. jejuni (31% vs. 26%). Ammonium (above 0.2 mg/L) and chloride ion concentrations (above 60 mg/L) favour C. jejuni. Similarly, C. coli occurrence in water was supported by ammonium (above 0.2 mg/L), chloride (above 60 mg/L) and in addition by phosphate ion concentrations (below 0.7 mg/L).

Conclusions

Campylobacter presence in water is influenced by physico‐chemical parameters such as concentrations of ammonium and chloride ions.

Significance and Impact of the Study

Water environment is an alternative source of Campylobacter. The concentration of ammonium and chloride ions can be used as a basis for successful prediction of the potential occurrence of C. jejuni and C. coli in wastewater and surface water in future.

High-throughput sequencing reveals genetic determinants associated with antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter spp. from farm-to-fork

Campylobacter species are one of the most common causative agents of gastroenteritis worldwide. Resistance against quinolone and macrolide antimicrobials, the most commonly used therapeutic options, poses a serious risk for campylobacteriosis treatment. Owing to whole genome sequencing advancements for rapid detection of antimicrobial resistance mechanisms, phenotypic and genotypic resistance trends along the "farm-to-fork" continuum can be determined. Here, we examined the resistance trends in 111 Campylobacter isolates (90 C. jejuni and 21 C. coli) recovered from clinical samples, commercial broiler carcasses and dairy products in Cairo, Egypt. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was observed in 10% of the isolates, mostly from C. coli. The prevalence of MDR was the highest in isolates collected from broiler carcasses (13.3%), followed by clinical isolates (10.5%), and finally isolates from dairy products (4%). The highest proportion of antimicrobial resistance in both species was against quinolones (ciprofloxacin and/or nalidixic acid) (68.4%), followed by tetracycline (51.3%), then erythromycin (12.6%) and aminoglycosides (streptomycin and/or gentamicin) (5.4%). Similar resistance rates were observed for quinolones, tetracycline, and erythromycin among isolates recovered from broiler carcasses and clinical samples highlighting the contribution of food of animal sources to human illness. Significant associations between phenotypic resistance and putative gene mutations was observed, with a high prevalence of the gyrA T86I substitution among quinolone resistant isolates, tet(O), tet(W), and tet(32) among tetracycline resistant isolates, and 23S rRNA A2075G and A2074T mutations among erythromycin resistant isolates. Emergence of resistance was attributed to the dissemination of resistance genes among various lineages, with the dominance of distinctive clones. For example, sub-lineages of CC828 in C. coli and CC21 in C. jejuni and the genetically related clonal complexes 'CC206 and CC48' and 'CC464, CC353, CC354, CC574', respectively, propagated across different niches sharing semi-homogenous resistance patterns.

A Rapid Culture Method for the Detection of Campylobacter from Water Environments

The natural environment and water are among the sources of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. A limited number of protocols exist for the isolation of campylobacters in poorly filterable water. Therefore, the goal of our work was to find a more efficient method of Campylobacter isolation and detection from wastewater and surface water than the ISO standard. In the novel rapid culture method presented here, samples are centrifuged at high speed, and the resuspended pellet is inoculated on a filter, which is placed on Campylobacter selective mCCDA agar. The motile bacteria pass through the filter pores, and mCCDA agar suppresses the growth of background microbiota on behalf of campylobacters. This culture-based method is more efficient for the detection and isolation of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from poorly filterable water than the ISO 17995 standard. It also is less time-consuming, taking only 72 h and comprising three steps, while the ISO standard method requires five or six steps and 144-192 h. This novel culture method, based on high-speed centrifugation, bacterial motility, and selective cultivation conditions, can be used for the detection and isolation of various bacteria from water samples.

Campylobacter and Salmonella in Scavenging Indigenous Chickens in Rural Central Tanzania: Prevalence, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Genomic Features

Introduction: Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. are commonly reported bacterial foodborne pathogens causing morbidity and mortality worldwide. In rural areas, where there is a high occurrence rate of human–animal interactions and poor hygiene practices, shedding animals present a high risk to humans in acquiring animal-associated infections. Materials and methods: Seasonal prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, and Salmonella spp. in scavenging indigenous chicken faeces was determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Antimicrobial resistance was studied in Salmonella isolates by disc diffusion method, and whole-genome sequenced isolates were used to determine Salmonella serovars, antimicrobial resistance genes, virulence genes, and plasmid profile. Results: The overall prevalence of Campylobacter in chickens was 7.2% in the dry season and 8.0% in the rainy season (p = 0.39), and that of Salmonella was 11.1% in the dry season and 16.2% in the rainy season (p = 0.29). Salmonella serovars detected were II 35:g,m,s,t:-, Ball, Typhimurium, Haardt/Blockley, Braenderup, and Enteritidis/Gallinarum. One S. II 35:g,m,s,t:- isolate was resistant to ampicillin and the rest were either intermediate resistant or pansusceptible to the tested antimicrobials. The resistance genes observed were CatA, tetJ, and fosA7, most common in Ball than in other serovars. Seven plasmids were identified, more common in serovar Ball and less common in II 35:g,m,s,t:-. Serovar II 35:g,m,s,t:- isolates were missing some of the virulence genes important for Salmonella pathogenicity found in other serovars isolated. Conclusion: PCR detection of Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. in chickens necessitate the improvement of hygiene at the household level and reducing human–chicken interaction as a strategy of preventing humans from acquiring chicken-associated bacteria, which would enter the human food chain. Infrequent use of antimicrobials in this type of poultry is most likely the reason for the low rates of antimicrobial resistance observed in this study.

Antimicrobial Resistance of Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis Commensal Isolates from Laying Hen Farms in Spain

Simple Summary

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global threat for human and animal health. Few studies have been carried out in laying hens. We evaluated the antimicrobial susceptibility of commensal Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus faecalis isolates in Spanish laying hens in 2018. C. jejuni was highly resistant, and a medium proportion of the isolates were susceptible to all the antimicrobials studied. E. coli showed medium to high percentages of resistance to the antibiotic categories of highest public health risk concern (A and B). Only a low proportion of the isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials. The E. faecalis resistance to antimicrobials was variable, and very few isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials. Novel data on AMR in laying hen commensal isolates in Spain was provided, and the AMR levels differed from those reported for poultry in the EU. High resistance to key drugs used in human medicine was found. Therefore, laying hens could be a source of AMR for humans, thus, representing a public health risk.

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global threat for human and animal health. Few studies have been carried out in laying hens. We evaluated the antimicrobial susceptibility of commensal Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus faecalis isolates in Spanish laying hens in 2018. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was used to identify any AMR of the studied isolates by means of a broth microdilution method. C. jejuni was highly resistant to the B category antimicrobials, and 52% of the isolates were susceptible to all the antimicrobials tested. E. coli showed medium and high percentages of resistance to the B and A antibiotic categories, respectively, and 33.33% of the isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials. The E. faecalis resistance to A category antimicrobials was variable, and 4.62% of the isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials. In our work, novel data on AMR in laying hen commensal isolates in Spain is provided, and the AMR levels differ from those reported for poultry in the EU. A high resistance to key drugs for human medicine was found, representing a public health risk.

Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles, Virulence Genes, and Genetic Diversity of Thermophilic Campylobacter Species Isolated From a Layer Poultry Farm in Korea

Thermophilic Campylobacter species are among the major etiologies of bacterial enteritis globally. This study aimed at assessing the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles, virulence genes, and genetic diversity of thermophilic Campylobacter species isolated from a layer poultry farm in South Korea. One hundred fifty-three chicken feces were collected from two layer poultry farms in Gangneung, South Korea. The Campylobacter species were isolated by cultural techniques, while PCR and sequencing were used for species confirmation. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing for six antimicrobials [ciprofloxacin (CIP), nalidixic acid (NAL), sitafloxacin (SIT), erythromycin (ERY), tetracycline (TET), and gentamicin (GEN)] was carried out by broth microdilution. Three AMR and nine virulence genes were screened by PCR. Genotyping was performed by flaA-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Of the 153 samples, Campylobacter spp. were detected in 55 (35.9%), with Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli being 49 (89.1%) and six (10.9%), respectively. High-level resistance was observed for CIP (100%), NAL (100%), and TET (C. jejuni, 93.9%; C. coli: 83.3%). No resistance was observed for SIT. The missense mutation (C257T) in gyrA gene was confirmed by sequencing, while the tet(O) gene was similar to known sequences in GenBank. The rate of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains was 8.2%, and they all belonged to C. jejuni. All Campylobacter isolates possessed five virulence genes (cdtB, cstII, flaA, cadF, and dnaJ), but none possessed ggt, while the rates for other genes (csrA, ciaB, and pldA) ranged between 33.3 and 95.9%. The flaA-RFLP yielded 26 flaA types (C. jejuni: 21 and C. coli: five), while the MLST showed 10 sequence types (STs) for C. jejuni and three STs for C. coli, with CC-607 (STs 3611) and CC-460 (ST-460) being predominant. Among the 10 STs of C. jejuni, three were newly assigned. The findings of this study highlight the increased resistance to quinolones and TET, the virulence potential, and the diverse genotypes among Campylobacter strains isolated from the layer poultry farm.

Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Molecular Detection of Campylobacter in Farmed Cattle of Selected Districts in Bangladesh

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in selected districts of Bangladesh to estimate prevalence, risk factors, and molecular detection of Campylobacter isolates from 540 farmed cattle of 90 herds. As an individual sample, 540 feces, and as a pooled sample, 180 milk samples, 90 feed samples, 90 water samples, 90 manure samples, and 90 animal attendants' hand-rinse water were collected and tested via culture, biochemical, and molecular assays. A pretested semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect herd-level data on risk factors with the herd owners. The herd-level data on risk factors were analyzed through univariate and multivariate analyses, and a p-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant for all analyses. Overall, farm-level prevalence of bovine Campylobacter was enumerated to be 53.3% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 42.5-63.9%). The feces sample was found to be a high level of contamination of 30.9% (95% CI: 27-35%) followed by the manure swab (pooled) at 15.6% (95% CI: 8.8-24.7%). Campylobacter jejuni was documented as an abundant species (12.6%), followed by Campylobacter coli (5.1%), and Campylobacter fetus (0.3%). Older farms (>5 years of age), no/minimum cleaning and disinfection practices, along with animal roaming outside of the farm, were documented as significant risk factors for farm-level Campylobacter occurrence. Evidence-based control measures need to be taken through stringent biosecurity and hygienic measurement to lessen the load of the Campylobacter pathogen in the farm environment and prevent further transmission to animals and humans.

Identification of pathogenic genes in Campylobacter jejuni isolated from broiler carcasses and broiler slaughterhouses

Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common causes of foodborne diseases worldwide. There are few reports on Campylobacter strains isolated from Latin-American countries. Here, 140 C. jejuni strains isolated from cloacal and transport boxes swabs, water from chiller tanks, and broiler carcasses of five poultry companies in Southern Brazil were identified using phenotypic and genotypic methods. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to analyze eight C. jejuni virulence markers: flaA, cadF, and invasion-associated (iam) genes, cdtABC operon (associated with the cytolethal distending toxin), and plasmidial virB11 and wlaN genes were present in 78.5%, 77.8%, 0%, 74.2%, 22.1%, and 10.7% of samples, respectively. There were 25 different virulence profiles: 1 (cdtA, cdtB, cdtC, flaA, and cadF), 2 (cdtA, cdtB, cdtC, flaA, cadF, and virB11), and 3 (cdtA, cdtB, cdtC, flaA, cadF, and wlaN) were the most common (> 60% of strains). We provide insight into factors related to the occurrence of this pathogen and their epidemiology.

Comparative history of Campylobacter contamination on chicken meat and campylobacteriosis cases in the United States: 1994-2018

In many countries campylobacteriosis ranks as one of the most frequently reported foodborne illnesses and poultry is the commodity that is most often associated with these illnesses. Nevertheless, efforts to reduce the occurrence of pathogen contamination on poultry are often more focused on Salmonella. While some control measures are pathogen specific, such as pre-harvest vaccination for Salmonella, improvements in sanitary dressing and interventions applied during the slaughter process can be effective against all forms of microbial contamination. To investigate the potential effectiveness of these non-specific pathogen reduction strategies in the United States, it is helpful to assess if, and by how much, Campylobacter contamination of chicken meat has changed across time. This study assesses change considering data collected in both slaughter and retail establishments and comparing observed trends in contamination with trends in human surveillance data. The results support the assertion that substantial reductions in Campylobacter contamination of chicken meat in the late 1990s and early 2000s contributed to a reduction in the human case rate of campylobacteriosis. Further reductions in chicken meat contamination between 2013 and 2018 are more difficult to associate with trends in human illnesses, with one contributing factor being the inclusion of culture independent diagnostic test results in the official case counts during that time. Other contributing factors are discussed.

Determinants of Eimeria and Campylobacter infection dynamics in UK domestic sheep: the role of co-infection

Coccidiosis caused by Eimeria species is a well-recognized disease of livestock. Enteric Eimeria infections are common, but disease usually only manifests when infection intensity is abnormally high. Campylobacter species are important zoonotic enteric bacterial pathogens for which livestock are important reservoir hosts. The diversity and epidemiology of ovine Eimeria and Campylobacter infections on two farms in north-western England were explored through a 24-month survey of shedding in sheep feces. Most animals were infected with at least one of 10 different Eimeria species, among which E. bakuensis and E. ovinoidalis were most common. An animal's age and the season of sampling were associated with the probability and intensity of Eimeria infection. Season of sampling was also associated with the probability of Campylobacter infection. Interestingly, higher intensities of Eimeria infections were significantly more common in animals not co-infected with Campylobacter. We explored the determinants of E. bakuensis and E. ovinoidalis infections, observing that being infected with either significantly increased the likelihood of infection with the other. The prevalence of E. ovinoidalis infections was significantly lower in sheep infected with Campylobacter. Recognition that co-infectors shape the dynamics of parasite infection is relevant to the design of effective infection control programmes.

Contamination Sources and Transmission Routes for Campylobacter on (Mixed) Broiler Farms in Belgium, and Comparison of the Gut Microbiota of Flocks Colonized and Uncolonized with Campylobacter

Biosecurity seems to be the most promising tool for Campylobacter control on poultry farms. A longitudinal molecular epidemiological study was performed during two production cycles, in which the broilers, the poultry house, and the environment of 10 (mixed) broiler farms were monitored weekly. Cecal droppings from the second production cycle were also used for 16S metabarcoding to study the differences in the microbiota of colonized and uncolonized flocks. Results showed that 3 out of 10 farms were positive for Campylobacter in the first production cycle, and 4 out of 10 were positive in the second. Broilers became colonized at the earliest when they were four weeks old. The majority of the flocks (57%) became colonized after partial depopulation. Before colonization of the flocks, Campylobacter was rarely detected in the environment, but it was frequently isolated from cattle and swine. Although these animals appeared to be consistent carriers of Campylobacter, molecular typing revealed that they were not the source of flock colonization. In accordance with previous reports, this study suggests that partial depopulation appears to be an important risk factor for Campylobacter introduction into the broiler house. Metabarcoding indicated that two Campylobacter-free flocks carried high relative abundances of Megamonas in their ceca, suggesting potential competition with Campylobacter.

In Silico Characterization of Toxin-Antitoxin Systems in Campylobacter Isolates Recovered from Food Sources and Sporadic Human Illness

Campylobacter spp. represents the most common cause of gastroenteritis worldwide with the potential to cause serious sequelae. The ability of Campylobacter to survive stressful environmental conditions has been directly linked with food-borne illness. Toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules play an important role as defense systems against antimicrobial agents and are considered an invaluable strategy harnessed by bacterial pathogens to survive in stressful environments. Although TA modules have been extensively studied in model organisms such as Escherichia coli K12, the TA landscape in Campylobacter remains largely unexplored. Therefore, in this study, a comprehensive in silico screen of 111 Campylobacter (90 C. jejuni and 21 C. coli) isolates recovered from different food and clinical sources was performed. We identified 10 type II TA systems belonging to four TA families predicted in Campylobacter genomes. Furthermore, there was a significant association between the clonal population structure and distribution of TA modules; more specifically, most (12/13) of the Campylobacter isolates belonging to ST-21 isolates possess HicB-HicA TA modules. Finally, we observed a high degree of shared synteny among isolates bearing certain TA systems or even coexisting pairs of TA systems. Collectively, these findings provide useful insights about the distribution of TA modules in a heterogeneous pool of Campylobacter isolates from different sources, thus developing a better understanding regarding the mechanisms by which these pathogens survive stressful environmental conditions, which will further aid in the future designing of more targeted antimicrobials.

Novel insertion sequence ISChh1-like mediating acquisition of optrA gene in foodborne pathogen Campylobacter coli of swine origin

The optrA gene encodes an ABC-F protein which confers cross-resistance to oxazolidinones and phenicols, and its transmission has so far been associated with multiple transposable elements, including IS1216E, prophages, ICEs and Tn558. Here, we identified an optrA gene flanked by two copies of a novel insertion sequence ISChh1-like in the same direction in Campylobacter coli. Seven optrA-positive C. coli were identified from 263 Campylobacter isolates obtained from one swine farm and two slaughterhouses in Sichuan province of China. The optrA genes in 6 isolates were directly flanked by two copies of ISChh1-like elements in the same orientation, in the remaining one isolate, optrA was co-located with fexA and flanked by two copies of IS1216E and inserted in the downstream of the aadE-sat4-aphA3 gene cluster on chromosome. Cloning of optrA into C. jejuni NCTC 11,168 confirmed its role in elevated MICs to oxazolidinones and phenicols. Translocatable units (TUs) and natural transformants were only detected from the isolate with optrA bracketed by IS1216E, not from these with optrA bracketed by ISChh1-like. ISChh1-like in all isolates inserts specifically either next to or between adjacent GG nucleotides, neither have terminal inverted repeats nor generate target site duplications. Interestingly, ISChh1-like were also found mediating integration of other antibiotic resistance genes in Campylobacter, including tet(O), aphA3 and aadE-sat4-aphA3 gene cluster. Taken together, these results identify ISChh1-like as a novel transposon mediating acquisition of multiple antibiotic resistance genes in Campylobacter, including the very important optrA gene, suggesting that it plays an essential role in the transmission of antibiotic resistance genes to Campylobacter.

Resistance patterns to C and D antibiotic categories for veterinary use of Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp. commensal isolates from laying hen farms in Spain during 2018

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is a global threat for human and animal health. Few studies have been carried out on laying hens. The aim of this work was to evaluate the antimicrobial susceptibility of commensal Campylobacter spp., E. coli, and Enterococcus spp. isolates in Spanish laying hens in 2018. Samples were collected from 39 laying hen farms. The microorganisms of interest were isolated and confirmed by PCR. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) to antimicrobials of C and D categories were determined. 195 E. coli, 195 Enterococcus spp. and 25 Campylobacter spp. isolates were obtained. E. coli isolates showed high resistance to D category antimicrobials (sulfamethoxazole 76.41 %, tetracycline 62.05 %, trimethoprim 50.77 %, ampicillin 30.77 %) and lower resistance to C category (azithromycin 30.26 %, gentamicin 12.31 %, chloramphenicol 4.62 %). A 10.26 % of E. coli isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials tested, Multi Drug Resistance (MDR) to 3 antimicrobial families was found in 23.08 % of the isolates and 13.85 % were MDR to 4 families, being Erythromycin-Sulfamethoxazole-Tetracycline the most common resistance profile (10.77 %). Enterococcus spp. showed very high resistance to D category tetracycline (78.47 %) and C category erythromycin (76.42 %). The 11.79 % of Enterococcus spp. isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials and 53.33 % were resistant to 2 families, being Erythromycin-Tetracycline the most common AMR profile (51.79 %). Regarding Campylobacter spp., resistance to tetracycline (48 %) was higher than resistance to C category antimicrobials (erythromycin 28 %, streptomycin 24 %, gentamicin 16 %). There was a 52 % sensitivity to all tested antimicrobials and 24 % showed MDR to aminoglycosides, macrolides and tetracyclines (Gentamicin-Streptomycin-Erythromycin-Tetracycline MDR profile). Novel data on AMR in laying hen commensal isolates in Spain was provided. High resistance to several antimicrobials was found, especially to key drugs for the treatment of zoonosis, which represents a public health risk. Better surveillance and careful regulation of antimicrobial use is required in laying hen production.

The effect of partial depopulation on Campylobacter introduction in broiler houses

Poultry is seen as the main reservoir for Campylobacter. Control of this zoonotic pathogen in primary production could potentially reduce the colonization in broiler flocks and consequently reduce the number of human infections. In the present study, 20 broiler flocks from 10 farms, were sampled immediately before and 5 to 7 d after partial depopulation (thinning) for the presence of Campylobacter using cecal droppings and overshoes. At the time of thinning, the catching crew, transportation vehicles, forklift, and transport containers were sampled for the presence of Campylobacter. Samples were cultivated; presumed positive isolates were confirmed by PCR. The isolates were molecularly typed by flaA restriction analysis and pulsed field gel electrophoresis. Results show that all flocks were thinned using Campylobacter-contaminated equipment and materials. One-third of the broiler flocks became colonized after thinning. In 67% of the colonization cases, identical strains were found matching those of container systems, transport trucks, and/or forklifts. This identifies thinning as an important risk factor for Campylobacter introduction into broiler houses. Setup and compliance with biosecurity practices during thinning is essential to prevent Campylobacter colonization of broiler flocks.

Occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in Selected Small Scale Commercial Broiler Farms of Bangladesh Related to Good Farm Practices

Poultry origin Campylobacter is considered as one of the leading causal agents of human foodborne illness. This study was conducted to estimate the occurrence, molecular identification, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Campylobacter species from the broiler farms in Bangladesh. Samples (352) were collected from 32 farms and comprised of 128 cloacal swab, 64 feed, 64 drinking water, 64 attendants' hand rinsed water, and 32 whole carcasses. All samples were tested for the presence of Campylobacter via cultural, biochemical, and PCR. The AMR was determined via the disc diffusion method. An overall occurrence of Campylobacter spp. was estimated as 26.4%. The level of Campylobacter contamination was found to be higher in conventional farms (36.4%) than the good practice farms (16.5%) including all sample categories (p = 0.000). Of 93 isolates, 67.74% and 32.26% were confirmed as C. jejuni and C. coli respectively, of which 34.92% C. jejuni, and 30% C. coli were shown to be multidrug-resistant. A significant occurrence of Campylobacter contamination in broiler farms with multidrug resistant patterns might be cogitated as serious food safety and public health concern linking to poultry food chain. A risk reduction approach through good farming practices targeting the prudent use of antimicrobials for broiler production is thus necessitated.

Susceptibility of Campylobacter Strains to Selected Natural Products and Frontline Antibiotics

Campylobacter species have developed resistance to existing antibiotics. The development of alternative therapies is, therefore, a necessity. This study evaluates the susceptibility of Campylobacter strains to selected natural products (NPs) and frontline antibiotics. Two C. jejuni strains (ATCC^® 33560^TM and MT947450) and two C. coli strains (ATCC^® 33559^TM and MT947451) were used. The antimicrobial potential of the NPs, including plant extracts, essential oils, and pure phytochemicals, was evaluated by broth microdilution. The growth was measured by spectrophotometry and iodonitrotetrazolium chloride. Antibiotic resistance genes (tet(O) and gyrA) were characterized at the molecular level. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and the minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) ranged from 25 to 1600 µg/mL. Cinnamon oil, (E)-Cinnamaldehyde, clove oil, eugenol, and baicalein had the lowest MIC and MBC values (25-100 µg/mL). MT947450 and MT947451 were sensitive to erythromycin and gentamicin but resistant to quinolones and tetracycline. Mutations in gyrA and tet(O) genes from resistant strains were confirmed by sequencing. The findings show that NPs are effective against drug-sensitive and drug-resistant Campylobacter strains. The resistance to antibiotics was confirmed at phenotypic and genotypic levels. This merits further studies to decipher the action mechanisms and synergistic activities of NPs.

[Detection of the ermB gene associated with macrolide resistance in Campylobacter strains isolated from chickens marketed in Lima, PeruDetecção do gene ermB associado à resistência a macrolídeos em cepas de Campylobacter isoladas de frangos comercializados em Lima, no Peru]

OBJECTIVE

To detect the presence of the ermB gene associated with macrolide resistance in Campylobacter spp. strains isolated from chickens marketed in Lima, Peru.

METHODS

120 samples of chicken skin from three markets in the districts of San Martin de Porres (n = 30), Santa Anita (n = 20), and Independencia (n = 70), located in the Province of Lima, Peru, were analyzed. Microbiological analysis of the samples was carried out according to ISO standard 10272-1:2017. For the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) confirmation of genus and species, 16-rRNA and GlyA and hipO primers, respectively, were used. For the evaluation of antibiotic sensitivity, the Müller-Hinton agar with 5% blood, with sensi-discs for azithromycin (15 µg) and erythromycin (15 µg), was used. For detection of the ermB gene in strains with resistant phenotypes, conventional PCR was used.

RESULTS

A total of 117 positive samples (97.5%) were obtained; of these, 100% were compatible with Campylobacter coli (negative hippurate test) and confirmed by PCR. The plate-based assessment of antibiotic resistance to azithromycin and erythromycin resulted in 100% of strains with a phenotype that is resistant to these macrolides, while the PCR to detect the ermB gene indicated a total of 62 positives (53%), which were confirmed through sequencing.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that the chicken carcasses sold in markets in Lima present contamination by C. coli with high resistance to macrolides, which can be attributed to the presence of the ermB gene.

Rates of fluoroquinolone resistance in domestically acquired Campylobacter jejuni are increasing in people living within a model study location in Canada

Antimicrobial resistance was evaluated in Campylobacter jejuni isolated from 1291 diarrheic people over a 15-year period (2004-2018) in southwestern Alberta, a model location in Canada with a high rate of campylobacteriosis. The prevalence of resistance to chloramphenicol, clindamycin, erythromycin, and gentamicin was low during the examination period (≤4.8%). Resistance to tetracycline remained consistently high (41.6%-65.1%), and resistance was primarily conferred by plasmid-borne tetO (96.2%). Resistance rates to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid increased substantially over the examination period, with a maximal fluoroquinolone resistance (FQR) prevalence of 28.9% in 2016. The majority of C. jejuni isolates resistant to ciprofloxacin (93.9%) contained a C257T single nucleotide polymorphism within the gyrA chromosomal gene. Follow up with infected people indicated that the observed increase in FQR was primarily due to domestically acquired infections. Moreover, the majority of FQ-resistant C. jejuni subtypes (82.6%) were endemic in Canada, primarily linked to cattle and chicken reservoirs; 18.4% of FQ-resistant isolates were assigned to three subtypes, predominantly associated with cattle. Study findings indicate the need to prioritize FQR monitoring in C. jejuni infections in Canada and to elucidate the dynamics of the emergence and transmission of resistant C. jejuni strains within and from cattle and chicken reservoirs.

Longitudinal screening of antibiotic residues, antibiotic resistance genes and zoonotic bacteria in soils fertilized with pig manure

Fertilization with animal manure is one of the main routes responsible for the introduction of antibiotic residues, antibiotic resistance genes, and zoonotic bacteria into the environment. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of the use of pig (swine) manure as a fertilizer on the presence and fate of six antibiotic residues, nine antibiotic resistance genes, and bacteria (zoonotic bacteria Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. and E. coli as indicator for Gram-negative bacterial species of the microbiota of livestock) on five fields. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first to assess a multitude of antibiotic residues and resistance to several classes of antibiotics in pig manure and in fertilized soil over time in a region with an intensive pig industry (Flanders, Belgium). The fields were sampled at five consecutive time points, starting before fertilization up to harvest. Low concentrations of antibiotic residues could be observed in the soils until harvest. The antibiotic resistance genes studied were already present at background levels in the soil environment prior to fertilization, but after fertilization with pig manure, an increase in relative abundance was observed for most of them, followed by a decline back to background levels by harvest-time on all of the fields studied. No apparent differences regarding the presence of antibiotic resistance genes in soils were observed between those fertilized with manure that either contained antibiotic residues or not. With regard to dissemination of resistance, the results presented in this study confirm that fertilization with animal manure directly adds resistance genes to the soil. In addition, it shows that this direct mechanism may be more important than possible selective pressure in soil-dwelling bacteria exerted by antibiotic residues present in the manure. These results also indicate that zoonotic bacteria detected in the manure could be detected in the soil environment directly after fertilization, but not after 1 month. In conclusion, although some antibiotic residues may be present in both manure and soil at concentrations to exert selective pressure, it seems that antibiotic resistance is mostly introduced directly to soil through fertilization with animal manure.

Genotyping and molecular characterization of antimicrobial resistance in thermophilic Campylobacter isolated from poultry breeders and their progeny in Eastern Spain

Thermophilic Campylobacter spp. are recognized as a major cause of acute bacterial diarrhea in humans, with broiler meat being the most common source of human infection. Antibiotic therapy is usually necessary for severe or prolonged infections, especially in immunocompromised populations such as young or elderly individuals. However, different studies have demonstrated a close association between antibiotic use in animal production and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in humans. In this sense, there is social pressure to reduce antibiotic administration and find adequate alternatives to control the presence of bacterial infections in farms. However, there is a lack of information related to Campylobacter AMR dynamics through the entire production system from breeders to their progeny. It is unknown if resistance genes are a result of adaptation through chromosomal mutation or through horizontal gene transfer, instead of vertical transmission of DNA from the parent to their progeny. Thus, the main objectives of this study were to assess the main AMR rates present in a poultry production system, to study the relationship between Campylobacter AMR profiles from breeders and their progeny, and to study the presence and distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in poultry production. Regarding AMR rates, ciprofloxacin was classified as extremely high, followed by nalidixic acid and tetracyclines that were classified as very high. Moreover, this study demonstrated a relationship between the AMR patterns and genes found from Campylobacter strains isolated in breeders and those present in their progeny.