Detection of the agent of heartwater, Cowdria ruminantium, in Amblyomma ticks by PCR: validation and application of the assay to field ticks

Molecular detection of Ehrlichia ruminantium in engorged ablyomma variegatum and cattle in Ogun State, Nigeria

Early diagnosis of Ehrlichia ruminantium in cattle is a recipe for effective control of heartwater in ruminants. Hence, we assessed the presence of E. ruminantium in the blood of cattle and the engorged Amblyomma variegatum by nested PCR. The electrophoresed PCR products obtained after primary and secondary amplifications revealed amplicon sizes of about350 bp and 280 bp respectively, which corresponded with the partial region of pSC20 gene amplified. Sequences obtained had 95-99% homology with those sequences available in GenBank. The prevalence of the E. ruminantium in ticks (50%; 126/252) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that in cattle blood 23.55% (61/259). The prevalence was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in ticks from adult cattle 51.47% (133/259) than those from the young cattle 44.86% (116/259) and in tick from females 54.55% (141/259) than in ticks from the males 41.38% (107/259). Alignment of autochthonous sequences revealed that the three sequences were polymorphic with two sequences showing similar nucleotides deletion at points 87-91 and 107-108. The phylogenetic trees inferred by ML showed topologies with two autochthonous sequences, one each from cattle blood and tick, clustering together in one clade and the other clustering within those sequences from South Africa and Zimbabwe in another clade. In conclusion, this study revealed a higher prevalence of E. ruminantium in engorged A. variegatum than in the blood of infected cattle. Hence, it is suggested that the amplification that targets the pCS20 gene in engorged ticks may be more suitable to determine the E. ruminantium carrier status of cattle.

Ehrlichia ruminantium infects Rhipicephalus microplus in West Africa

Background

The invasion of West Africa by Rhipicephalus microplus during the past decade has changed the ecological situation of the agent of heartwater Ehrlichia ruminantium in this area. Before, its local vector, Amblyomma variegatum, was the most abundant tick species found on livestock. Today, the abundance of the R. microplus is one magnitude higher than that of A. variegatum in many west-African localities. We investigated the potential of this new ecological situation to impact the circulation of E. ruminantium in West Africa.

Methods

Ehrlichia ruminantium infections were assessed with the specific PCR-diagnosis targeting the PCS20 region. This screening was applied on field samples of 24 R. microplus adults, on four females from a laboratory strain that had been blood-fed since larvae on one E. ruminantium-infected steer as well as on the offspring of these females at egg and larval stages.

Results

The PCR detected E. ruminantium in 29 % of the field-collected R. microplus, i.e. twice as much as reported for A. variegatum with the same protocol. Regarding the laboratory strain, the PCR-diagnosis performed showed that all females were infected and passed the rickettsia to their progeny. Sequencing of the PCR product confirmed that the maternally inherited rickettsia was E. ruminantium.

Conclusion

According to the present findings, the invasive dynamic of R. microplus in West Africa is currently impacting the local evolutionary conditions of E. ruminantium since it offers new transmission roads such as maternal transmission in R. microplus.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1651-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Development of a Quantitative PCR Assay for Differentiating the Agent of Heartwater Disease, Ehrlichia ruminantium, from the Panola Mountain Ehrlichia

Panola Mountain Ehrlichia (PME) is an emerging Ehrlichia sp. reported in ten US states. Based on the sequence homology of all known genes, PME is closely related to Ehrlichia ruminantium (ER), the causative agent of heartwater. Heartwater is an economically important tick-borne disease of cattle, sheep and goats responsible for stock losses in sub-Saharan Africa. Unfortunately, ER was imported to the Caribbean islands in the 19th century, and the presence of this foreign animal disease in the Caribbean poses a threat to the US mainland. If introduced, a heartwater outbreak would cause massive losses of naïve livestock. The serologic assay of choice to diagnose heartwater is cross-reactive with Ehrlichia spp., including PME, as we demonstrate here, which would confound disease surveillance in the event of a heartwater outbreak. The purpose of this study was to develop a diagnostic assay capable of rapidly distinguishing between these pathogens. Using synthetic MAP-1B peptides for ER and PME, we tested the cross-reactivity of this assay using sera from infected livestock. The MAP-1B ELISA cannot distinguish between animals infected with PME and ER. Therefore, a dual-plex Taqman^™ qPCR assay targeting the groEL gene of PME and ER was developed and validated. Primers were designed that are conserved among all known strains of ER, allowing for the amplification of strains from the Caribbean and Africa. The assay is highly sensitive (10 copies of DNA) and specific. This assay distinguishes between infection with PME and ER and will be a valuable tool in the event of heartwater outbreak on the US mainland, or for epidemiological studies involving either disease-causing organism.

Improved molecular detection of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma species applied to Amblyomma ticks collected from cattle and sheep in Ethiopia

Detection of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma species in animals and tick vectors is crucial for an understanding of the epidemiology of diseases caused by these pathogens. In this study, a pair of primers designated EBR2 and EBR3 was designed from the Anaplasma 16S rDNA sequence and was used along with a previously described primer EHR 16SD for the simultaneous detection of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma species by nested PCR. The primers were used to amplify 925bp of DNA from known species of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma. Restriction with MboII and MspI enzymes allowed Ehrlichia and Anaplasma speciation. Restriction with MboII differentiated between An. marginale, Anaplasma (formerly Ehrlichia) sp. Omatjenne, and An. centrale with An. marginale and Anaplasma (formerly Ehrlichia) sp. Omatjenne yielding 2 distinct fragments each while An. centrale produced 3 distinct bands. Ehrlichia ruminantium and An. phagocytophylum remained undigested. Subsequent restriction with MspI differentiated E. ruminantium from An. phagocytophylum with 2 and 4 fragments, respectively. When used on tick samples from the field, 63 ticks (16.4%) out of 384 collected from cattle and sheep were positive for one or more species of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma. The positivity ranged from 6.3% at Andasa to 36.7% at Habernosa. Higher overall infection rates were found in Amblyomma lepidum than in Amblyomma variegatum ticks (p=0.009). Amblyomma lepidum from Habernosa were more often infected with all detected species of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia than Am. variegatum. At Bako, however, Anaplasma (formerly Ehrlichia) sp. Omatjenne was detected only in Am. variegatum. A significantly higher proportion of ticks collected from cattle (20.6%) was found positive than in those collected from sheep (3.3%) (p=0.003). Simultaneous detection of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma species and correct identification of mixed infections was possible. Since the ticks were collected from animals, the occurrence of the major species of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma in ruminants in the area is confirmed.

Prevalence of Ehrlichia ruminantium in adult Amblyomma variegatum collected from cattle in Cameroon

Ehrlichia ruminantium, the etiologic agent of the economically important disease heartwater, is an obligate intracellular bacterium transmitted by ticks of the genus Amblyomma, particularly A. hebraeum and A. variegatum. Although serologic and microscopic evidence of the presence of heartwater have been reported in ruminants in Cameroon, knowledge of E. ruminantium infection in the tick vector, A. variegatum, is lacking. In order to determine the infectivity of A. variegatum ticks by E. ruminantium, we analysed 500 un-engorged A. variegatum ticks collected by hand-picking from predilection sites from 182 cattle [115 ticks from 82 cattle at Société de Développement et d'Exploitation des Productions Animales (SODEPA) Dumbo ranch (SDR) and 385 ticks from 100 cattle at the Upper Farms ranch (UFR)] by amplification of the open reading frame (ORF) 2 of the pCS20 region of E. ruminantium. PCR amplification of the 279 bp fragment of the pCS20 region detected E. ruminantium DNA in 142 (28.4 %) of the 500 ticks with a higher infection rate (47/115; 40.9 %) observed in ticks from SDR and 24.7 % (95/385) of ticks collected from cattle at UFR. Twenty five randomly selected PCR products were sequenced and results indicated that some of the isolates shared homology with one another and to sequences of E. ruminantium in the GenBank. This report represents the first molecular evidence of E. ruminantium infection in A. variegatum ticks in Cameroon and suggests possible exposure of cattle to this pathogen in our environment.

Ehrlichia species, probable emerging human pathogens in sub-Saharan Africa: environmental exacerbation

Ehrlichiae are obligate intracellular Gram-negative tick-borne bacteria that are responsible for life-threatening emerging human zoonoses and diseases of veterinary importance worldwide, collectively called ehrlichioses. The genus Ehrlichia consists of five recognized species, including E. canis, E. chaffeensis, E. ewingii, E. muris, and E. ruminantium. The recent discoveries of Ehrlichia species in new areas and of tick species that were previously thought to be uninfected by these agents have suggested that these agents may have wider distribution than originally thought. Environmental factors like temperature, migration, control failure, and host population have been known to exacerbate the spread of Ehrlichia species. Human cases of moderate to severe disease caused by E. chaffeensis have been reported mainly in North America. In this article, we present an overview of ehrlichiae as emerging pathogens in sub-Saharan Africa, where E. ruminantium, the causative agent of heartwater, a disease of domestic and wild ruminants, is most established. Molecular evidence indicates that E. ruminantium may be an emerging pathogen of a life-threatening human disease. Ehrlichia ruminantium is considered an agricultural biothreat, with several strains reported throughout sub-Saharan Africa, where the infection is considered endemic. Understanding the diversity of E. ruminantium and other Ehrlichia species from all geographically distinct areas of sub-Saharan Africa may enhance our knowledge of the pathogenesis and epidemiology of these pathogens.

Development of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays for rapid detection of Ehrlichia ruminantium

Background

The rickettsial bacterium Ehrlichia ruminantium is the causative agent of heartwater, a potential zoonotic disease of ruminants transmitted by ticks of the genus Amblyomma. The disease is distributed in nearly all of sub-Saharan Africa and some islands of the Caribbean, from where it threatens the American mainland. This report describes the development of two different loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays for sensitive and specific detection of E. ruminantium.

Results

Two sets of LAMP primers were designed from the pCS20 and sodB genes. The detection limits for each assay were 10 copies for pCS20 and 5 copies for sodB, which is at least 10 times higher than that of the conventional pCS20 PCR assay. DNA amplification was completed within 60 min. The assays detected 16 different isolates of E. ruminantium from geographically distinct countries as well as two attenuated vaccine isolates. No cross-reaction was observed with genetically related Rickettsiales, including zoonotic Ehrlichia species from the USA. LAMP detected more positive samples than conventional PCR but less than real-time PCR, when tested with field samples collected in sub-Saharan countries.

Conclusions

Due to its simplicity and specificity, LAMP has the potential for use in resource-poor settings and also for active screening of E. ruminantium in both heartwater-endemic areas and regions that are at risk of contracting the disease.

Natural history of Ehrlichia ruminantium

Ehrlichia ruminantium is an obligately intracellular proteobacterium which causes a disease known as heartwater or cowdriosis in some wild, and all domestic, ruminants. The organism is transmitted by ticks of the genus Amblyomma, and it is of serious economic importance wherever the natural vectors occur, an area which includes all of sub-Saharan Africa, and several islands in the Caribbean. The disease was first recognized in South Africa in the 19th century, where its tick-borne nature was determined in 1900, but the organism itself was not demonstrated until 1925, when it was recognized to be a rickettsia, initially named Rickettsia ruminantium. It was thus the first species of what are now known as Ehrlichia to be discovered, and most of the early work to elucidate the nature of the organisms, and its reservoirs and vectors, was performed in South Africa. The next milestone was the development, in 1945, of an infection and treatment regimen to immunize livestock, and this is still the only commercially available "vaccine" against the disease. Then in 1985, after fruitless attempts over many years, the organism was propagated reliably in tissue culture, opening the way for the first application of the newly developed techniques of molecular genetics. From 1990 onwards the pace of heartwater research accelerated rapidly, with notable advances in phylogeny, diagnosis, epidemiology, immunology, and vaccine development. The complete genome sequence was published in 2005, and during the last two years a new understanding has arisen of the remarkable genetic variability of the organism and new experimental vaccines have been developed. Despite all this the goal of producing an effective vaccine against the disease in the field still remains frustratingly just beyond reach. This article summarises our current understanding of the nature of E. ruminantium, at a time when the prospects for the development of an effective vaccine against the organism seem better than at any time since its discovery 83 years ago.

Geographic distribution and genetic diversity of the Ehrlichia sp. from Panola Mountain in Amblyomma americanum

BACKGROUND

A novel Ehrlichia, closely related to Ehrlichia ruminantium, was recently discovered from Panola Mountain State Park, GA, USA. We conducted a study to determine if this agent was recently introduced into the United States.

METHODS

We developed a sensitive PCR assay based on the conserved gltA (citrate synthase) gene and tested DNA samples extracted from 1964 field-collected and 1835 human-biting Amblyomma americanum from 23 eastern states of the USA.

RESULTS

The novel agent was detected in 36 ticks collected from 10 states between 1998 and 2006. Infected ticks were collected both from vegetation (n = 14, 0.7%) and from humans (n = 22, 1.2%). Fragments of the conserved gltA gene and the variable map1 gene were sequenced from positive samples. Two distinct clades, with 10.5% nucleic acid divergence over the 730 bp map1 sequence, were identified.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that the Panola Mountain Ehrlichia was not recently introduced to the United States; this agent has an extensive distribution throughout the range of its tick vector, has been present in some locations for several years, and displays genetic variability. Furthermore, people in several states were exposed to this agent through the bite of infected ticks, underscoring the potential public health risk of this emerging ehrlichiosis.

Molecular detection of Ehrlichia ruminantium infection in Amblyomma variegatum ticks in The Gambia

In West Africa, losses due to heartwater disease are not known because the incidence/prevalence has not been well studied or documented. To develop a diagnostic tool for molecular epidemiology, three PCR-based diagnostic assays, a nested pCS20 PCR, a nested map1 PCR and a nested reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization assay, were evaluated to determine their ability to detect infection in vector ticks, by applying them simultaneously to A. variegatum field ticks to detect Ehrlichia ruminantium, the causative agent of heartwater. The nested pCS20 PCR assay which amplified the pCS20 gene fragment showed the highest detection performance with a detection rate of 16.6%; the nested map1 PCR, which amplified the gene encoding the major antigenic protein1 (map1 gene) showed a detection rate of 11% and the RLB, based on the 16S rDNA sequence of anaplasma and ehrlichial species, detected 6.2%. The RLB, in addition, demonstrated molecular evidence of Ehrlichia ovina, Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma ovis infections in The Gambia. Subsequently, the pCS20 assay was applied to study the prevalence and distribution of E. ruminantium tick infection rates at different sites in five divisions of The Gambia. The rates of infection in the country ranged from 1.6% to 15.1% with higher prevalences detected at sites in the westerly divisions (Western, Lower River and North Bank; range 8.3-15.1%) than in the easterly divisions (Central River and Upper River; range 1.6-7.5%). This study demonstrated a gradient in the distribution of heartwater disease risk for susceptible livestock in The Gambia which factor must be considered in the overall design of future upgrading programmes.

A comparison of haemagglutination, haemagglutination inhibition and PCR for the detection of psittacine beak and feather disease virus infection and a comparison of isolates obtained from loriids

Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) is recognized as a threat for endangered psittacine birds in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Several diagnostic methods for the detection of beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) infection have been developed but there are few studies comparing the relative merits or sensitivity and specificity of each diagnostic test. In this report, the results of PCR, haemagglutination (HA) and haemagglutination inhibition (HI) testing of diagnostic samples collected from 679 samples from a range of psittacine bird species suspected of being infected with BFDV are summarized and compared. There was a strong agreement (kappa = 0.757; P<0.0001) between PCR and HA testing of feather samples and PCR-negative birds were 12.7 times more likely to have HI antibody than PCR-positive birds. False-positive HA results with titres up to 1:320 were identified in six feather samples that were PCR negative; the haemagglutination detected in these samples was not inhibited by anti-BFDV antisera and was removed by filtration through a 0.22 microm filter. Similarly, one false-negative PCR result was detected in a feather sample that had a high HA titre (>1:40,960) and four false-positive PCR results were detected in a batch of four feather samples. Of 143 birds that were feather PCR positive, only two had detectable HI antibody, and these birds were also feather HA negative, suggesting that they were developing immunity to recent infection. All birds with HI antibody were negative on feather HA testing. The assays confirmed BFDV infection in two endangered swift parrots (Lathamus discolor) and phylogenetic analysis of the sequence data generated from ORF V1 of these isolates provide further evidence of BFDV genotypes clustering in parallel with the Loriidae, Cacatuidae and Psittacidae.

Ticks and tick-borne disease in Guatemalan cattle and horses

Blood samples and ticks were collected from 48 cattle and 74 horses from seven sites in the Peten region of Guatemala. Data on body condition, mucous membrane capillary refill time and tick infestation levels were recorded for each animal in the study. Horses had significantly higher levels of tick infestation than cattle, as well as poorer body condition scores. Seroprevalence of Babesia spp. was 95.8% for B. bovis in cattle, 89.6% for B. bigemina in cattle, and 92.7% for B. equi in horses. Seroprevalence of Anaplasma marginale in cattle was 87.5%, similar to reports in animals from other regions of Central America. This is the first time that A. phagocytophilum has been reported in animals from this region, with overall PCR-prevalence of 27.6% in cattle and horses, and seroprevalence of 28.4% (52% in cattle and 13% in horses). An agent was identified with serological cross-reactivity and close genetic relatedness to Ehrlichia ruminantium, but further testing confirmed that the agent in Guatemalan cows was not the agent of heartwater. Ticks were identified to species with the predominant species identified on cattle as Boophilus microplus and Amblyomma cajennense, while Anocentor nitens and A. cajennense were most commonly found on horses. Prevalence of infection, tick infestation levels, host factors and environmental data were analyzed for association; A. nitens was significantly associated with A. phagocytophilum prevalence by village.

Nested PCR for detection and genotyping of Ehrlichia ruminantium: use in genetic diversity analysis

Ehrlichia ruminantium, the agent of cowdriosis transmitted by Amblyomma ticks, presents an extensive genetic and antigenic diversity of key importance for vaccine formulation. Two means of nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting were developed to conduct molecular epidemiology studies in the Caribbean and Africa. The first used a conserved DNA fragment for detection of the pathogen in animals and vectors, and the second relied on the polymorphic map1 gene for genotyping. As compared to a PCR, the nested PCR showed a 2-Log10 improvement of sensitivity and allowed amplification from ticks, blood, brain, and lungs from infected animals, providing a more accurate picture of the tick infection rate. In Guadeloupe, this rate reached 36% (N = 212) instead of 1.7% (N = 224), as previously estimated. Genetic typing was done by restriction fragment length polymorphism or sequencing of map1 amplification products. Molecular epidemiology studies conducted in field sites selected for vaccination trials with inactivated vaccine, revealed the circulation of genetically divergent strains in limited geographical areas. It is known, then, that genetic clustering based on map1 has no predictive value regarding the protective value of a given strain against a new strain. However, tracing the strains by this technique revealed the extent of E. ruminantium diversity that one can expect in a given region, and the method allows differentiation between an inadequate immune response and the challenge by a breakthrough strain on animals dying despite vaccination. Up to now, genetic typing does not avoid cross-protection studies, which were conducted in parallel, although on a more limited scale. The importance of pathogen diversity studies for optimization of vaccine design is discussed as well as the research for new polymorphic genes. These genes may allow better predictions on cross-protection, given the recent completion of the sequence of the full genome of two E. ruminantium strains.

Characterization of the pCS20 region of different Ehrlichia ruminantium isolates

Heartwater is a serious tick-borne disease of ruminants caused by the rickettsial organism Ehrlichia (Cowdria) ruminantium. A diagnostic test, targeting the pCS20 genomic region and using PCR amplification and probe hybridization, detects E. ruminantium infection in ticks and animals. However, only the pCS20 sequence of the Crystal Springs E. ruminantium isolate is available and the existence of sequence variation amongst different E. ruminantium isolates has not been determined. Primers were designed from the published pCS20 sequence to obtain sequences of the pCS20 region of various E. ruminantium isolates. These primers were unable to amplify the pCS20 region from genomic Welgevonden DNA and genome walking was used to characterize the pCS20 region. This technique showed that the published pCS20 sequence is from a chimeric clone. Sequences of the pCS20 region of 14 different E. ruminantium isolates were determined after amplification with newly designed primers. Sequencing data indicated that West African E. ruminantium isolates are highly conserved, whereas more variation occurs amongst the southern African isolates. These results facilitated the design of a short pCS20 probe and a large PCR target that improved the sensitivity of the E. ruminantium detection assay.

Survey for the presence of White Spot Syndrome virus in Australian crustaceans

Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry - Australia, GPO Box 858, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2611.

Increasing risks of introduction of heartwater onto the American mainland associated with animal movements

Opportunities to introduce heartwater onto the American mainland through animal movements include importation from Africa of tick-infested reptiles and of subclinically infected wild ungulates and importation of livestock from islands in the Caribbean infested with Amblyomma variegatum ticks. Measures to control importation of heartwater vectors on reptiles include importation bans of infested species, treatment of imported reptiles, and eradication of established infestations on the American mainland. Measures to control importation of infected wildlife must focus on improved methods, such as the PCR assay, of screening animals to prevent the entry of carriers of Cowdria ruminantium. Measures to control importation of infected animals from the Caribbean must be based on knowledge of the islands that are infected with C. ruminantium so that the risk of dissemination of heartwater can be established.

Resistance of leopard tortoises and helmeted guineafowl to Cowdria ruminantium infection (heartwater)

Experimental infection trials were conducted to investigate susceptibility of leopard tortoises (Geochelone pardalis) and helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris) to infection with Cowdria ruminantium, the causative agent of heartwater, a tickborne disease of domestic and wild ruminants. Ten guineafowl were inoculated intravenously with a virulent dose of C. ruminantium derived from bovine endothelial cell cultures, and four leopard tortoises were exposed to C. ruminantium infection by the feeding of infected Amblyomma hebraeum ticks. Uninfected A. hebraeum ticks (on both tortoises and guineafowl) and Amblyomma marmoreum ticks (on tortoises only) were fed on the animals during weeks 2 and 3 post-exposure in an attempt to detect infection. These ticks were analyzed for C. ruminantium infection by xenodiagnosis and with the C. ruminantium-specific pCS20 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. Attempts to detect infection in ticks fed on either species were negative by both tests. These results suggest that leopard tortoises and helmeted guineafowl are refractory to C. ruminantium infection and, therefore, are unlikely to be capable of introducing heartwater directly into new areas. However, leopard tortoises are efficient hosts of A. marmoreum and A. hebraeum and are likely to be important epidemiologically in the transport and maintenance of these tick vector species.

Reduction in mortality from heartwater in cattle, sheep and goats exposed to field challenge using an inactivated vaccine

Inactivated vaccines for heartwater prepared with the commercially acceptable Montanide ISA 50 (ISA 50) adjuvant were field tested in Boer goats in Botswana, Angora goats in South Africa, and Merino sheep in Zambia and Zimbabwe. Two vaccines, one made using the Zimbabwean Mbizi isolate and the other using the respective local field isolate (Sunnyside in Botswana; Bathurst in South Africa; Lutale in Zambia), were tested at each site, except in Zimbabwe where only the Mbizi vaccine was tested. Compared with unvaccinated animals, the Mbizi vaccine significantly protected goats and sheep against field Amblyomma tick challenge in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe (P = 0.018, 0.002 and 0.017, respectively), but failed to protect Angora goats in South Africa. However, in South Africa the vaccine prepared using the local field isolate Bathurst, induced significant protection (P=0.008). The vaccines containing the local isolates at all other sites were less protective than the Mbizi vaccine. The Mbizi inactivated vaccine also significantly protected 17 of 21 cattle (P = 0.05) against heartwater challenge from field ticks in Zimbabwe. Against the same challenge only 7 of 21 unvaccinated control cattle survived. This study demonstrates that heartwater is a major constraint to upgrading livestock in endemic areas, and caused an overall mortality of 77.6% in naive sheep and goats (97 of 125 died) and 67% in cattle (14 of 21 died). In contrast, the vaccine had a protective effect by reducing the overall mortality in sheep and goats to 54.3% (113 of 208 died) and to 19% in cattle (4 of 21 died).

Evidence of Cowdria ruminantium infection (heartwater) in Amblyomma sparsum ticks found on tortoises imported into Florida

Amblyomma marmoreum and A. sparsum ticks were collected from tortoises imported into Florida from Africa and were tested for Cowdria ruminantium infection using a C. ruminantium-specific pCS20 polymerase chain reaction assay. In I shipment imported from Zambia, 15 of the 38 A. sparsum male ticks collected from the leopard tortoises (Geochelone pardalis) were found to be positive for infection with C. ruminantium. In contrast, all 148 A. marmoreum tested were negative for C. ruminantium infection. This is the first reported evidence of the introduction of heartwater-infected ticks into the United States, but there were no opportunities to confirm isolation of C. ruminantium from the ticks by either culture or transmission studies.